STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

TOM TORLAKSON

California English Language Development Standards Glossary of Key Terms

CaliforniaEnglishLanguageDevelopmentStandardsGlossaryofKeyTerms
ThisglossaryprovidesdefinitionsofkeytermsusedintheCaliforniaEnglishLanguageDevelopmentStandards and/orinrelatedappendices.Manyofthesetermsderivefromtraditionalgrammarandfromlinguistics,and somehaveevolvedintheirmeaningorhavedifferentmeaningsthatvarybylinguistictradition.The definitionsprovidedhereareintendedtobeteacherfriendlyandarespecifictotheirusewithintheCAELD Standardsandrelatedappendices. ThenationalCommonCoreStateStandardsforEnglishLanguageArts&LiteracyinHistory/SocialStudies, Science,andTechnicalSubjects(CCSSELA)AppendixA 1 alsoprovidesextensiveanddetailedexplanationsof severalotherkeytermsusedthroughouttheCCSSELAandreferencedwhererelevantintheCAELD Standards.GiventheircentralitytotheCCSSELAandtheirelaboration,thesetermsarenotsummarizedhere. Thesekeytermsarelistedbelow,withreferencestoCCSSELAAppendixApagenumbers: TextComplexity(pp.216) ReadingFoundationalSkills(pp.1722) Texttypes(argument,informative/explanatorywriting,andnarrative)(pp.2325) OralLanguageDevelopment(pp.2627) ConventionsandKnowledgeofLanguage(pp.2831) Vocabulary(pp.3235)

Adverbs:Adverbsadddetailto(ormodify)verbs,adjectives,andotheradverbsaboutwhen,where,why,or underwhatconditionssomethinghappensorhappened.Forexample(theadverbsareunderlined,andthe modifiedwordisitalicized): Sentencewithadverb Wordmodified Heatehisdinnerslowly. Verb Itwasaverygracefulgesture. Adjective Shemovedextremelyquicklyacrosstheroom. Adverb AdjectivesandAdjectivePhrases:Adjectivesprovidedetailsabout(ormodify)nounsorpronouns.Adjectives likeappalling,obnoxious,desperate,alluring,andpleasant,forexample,allowspeakersandwriterstoadd nuanceandprecisiontoadescriptionofapersonorthing.Anadjectivecanbemadeevenmorepreciseby addingpreorpostmodifiers.Forexample:

See:http://www.corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_A.pdf 1

October5,2012

 Shewas Premodifier quite evenmore so Adjectivephrase Headadjective Postmodifiers distraught. distraught thanyesterday. distraught thatshecouldnteat.

Clause:Aclauseisaunitofmeaningthatexpressesamessage.Aclausealwayscontainsaverb(e.g.,Go!)and isusuallyaccompaniedbyasubjectnounornounphrase(e.g.,Shewent.).Aclausecanbeindependentor dependent. IndependentClause:Anindependentclause(alsoknownasthemainclause)containsacompleteideaand canstandalone(independently)asacompletesentence.Forexample: Thebeesswarmedintheattic. Icouldnthearanything. Twoindependentclausescanbecombinedtoformacompoundsentencebyusingacoordinating conjunction(and,but,for,nor,or,so,yet).Forexample: Thebeesswarmedintheattic,butIcouldnthearanything. DependentClause:Adependentclause(alsoknownasasubordinateclause)isaclausethatisdependent uponthemeaningoftheindependent(ormain)clauseforitsmeaningandcanthereforenotstandalone asacompletesentence.Dependentclausesareformedinseveraldifferentways.Twoexamplesare providedbelow. Usingasubordinatingconjunction:Asubordinatingconjunction(e.g.,because,although,if) introducesadependent(orsubordinate)clause.Differentkindsofsubordinatingconjunctions createdifferenttypesofrelationshipsbetweentheclauses.Inthefirstexamplebelow,the relationshipisoneofcause.Inthesecondexample,therelationshipisoneofconcession.The dependentclausesareitalicized,andthesubordinatingconjunctionsareunderlined. Becausetheywerehungry,thehorsesateallthehay. Althoughshelovestoswim,shedecidednottogotothepooltoday. Usingarelativepronoun:Arelativepronoun(e.g.,that,who,whom,which,whose)introducesa relativeclause(atypeofembeddedclausealsocalledanadjectiveclause).Sometimes,therelative pronounisomitted.Inthefollowingexamples,thedependentclauseisitalicized,andtherelative pronounisunderlined.Wordsthatcanbeomittedareinbrackets. Butterfliesarewingedinsectsthatundergocompletemetamorphosis. Hestheteacherwhochangedmylife. Serotoninisanaturalneurotransmitter[thatis]producedinthehumanbody.

October5,2012

 Cohesion:Cohesionreferstohowinformationisconnectedandflowsinatext.Acohesivetextiscreated throughavarietyofcohesivedevicesthatfacilitateunderstandingacrossthetextordiscourse.Onedeviceis toreferbacktopeople,ideas,orthingswithpronounsorsynonymsthroughoutatextsoasnottobe repetitive(e.g.,replacingthefirstsettlerswiththey).Anotheristolinkclauses,sentences,andlargerchunksof textwithconjunctions,suchastransitionwords(e.g.,incontrast,consequently,next). ConnectingWords:Connectingwordsandphrasessignalhowdifferentpartsofatextarelinked.Innarratives andothertexttypesorganizedbytimeorsequencesofevents,temporalconnectives(e.g.,first,next,after awhile,thenextday)areoftenused.Intexttypesorganizedaroundideas,suchasargumentsand explanations,connectivesmaybeusedinvariousways,suchas:toshowrelationshipsbetweenideas(e.g.,on thecontrary,forexample);toorganizeeventsorsequenceideas(e.g.,previously,untilthattime,firstofall,to conclude);ortoaddinformation(e.g.,inaddition,furthermore). Context:Contextreferstotheenvironmentinwhichlanguageisused,includingdisciplinaryarea,topic, audience,texttype,andmodeofcommunication. Modality:Modalityreferstothedegreeofability,necessity,obligation,prohibition,certainty,orpossibilityof anactionorsituation.Understandingofmodalityallowsspeakersandwriterstotemperstatements,give informationaboutthedegreeofobligationorcertaintyofasituationoridea,orexpressthedegreetowhich wearewillingtoentertainotherpossibilities. ModalAdverb:Highmodalityadverbsincludedefinitely,absolutely,andcertainly.Mediummodality adverbsincludeprobablyandapparently.Lowmodalityadverbsincludepossibly,perhaps,andmaybe. ModalAuxiliary:Highmodalityauxiliariesincludemustandwill.Mediummodalityauxiliariesinclude shouldandneedto.Lowmodalityauxiliariesincludecouldandmight. Nominalization:Nominalizationistheprocessofcreatinganounornounphrasefromanotherpartofspeech orcondensinglargeamountsofinformation(e.g.,aneventorconcept)intoanounornounphrase.Often,a verborverbphraseisnominalized(e.g.,Theydestroyedtherainforest.Thedestructionoftherainforest), thoughadjectivesarenominalizedaswell(e.g.,strongstrength,differentdifference).Nominalization canalsocollapseaclauseorevenmultipleclausesatonce.Forexample,inconversationallanguage,astudent mightsay,Therancherscametotherainforest,andtheycutdownallthetrees.Thenextyear,therain floodedmanyareasoftherainforest.Withnominalization,thesethreeclausescanbecollapsedintoone clause:Thearrivaloftheranchersandtheclearingoftherainforestledtowidespreadflooding. NounsandNounPhrases:Nounsandnounphrasesrepresentpeople,places,thingsorideas.Anounphrase includesanoun(e.g.,ball)plusitsmodifiers,includingarticles(e.g.,theball)andadjectives(e.g.,theblue ball). ExpandingNounPhrases:Moredetailcanbeaddedtonounsbyexpandingthenounphrasewithpreand postmodifiers(wordsthatcomebeforeandaftertheheadnoun).Inthefollowingexample,thehead nounisboldfaced,andmodifiersareaddedincrementally:

October5,2012

 frogThatfrogThatgreenfrogThatfatgreenfrogThatveryfatgreenfrogThatveryfat greenfrogontherock PrepositionsandPrepositionalPhrases:Apreposition(e.g.,to,of,with,at,in,over,through)combineswitha nounornounphrasetoformaprepositionalphrase.Prepositionalphrasesprovidemoreinformationor specificdetailsaboutpeople,things,ideas,activities,oreventsinasentence.Specifically,theyenableawriter orspeakertoadddetailaboutwherethingsare,whythingsoccur,orhowthingsareincomparisontoother things.Prepositionalphrasescanbeusedtolocatesomethinginspaceortime(e.g.,underthetable,onthe moon);toshowreason(e.g.,duetotherain),purpose(e.g.,fortomorrow),orcomparison(e.g.,likeadog);or tospecifywhichthingisreferenced(e.g.,theladywiththebluehat). Register:Registerreferstovariationinthevocabulary,grammar,anddiscourseofalanguagetomeetthe expectationsofaparticularcontext.Acontextcanbedefinedbynumerouselements,suchasaudience,task, purpose,setting,socialrelationship,andmodeofcommunication(writtenversusspoken).Specificexamples ofcontextualvariablesare:thenatureofthecommunicativeactivity(e.g.,talkingwithsomeoneabouta movie,persuadingsomeoneinadebate,orwritingasciencereport);thenatureoftherelationshipbetween thelanguageusersintheactivity(e.g.,friendtofriend,experttolearner);thesubjectmatterandtopic(e.g., photosynthesisinscience,theCivilWarinhistory);andthemediumthroughwhichamessageisconveyed (e.g.,atextmessageversusanessay). Scaffolding: 2 Scaffoldingistemporaryguidanceorassistanceprovidedtoastudentbyateacher,another adult,oramorecapablepeer,enablingthestudenttoperformataskheorsheotherwisewouldnotbeable todoalone,withthegoaloffosteringthestudentscapacitytoperformthetaskonhisorherownlateron.* (*ThoughVygotskyhimselfdoesnotusethetermscaffolding,theeducationalmeaningofthetermrelates closelytohisconceptofthezoneofproximaldevelopment.SeeL.S.Vygotsky(1978).Mindinsociety:The developmentofhigherpsychologicalprocesses.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.) SeeAppendixC:TheoreticalFoundationsandResearchBasefortheCaliforniaEnglishLanguageDevelopment Standards,forfurtherexplanationofscaffoldingforEnglishlearners. Sentences:Therearefourtypesofsentences:simple,compound,complex,andcompoundcomplex. SimpleSentencesconsistofasingleindependentclause.Forexample(theindependentclauseis underlined,andtheverbisbolded): Earthwormsareinvertebrates. Oneinterestingthingaboutearthwormsistheirregenerationability. CompoundSentencesconsistoftwoormoreindependentclausesconnectedwithcoordinating conjunctions(e.g.,and,but,or,so).Forexample(theindependentclausesareunderlined,andthe verbsarebolded): Earthwormsdonthaveanylegs,buttheydohavefivehearts. 2DefinitionincludingasteriskedcommentisdrawndirectlyfromCCSSELAAppendixA,p.43. October5,2012 4

 ComplexSentencesconsistofoneindependentclauseandoneormoredependentclausesconnected withasubordinatingconjunction(e.g.,because,when,although).Forexample(theindependent clausesareunderlined,andthedependentclausesareitalicized): Ifyouwanttograduate,youneedtopassyourclasses. Herfirstfilmwasahugesuccess,althoughshednevermadeamoviebefore. CompoundComplexSentencesconsistofatleasttwoindependentclausesandoneormore dependentclauses.Forexample(theindependentclausesareunderlined,andthedependentclauseis italicized): AlthoughIdlovetogotothesoccergame,Ihaventfinishedmyhomeworkyet,andIalsoneed towashthedishes. ShadesofMeaning:Shadesofmeaningcanbecreatedusingvariouslanguageresources,including vocabulary,figurativelanguage,phrasing,usingdependentclausestobeginsentencesinordertoemphasize something,etc.Forexample,vocabularycanbeusedtoevaluate(e.g.,Mistywasastubbornhorse)orexpress degreeorintensity(e.g.,Itsverylikelythat...,Itwasanextremelygloomyroom).Inaddition,phrasesand clausescanbeusedtocreatenuancesorprecisionandtoshapehowthemessagewillbeinterpretedby readers/listeners.Thisoftenoccursatthebeginningofsentences(e.g.,Inmyopinion,Bizarrely,she interrupted).AsEnglishlearnersprogressthroughthegrades,theylearntocreateshadesofmeaningin increasinglysophisticatedandsubtlewaysinordertocauseacertainreactioninthereader(e.g.,tobuild suspenseorcharacterizeahistoricalfigure)ortopersuadereaderstobelievesomethingortotakeaction. VerbsandVerbPhrases:Verbsareusedtoexpresshappenings,doings,andstatesofbeing.Averbphrasecan consistofasingleverb(e.g.,Sheran)oranumberofwords(auxiliaryverbsandotherinfinitiveorparticiple constructions)aroundtheverb(e.g.,Shemighthavebeenrunning). VerbTypes:Therearedifferenttypesofverbsthatcreateprecisionintexts.TheCAELDStandardsreferto fourtypesofverbs: Doing/actionverbs(e.g.,go,take,gather,abandon) Sayingverbs(e.g.,ask,say,suggest,explain,promise) Being/havingverbs(e.g.,am/is/are,appear,symbolize,have,include) Thinking/feelingverbs(e.g.,know,decide,dislike,smell)

VerbTenses:Verbtenses(present,past,future)andaspects(simple,progressive,perfect)helptoconvey timerelationships,statusofcompletion,orhabitualnessofanactivityorstatedenotedbytheverb(e.g., sheranyesterday;sherunseveryday;shewillruntomorrow;shehasbeenrunningsinceshewasin college). Voice(ActiveandPassive):Inadditiontoverbtypesandtenses,sentencescanbestructuredintheactive voice(Hetoldthechildrentodotheirbest)orthepassivevoice(Thechildrenweretoldtodotheirbest).

October5,2012

 Thereareanumberofreasonstochoosethepassiveovertheactivevoice.Onereasonoftenseenin academictextsistosuppressthehumanagentsinanevent,discovery,etc.,eitherbecauseitisthe event/discoverythatisimportantorbecausethespeaker/writerdoesnotwishtorevealwhois responsibleforcertainacts.Forexample: ThediscoverythatjunkDNAactuallyplayscriticalrolesincontrollingcell,tissue,andorganbehavior wasfirstmadelastyear. (Here,thescientistsarentreallyasimportantasthediscovery.) Mistakesweremade. (Here,thereisaconsciousefforttomaskthepeoplewhomadethemistakes.) Mood:Thereareavarietyofwaystostructuremessagesintostatements,questions,commands,etc., dependingontherelationshipbetweenthespeakers/listenersorwriters/readers.Examplesofsomeofthe mainsentencetypesidentifiedbymoodfollow. Declarative(statements): Batsaremammals. Onceuponatime,therewasalittlegirlwholovedbooks. Youreimpossibletolivewith. Interrogative(questions): Howdoyousolvethisproblem? Whatsyourname? Whyareyouhere? Imperative(commands): Dontyoueverdothatagain! Putthatoverthere,please. Subjunctive(expressingwishes,desires,orsuggestions): IwishIwereyounger. IfIwereyou,Iwouldntboastsoloudly. ItisimperativethatIbeallowedtoparticipateinthisevent.

Vocabulary:TheCAELDStandardsandtheCommonCoreStateStandardsforELAdefinethreecategoriesof vocabulary. DomainSpecificVocabulary:Vocabularythatisspecifictoaparticulardiscipline(fieldofstudy,or domain).Domainspecificwordsandphrasescarrycontentmeaning(e.g.,lava,hypotenuse, chromosome,democratic,stanza). GeneralAcademicVocabulary:Vocabularythatisfoundacrosstexttypes,particularlyinwrittentexts, thatprovidesmorenuancedorsophisticatedwaysofexpressingmeaningthaneverydaylanguage (e.g.,devastation,reluctance,significantly,misfortune,specificity). ConversationalVocabularyisthevocabularyofeverydayinteraction(e.g.,run,table,friend).Thisis alsoreferredtoasfrequentlyoccurring,oreverydayvocabulary.

October5,2012