ME in actuator technology

Course title: Principles designing hydraulic servoactuator systems

Code: 521
Teacher: Prof. Veljko Potkonjak
Abstract.
Principles of hydraulic systems.
Actuators. Hydraulic cylinder with piston. Rotary actuator. Mathematical models of
actuator dynamics.
Electrohydraulic servovalves principles and mathematics. Permanent-magnet torque
motor. Single-stage electrohydraulic servovalve. Two-stage electrohydraulic servovalve
with direct feedback. Two-stage electrohydraulic servovalve with force feedback.
Specification, selection and use of servovalves.
Mathematical modeling. Mathematical model of the complete system. Linearization of
the 5-th order model. Reduction of the system (to 3-rd order form). Linearization of the
3-rd order model.
Nonlinearities. Saturation. Deadband. Backlash and hysteresis. Friction. etc.
Closed-loop control of electrohydraulic system.
Simulation. Simulation model. Simulation in system design.
Literature:
H. E. Merit, Hydraulic Control Systems, John Wiley & Sons, New York
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems
ADVANTAGES:
- No heating problems ... the fluid carries away the
heat ...
- Lubrification ...
- No saturation ...
- Fast response ... fast start/stop ... high torque-to-
inertia ratio => high accelerations ...
- All working modes ... continuous, intermittent,
reversing, ...
- High stiffness ... little drop in speed as loads are
applied ...
- Open and closed loop control ...
- Other aspects ...
DISADVANTAGES:
- Power not so readily available ...
- High costs for small tolerances ...
- Upper temperature limit ... fire danger ; messy due
to leakage
- Fluid contamination ... dirt in fluid (contamination)
is chief source of hydraulic control failure ...
- Complex modeling ... very often the design is not
based on a sophisticated mathematical model ...
- Inappropriate for low power ...
2
2. HYDRAULIC FLUIDS (LIQUIDS, OIL)
NOT GAS!
2.1. Density
) (
) (
) (
volume V
weight G
density weight
,
typically
3 3
/ ........ / 03 . 0 m N in lb
) (
) (
) (
volume V
mass m
density mass
,
typically
3 4 2 4
/ ........ / sec 10 78 . 0 m kg in lb

g

) / 81 . 9 (
2
s m g
(2.1)
2.2. Equation of State
Expression that relates density (or volume V), pressure P , and
temperature T .
Volume (and density) changes little. So, a linear approximation is
justified:
) ( ) (
0 0 0
T T
T
P P
P
P T

,
_

+
,
_

+


(2.2)
or
) ) ( ) (
1
1 (
0 0 0
T T P P +

(2.3)
where

T T
V
P
V
P

,
_

,
_

0 0

,
P P
T
V
V T

,
_

,
_

0 0
1 1

(2.4), (2.5)
3
isotermal bulk modulus (compressibility). IMPORTANT!
- It relates to the stiffness of the liquid (a kind of a sping effect).
- It have in important influence to the precision of hydraulic
actuator.
- It is desired to be as high as possible.
- Presence of air (gas) in the liquid, even small, decreases sharply
the bulk modulus.
and depend on the temperature:
2.3. Viscosity

It expresses the internal friction of the liquid and its resistance
to shear.
Necessary for lubrification.
If too low leakage!
If too large power loss due to friction (lower efficiency)!

ln
T T
4
Friction force is proporional to the contact area A and to the velocity
x
, and inversly proportional to the film thickness r
C
:
x
C
DL
C
x
A F
r r

, absolute viscosity (coeff. of visc.) (2.7)

v
kinematic viscosity (2.8)
depends on the temperature:
=
0
e
(T - T
0
)
(2.9)
leakage
leakage
of liquid
motion x ,
velocity
C
r
radial clearance
F
L
D
Piston in a cylinder
resistive
friction
force
Fig. 2.2
Fig. 2.2

T
5
2.4. Thermal Properties
Specific heat is the amount of energy (heat) needed to raise the
temperature by 1
0
.
Thermal conductivity is the measure of the rate of heat flow
through an area for a temperature gradient in the direction of
heat flow.
2.5. Effective Bulk Modulus
Interaction of the spring effect of a liquid and the masses of
mechanical parts gives a resonance in nearly all hydrauilic
components.
The bulk modulus can be lowered by intruducing
- mechanical compliance and/or
- air compliance.
For instance:
- the container can be flexible (mechanical
compliance), and/or
- bubbles or pocket of gas are present inside (gas
compliance).
(see Fig. 2.4)
6
The expression for the effective (total) bulk modulus
e
can be
found in the form:
)
1 1
(
1 1 1
l g t
g
l c e
V
V

+ +
+ (2.20)
where:

c
the bulk modulus for the container,
l
for the liquid,
g
for
the gas; V
g
the volume of the gas, and V
t
the total volume.
Since
g l
>>
, (2.20) becomes:
)
1
(
1 1 1
g t
g
l c e
V
V

+ +
(2.21)
If there is no gas (so, only mechanical compliance), one obtains:
l c e

1 1 1
+
(2.22)
2.6. Chemical and Related Properties
V
t
V
c
liquid, volume V
l
gas pocket,
volume V
g
liquid
V
g
gas
Fig. 2.4
Fig. 2.4
7
- Lubricity
- Thermal stability
- Oxidative stability
- Hydrolytic stability
- Compatibility
- Foaming
- Flash point, fire point, autogenous ignition temperature
- Pour point
- handling properties (toxity, color, odor, ...)
2.7. Types of Hydraulic Fluids
Petroleum based fluids, and
Synthetic fluids
Characteristics
2.8. Selection of the Hydraulic Fluid
3. FLUID (LIQUID) FLOW FUNDAMENTALS
8
It is assumed that the general theory of fluid flow is elaborated in
the previous courses.
Among numerous problems, we highlight here the topic:
3.4. Flow Through Orifices Turbulent Flow
0
2
A
A
C
c

contraction coefficient (3.28)
Let: u fluid velocity, P pressure . We apply:
- Bernullis equation
) (
2
2 1
2
1
2
2
P P u u

(3.29)
- Equation of incompressibility 3 3 2 2 1 1
u A u A u A
(3.30)
- Volumetric flow rate (the flow) 2 2
u A Q
- Contaction coefficient (3.28) 0 2
/ A A C
c

- velocity coefficient
98 . 0
v
C
(sometimes adopted
1
v
C
)
(velocity is slightly smaller due to friction)
and we obtain
) (
2
2 1 0
P P A C Q
d

(3.33)
where
A
2
, jet area is minimum
jet area A
0
vena contracta the
jet area is minimimum
Fig. 3.10.
Fig. 3.10.
1 2 3
3
9
2
1 0
2
) / ( 1 A A C
C C
C
c
c v
d

(3.34)
is the discharge coefficient. Since
1
v
C
and 1 0
A A <<
it follows
that
c d
C C
.
If 1 0
A A <<
, the theoretical value for the the discharge coefficient
for all sharp-edged orifices, regardless of the geometry, is
6 . 0 611 . 0 ) 2 /( +
c
C
.
4. HYDRAULIC PUMPS and MOTORS
Conversion of energy:
Pump: mechanical energy hydraulic energy
Motor (actuator) : hydraulic energy mechanical energy
10
our primary interest
hydrodynamic machines
(turbines, etc.)
Hydraulic machines
positive displacement mach.!
limited travel machines

continuous travel machines
rotary machines

piston machines (translation)
Piston actuator (cylinder with a piston) limited travel mach.
11
The piston moves due to the pressure force created by the
different pressures on the two sides of the piston: P
1
in the
forward chamber and P
2
in the backward chamber.
cylinder
x
p
piston
position
fluid IN fluid OUT
fluid IN :
pressure P
1
fluid OUT :
pressure P
2
Single rod
actuator
Single rod
actuator
Double rod
actuator
Double rod
actuator
forward
chamber
backward
chamber
motion
motion
pressure force
load
force
piston
Fig. 4.1
Fig. 4.1
piston parameters:
M
t
mass of the
piston plus
refered masses
A
p
effective piston
area
12
When the piston moves to the right, the fluid enters the forward
chamber (fluid IN), and leaves the backward chamber (fluid
OUT).
Mathematical description:
Differential pressure P
L
(difference between the two
pressures):
2 1
P P P
L

Pressure force (generated force) is
L p g
P A F

Load force or output force is F
L
There is a spring effect associated with the piston: Kx
p
, where
K is the gradient (stiffness).
There is a viscous damping effect associated with the piston:
p p
x B
, where B
p
is the viscous damping coefficient.
Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the piston)
Newtons law gives:
L p p p p t L p
F Kx x B x M P A + + +
(A.1)
Vane rotary actuator limited travel mnachine
13
Pressure torque force (generated torque) is
r P A
L p g


Load torque or output torque is
L
There is a torsion spring effect associated with the rotor: K

,
where K is the gradient (torsion stiffness).
There is a viscous damping effect associated with the piston:
B
, where B is the viscous damping coefficient.
Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the rotor)
rotor
backward
chambre
forward
chambre
Vane
Rotation
angle
Pressure
makes
a resultant
force and
consequently
a torque
fluid IN :
pressure P
1
fluid OUT :
pressure P
2
r
rotor
parameters:
I
t

moment
of inertia
A
p

effective
vane area
housing
(stator)
14
Fig. 4.2 a
mechanic energy
OUTPUT:
mechanic
energy
Newtons law for rotation gives:
L t L p
K B I r P A + + +
(A.2)
Double vane rotary actuator is shown in
Spur gear rotary machine (actuator or pump) is shown in
It allows continuous rotation.
show different types (examples) of hydraulic
machines.
In this course, we are primarily interested in
actuators. The ususl example will be a
piston actator or a vane rotary motor
The pumps are used just as a source of
hydraulic energy.
5. HYDRAULIC CONTROL VAVES
Valves are are the interface between the the sorce of hydraulic
energy and the actuator.
15
hydraulic energy
Fig. 4.2
Fig. 4.3 .
Figs. 4.4
4.12
PUMP
(source of hydro
energy): converts
mechanical
energy into
hydraulic energy
HYDRO
ACTUATOR:
converts hydro
energy into
mechanical
energy
ELECTRIC
MOTOR
(source of
mechanic energy):
converts electric
ener. into
mechanical ener.
Actuator (motor) is e.g. a cylinder with a piston or a vane
rotary motor.
Energy source is a pump (of any type).
Valve is a devices that uses mechanical motion to control the
delivery of power to the actuator.
5.1. Valve Configurations
sliding type (a, b, c, d in Fig. 5.1)
Config. classification seating type (e in Fig. 5.1)
16
control the
delivery of
energy
controlled source of energy
(controlled by means of mechanical motion)
source of
hydrauluic
energy
Oil supply
(pressure
supplay)
VALVE
Actuator
oil flow
oil flow
Unit which creates the
mechanical motion
that controls
the valve
flow deviding type ( f in Fig. 5.1)
Sliding valves are classified according to:
- number of ways - the number of input/output oil
lines;
- number of lands,
- type of center when spool is in neutral position.
(a) two-land-four-way spool valve:
(b) three-land-four-way spool valve:
17
flow to
source
return
supply
flow to
actuator
mechanical motion
that controls the valve
spool stroke x
v
Fig. 5.1 (a)
Fig. 5.1 (a)
mechanical motion that
controls the valve
spool stroke x
v
flow to
source
return
supply
flow to
actuator
Fig. 5.1 (b)
Fig. 5.1 (b)
(c) four-land-four-way spool valve:
(d) two-land-three-way spool valve:
mechanical motion
that controls the valve
spool stroke x
v
flow to
source
return
supply
flow to
actuator
Fig. 5.1 (c)
Fig. 5.1 (c)
18
mechanical motion that
controls the valve
spool stroke x
v
(e) two-jet flapper valve:
(f) jet pipe valve:
flow to
source
return
supply
flow to
actuator
Fig. 5.1 (d)
Fig. 5.1 (d)
flapper
supply
pivot
Fig. 5.1 (e)
Fig. 5.1 (e)
flow to
actuator
motion of
the flapper
controls the
valve
return
to source
19
Spool valves:
matching tolerances are required =>
- expensive and
- sensitive top oil contamination
Flapper valves:
leakage =>
- for low power or
- as a first stage in a two-stage systems.
Jet pipe valves:
- large null flow,
- characteristics are not easy to predict,
- slow response.
supply
pivot
rotation of the
jet controls
the valve
Fig. 5.1 (f)
Fig. 5.1 (f)
20
For further discussion spool valves.
Number of lands:
- two , in primitive valves;
- three or four , in a usual case
- up to six , for special valves.
Ratio between the land width and the port:
If land width < port : open center or underlapped valve
If land width = port : critical center or zero lapped valve
If land width > port : closed center or overlapped valve
width
port
width port
width
port
21
open center valve : large power loss ion neutral position; only
for some special systems
critical center valve : our choice; linear characteristics
closed center valve : deadband near null causes steady state error
and stability problems.
flow
Q
spool stroke x
v
critical
center
closed
center
overlap region
underlap region
flow gain doubles
near null
Fig. 5.2
Fig. 5.2
22
5.2. General Valve Analysis
General Flow Equations
Neglecting the compressibility, continuity request yields:
- to actuator: 4 1
Q Q Q
L

(5.1)
- from actuator: 2 3
Q Q Q
L

(5.2)
The differential pressure is
2 1
P P P
L

(5.3)
L
2
L
1
L
2
L
1
spool stroke
P
2
P
1
3
2
1
4
Supply:
- flow Q
s
- pressure P
s
Return:
- flow Q
s
- pressure P
0
0
To actuator:
- flow Q
L
- pressure P
1
From actuator:
- flow Q
L
- pressure P
2
P
L
= P
1
P
2
Force F
i
Fig. 5.3.
Fig. 5.3.
23
According to equation (3.33), the flows through the valving
orifices is:
) (
2
1 1 1
P P A C Q
s d

(5.4)
) (
2
2 2 2
P P A C Q
s d

(5.5)
2 3 3
2
P A C Q
d

(5.6)
1 4 4
2
P A C Q
d

(5.7)
The orifices areas depend on the valve geometry and the valve
displacement (spool stroke) x
v
:
) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) (
4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 v v v v
x A A x A A x A A x A A
(5.8)
The set (5.1) (5.8) copntains 11 equations that can be combined
to give the load flow as a function of the spool stroke x
v
and
the diffeerential pressure P
L
:
) , (
L v L L
P x Q Q
(5.9)
The plot of (5.9) is known as as the pressure-flow curves for the
valve and is a complete description of stady state valve
performance. All of the performance parameters, such as valve
coefficients, can be obtained from such curves.
In the vast majority of cases, the valving orifices are matched and
symmetrical. Matched orifices require
4 2 3 1
, A A A A
(5.10), (5.11)
and symmetrical orifices require
) ( ) ( , ) ( ) (
4 3 2 1 v v v v
x A x A x A x A
(5.12), (5.13)
Therefore, in the neutral position of the spool, all four areas are
aqual:
24
4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , ) 0 (
0
j A A
j
So, only one orifice area need to be described. If the orifice area
is linear with the valve stroke (as is usually tha case), only one
defining parameter is needed:
w the width of the slot (hole) in the valve sleeve (cover) .
w For linear valves (like with rectangular ports), this is the
area gradient for each orifice (and so for the whole
valve).
For matched and symmetrical orifices, it holds that
4 2 3 1
, Q Q Q Q
(5.15), (5.16)
Substituting (5.4), (5.5) and (5.6) into (5.15) one obtains:
2 1
P P P
s
+
(5.17)
Relation (5.16) may give the same result.
Equations (5.3) and (5.17) can be combined to produce:
2
1
L s
P P
P
+
(5.18)
2
2
L s
P P
P

(5.19)
From Fig. 5.3, it follows that the total supply flow can be written
as
2 1
Q Q Q
s
+
(5.20)
and as
2 1
Q Q Q
s
+
(5.21)
In summary, for a matched and symmatrical valve, relations
(5.15), (5.16) and (5.18), (5.19) applies and equations (5.1) and
(5.2) both become
25
) (
1
) (
1
2 1 L s d L s d L
P P A C P P A C Q +

(5.22)
and similar treatment yields (using (5.20) and (5.21)):
) (
1
) (
1
2 1 L s d L s d s
P P A C P P A C Q + +

(5.23)
Linearization Valve Coefficients
Sometimes, a nonlinear form of the matyhematical model causes
problems and linearization is needed.
Equation (5.9), describing the load flow, can be expanded in the
Taylors series about a particular operating point 1:
1 1 1
) , (
L L v
Q P x
producing
+

,
_

,
_

+
L
L
L
v
v
L
L L
P
P
Q
x
x
Q
Q Q
1 1
1
If the working mode is such that
) , (
L v
P x
are kept in the vicinity
of the operating point 1, i.e. close to
) , (
1 1 L v
P x
, then
) , (
1 1 L v
P x
will be small and it is jusrtified to keep only the
linear terms in the Taylors expansion. Thus:
L
L
L
v
v
L
L L L
P
P
Q
x
x
Q
Q Q Q

,
_

,
_

1 1
1 (5.24)
The partial derivatives are obtained analytically or numerically.
Valve coefficients (!!!)
- Flow gain :
0 >

v
L
q
x
Q
K
(5.25)
26
- Flow-pressure coef.
0 >

L
L
c
P
Q
K
(5.26)
- Pressure sensitivity
c
q
v
L
p
K
K
x
P
K

(5.27), (5.28)
Flow gain affects the open-loop gain constant and thus has
a direct influience on the system stability.
Flow-pressure coeficient directly affects the damping
ratio of valve-motor combination.
Pressure sensitivity of valves is quite large which shows
the ability of valve-motor combination to breakaway
large friction loads with little error.
Now, (5.24) becomes
L c v q L
P K x K Q
(5.29)
The most important operating point is the origin:

0 , 0 , 0
1 1 1

L L v
Q P x
.
- In this case,
q
K
is largest (thus, high system gain)
and c
K
is smallest (thus, low damping), and
accordingly this operating point is most critical from
a stability viewpoint.
- If we achieve stability for this point, the system will
be stable for all other operating points.
- Valve coefficinets calculated for thgis point are
called null valve coefficients.
For this operating point (
0 , 0 , 0
1 1 1

L L v
Q P x
), it holds that:
27
,
,
,
1
1
1 1
L L L L
L L L L
v v v v
Q Q Q Q
P P P P
x x x x



and accordingly, (5.29) becomes
L c v q L
P K x K Q
(A.3)
5.3. Critical-Center Spool Valve Analysis
Pressure-Flow Curves
We are going to derive the exact form of the relation (5.9)
) , (
L v L L
P x Q Q
for the case of a critical-center valve.
We assume the ideal valve geometry, and hence, leakage iz zero:

0 , 0 , 0
4 2
>
v
x for Q Q
, (so, (5.1) becomes Q
L
= Q
1
)
and
0 , 0 , 0
3 1
<
v
x for Q Q
, (so, (5.2) becomes Q
L
= Q
2
= Q
4
)
Substituting (5.18), (5.4) into (5.1), one obtains
0 ,
2
2
1
>
,
_

v
L s
d L
x for
P P
A C Q

(5.30)
For negativevalve displacements, (5.18), (5.7), substituting into
(5.2), yield
28
0 ,
2
2
2
<
,
_

+

v
L s
d L
x for
P P
A C Q

(5.31)
For symmetrical valve, eq. (5.12) holds and (5.30) and (5.31) can
be written as a single relation:

,
_

L
v
v
s
v
v
d L v L L
P
x
x
P
x
x
A C P x Q Q

1
) , (
1 (5.32)
If rectangular ports are used with an area gradient w, one
obtains

,
_

L
v
v
s v d L v L L
P
x
x
P x w C P x Q Q

1
) , (
(5.33)
This is the pressure-flow curve mentioned earlier as eq. (5.9).
Family of curves, for different x
v
is shown in Fig. 5.4.
29
Q
L
Valve Coefficients
We recall the linearized form (A.3),
L c v q L
P K x K Q
(A.3)
and look for the coefficients.
Differentiation of (5.33) gives

) (
1
L s d
v
L
q
P P w C
x
Q
K

(5.35)
P
L
P
s
P
s
x
v
increasing in
positive sense
x
v
increasing in
negative sense
Fig. 5.4
Fig. 5.4
30

) ( 2
) )( / 1 (
L s
L s v d
L
L
c
P P
P P x w C
P
Q
K

(5.36)

v
L s
c
q
p
x
P P
K
K
K
) ( 2

(5.37)
For the null operating point (being the most important) i.e. for
0 , 0 , 0
L L v
Q P x
, the null coefficients for the ideal critical-
center valve are:

s
d q
P
w C K
0 (5.38)

0
0

c
K
(5.39)


0 p
K
(5.40)
The computed value for
0 q
K
is close to a realistic value (obtained
by tests). However, the computed values for 0 c
K
and
0 p
K
are far
from the values obtained by testing a realistic valve.
=> So, we have to consider leakage !!!
Leakage Characteristics of Practical Critical-Center Valves
just some comments
Ideal valve ideal geometry => no leakage
Real valve radial clearance => leakage
Example: Realistic pressure sensitivity curve for blocked lines
(so, only leakege flolw exists)
31
Stroking Forces Dynamics of the Valve (Spool)
Analysis is based on the Figure 5.3.
Mathematical description:
Force F
i
is imposed to control the spool motion (stroke) i.e.
to control the valve
There are flow forces that oppose the spool motion. These
forces are derived from eqs. (5.90) and (5.93) in Section 5.6.
and from (5.48) and (5.49) in Section 5.3. The result is:
P
s
P
s
load pressure
difference P
L
valve stroke x
v
the slope is not
infinite, i.e.,
K
p

Fig. 5.5
Fig. 5.5
32
There is a spring effect associated with the spool motion
(like a centerung spring). It is the steady-state flow force:
K
f
x
p
, where
) ( cos 2
L s v d f
P P w C C K
is the gradient (like a
stiffness).
There is a viscous damping effect associated with the spool
motion. It is the transient flow force:
v f
x B
, where
) ( ) (
1 2 L s d f
P P w C L L B
is the damping coefficient.
Mass M
s
defines the inertia:
v s
x M
.
Newtons law gives:
v f v f v s i
x K x B x M F + +
(5.50)
5.4. Open-Center Spool Valve Analysis
HOMEWORK 1a - Ramadan
5.5. Three-Way Spool Valve Analysis
HOMEWORK 1b - Mohamad
5.6. Flow Forces on Spool Valves
HOMEWORK 1c - Ismail
5.7. Lateral Forces on Spool Valves
5.8. Spool Valve Design
NOT DISCUSSED FOR THE MOMENT
33
5.9. Flapper Valve Analysis and Design
Single-jet, Double-Jet, Flow Forces
HOMEWORK 1d - Abdulhalim
6. HYDRAULIC POWER ELEMENTS
6.1. Valve Controlled Rotary Motor
NOT DISCUSSED FOR THE MOMENT
6.2. Valve Controlled Piston
34
NOTE a difference regarding previous figures. The forward
flow (to the actuator: Q
1
) is not equal to the return flow
(from the actuator: Q
2
). Previously, it was equal: Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
L
This is due to some effects that have been neglected in the
previous discussions and now we take care of them. These
effects are:
- Leakage,
- Compression.
Valve controlled flow Linear analysis
Starting from relation (A.3) (
L c v q L
P K x K Q
), one may write
experessions for Q
1
and Q
2
:
1 1
2 P K x K Q
c v q

(6.1)
2 2
2 P K x K Q
c v q
+
(6.2)
x
p
Return
line:
Q
2
, P
2

Forward
line:
P
1
, Q
1

Cylinder with
a Piston
VALVE
Supply P
s
Fig. A.1
Fig. A.1
35
- If the valve is matched and symmetrical, the pressures in the
lines will rise above and below
2 /
s
P
by equal amounts so that
the pressure drops across the two valve orifices are identical.
Hance the valve coefficients
q
K
for forward and return flows
are the same.
- The flow-pressure coefficient c
K
is twice that for the whole
valve since
q
K
was defined with respect to P
L
and the change
in P
L
is twice that which occurs across a port.
Adding tha above two equations, it follows that
L c v q L
P K x K Q
(6.3)
So, the same form was obtained like expression (A.3) .
However, here, the load flow is the average :
2
2 1
Q Q
Q
L
+

. (6.4)
and it is not equal to the flow in each line ( 2 1
Q Q Q
L

).
The load pressure (diffrerencial pressure) is still 2 1
P P P
L

.
Valve controlled flow Non-linear analysis
Instead of (6.3) , the nonlinear expression for the flow (eq.
(5.33)), can be applied (like in later Section 6.7.)

,
_

L
v
v
s v d L v L L
P
x
x
P x w C P x Q Q

1
) , (
(5.33)
Flow through the actuator continuity relations .
Let us turn to the actuator chambers and look at Fig. 6.6.
36
Analyzing the flow, we take care of
Piston motion. The corresponding flow is the rate of volume
change: dV/dt.
Leakage (internal and external). Flow due to leakage is
proportional to the pressure drop.
Compression (effective due to air and mech. compliance;
oil itself might be considered noncompressible or
compressible). Flow due to compression is derived starting
from eq. (2.4) the definition of the bulk modulus:
(2.4):

,
_

V
P
V
0

=>

,
_

dt dV
dt dP
V
/
/
0

=>
dt
dP V
dt
dV

0

Applying the equation of continuity for chambers 1 and 2, one
obtains
Force F
i
and
motion x
v
(to control the valve)
P
L
= P
1
P
2
P
2
, V
2
P
1
, V
1

x
p
VALVE
Fig. 6.6
Fig. 6.6
Load.
- Force F
L
- spring effect
- damping effect
Piston parameters:
M
t
mass of the
piston plus
refered masses
A
p
effective piston
area
Forward
line:
P
1
, Q
1

External leakage External leakage
Return
line:
Q
2
, P
2

Internal leakage
Supply
37
dt
dP V
dt
dV
P C P P C Q
e
ep ip
1 1 1
1 2 1 1
) (

+
(6.27)
dt
dP V
dt
dV
Q P C P P C
e
ep ip
2 2 2
2 2 2 1
) (

+
(6.28)
where
V
1
volume of the chamber 1 of the actuator plus related
volumes: connecting line, and the refered volume in the
valve)
V
2
volume of the chamber 2 plus related volumes
C
ip
internal leakage coefficient
C
ep
external leakage coefficient
The volumes of the chambers may be writted as
p p
x A V V +
01 1
(6.29)
p p
x A V V
02 2
(6.30)
where V
01
and V
02
are the initial volumes (for the null position of
the piston, x
p
= 0). The piston is usually centered, and then:
V
01
= V
02
= V
0
.
Now, from (29) and (6.30), the derivatives are
dt
dx
A
dt
dV
dt
dx
A
dt
dV
p
p
p
p

1 1
;
;

,
_

dt
dV
dt
dV
2 1
(A.4)
The sum of the two volumes is contant and independent of piston
motion:
0 02 01 2 1
2V V V V V V
t
+ +
(6.32)
V
t
is the total volume of fluid under compression in both
chambers.
We now combine (6.29), (6.30), (A.4) and (6.27), (6.28) to
obtain
38
dt
P P d
x A
dt
P P d V
P P
C
C
dt
dx
A
Q Q
Q
e
p p
e
ep
ip
p
p
L
) (
2
) (
2
) )(
2
(
2
2 1 2 1 0
2 1
2 1
+
+

+ + +

If
0
V x A
p p
<<
, the last term may be neglected
So, we finaly come to
L
e
t
L tp p p L
P
V
P C x A Q

4
+ +
(6.33)
where
2 /
ep ip tp
C C C +
is the total leakage coefficient.
Mathematical description of the piston dynamics (this has been
already discussed in Ch. 4 we repeat here):
Differential pressure P
L
(difference between the two
pressures):
2 1
P P P
L

Pressure force (generated force) is
L p g
P A F

Load force or output force is F
L
There is a spring effect associated with the piston: Kx
p
, where
K is the gradient (stiffness).
There is a viscous damping effect associated with the piston:
p p
x B
, where B
p
is the viscous damping coefficient.
39
Dynamics of the motor (i.e. dynamics of the piston)
Newtons law gives:

L p p p p t L p
F Kx x B x M P A + + +
(A.1)=(6.34)
6.A. Mathematical Model of the Valve-Controlled
Actuator
Actuator controlled by the valve stroke
As mentioned several times, the velve control the actuator by the
spool stroke x
v
.
(I) Dynamics of the piston motion is desribed by (6.34):

L p p p p t L p
F Kx x B x M P A + + +
(6.34)
(II) Load flow is described by continuity equation (6.33):
L
e
t
L tp p p L
P
V
P C x A Q

4
+ +
(6.33)
(III) Valve control the flow by relation
- (6.3) in the case of linear analysis, or
- (5.33) in the case of non-linear analysis:
L c v q L
P K x K Q
(6.3)
or

,
_

L
v
v
s v d L v L L
P
x
x
P x w C P x Q Q

1
) , (
(5.33)
Eqs. (I)(III), i.e. - (6.34), (6.33) and (6.3) (for lin. case) or
` - (6.34), (6.33) and (5.33) (for non-lin. case),
define the mathematical model.
40
State variables are piston position, its velocity, and load
pressure:
p
x
,
p
x
, L
P
.
Control input is the valve spool stroke, v
x
.
Question: If the spool stroke controls the actuator, how to
generate the appropriate spool stroke ?
ANSWER: We use a force to move the spool !
=>
Actuator and valve controlled by the force imposed to the
spool
Figure 5.3 showed that the spool stroke is generated by the force
F
i
imposed to the spool.
(IV) We relate the force F
i
with the spool motion x
v
by
dynamic equation (5.50):
v f v f v s i
x K x B x M F + +
(5.50)
Eqs. (I)(IV), i.e. - (6.34), (6.33), (6.3), (5.50) (linear case) or
` - (6.34), (6.33), (5.33), (5.50) (non-lin.),
define the mathematical model.
State variables are piston position and velocity, load
pressure, spool position (stroke) and velocity:
p
x
,
p
x
, L
P
,
v
x
, v
x
,
Control input is the force imposed to valve spool: F
i
.
Question: If the force imposed to the spool controls the valve
and the actuator, how to generate the appropriate force ? ?
ANSWER requires a more detailed analysis of the valve. Some
kind of motor will be needed to create the force ! This will be
elasborated in Chapter 7.
41
Important notes about the load.
The model derived (eqs. (I) (IV)) includes the load force F
L
. It
is not a known force but it depends on the dynamics of the load.
In a general case, the load is a dynamic system (that may have its
own degrees of freedom). So, the load force F
L
represents the
interaction between the two systems (actuator and load see Fig.
A.2).
According to the law of action and reaction, the force that acts
from the actuator to the load (action) is equal and oposite to the
force that acts from the load to the actuator (reaction).
So, the load force F
L
is unknown and has to be expressed from
the mathematical model of the load dynamics.
Hence, in order to complete the system of equations (i.e. to make
it solveble), it will be necessary to specify the load and formulate
its mathematical model.
Canonic form of the mathematical model
- For the analysis of system: dynamic characteristics, control
syntehis, stability analysis, and finally simulation, it is desired
to put thge mathematical model in the canonic form.
action F
L
Load
reaction F
L
Actuator
Fig. A.2
Fig. A.2
42
- Let
) , (
, 2 1
z z z
be state vector and let u be the input control
signal.
The canonic form is then:
) , ( u z f z
for nonlinear systems, (A.5)
and
u E z D z +
for linear systems, (A.6)
where D and E are system matrices.
The model that we discuss includes the load force F
L
, and it
may introduce additional state variables. So, with the force F
L
(A.5) and (A.6) become
) , , (
L
F u z f z
for nonlin. case, (A.7)
and
L
HF u E z D z + +
for linear case. (A.8)
Actuator controlled by the valve stroke
The model involves (I) (III) .
The state variables and state vactor are:

p
x z
1
,
p
x z
2
, L
P z
3 ,
) , , (
L p p
P x x z
(A.9)
Control input is the valve spool stroke,
v
x u
. (A.10)
Let us rewrite (I)-(III) acoording to notation (A.9) and (A.10):
43
(I)
L p t p
F Kz z B z M z A + + +
1 2 2 3


(II) 3 3 2
4
z
V
z C z A Q
e
t
tp p L

+ +
(III)
3
z K u K Q
c q L

(for linear analysis), or

,
_

3
1
z
u
u
P u w C Q
s d L

(for nonlinear analysis)

From (A.9), it follows that
2 1
z x z
p

.
By combining the above relations, for the linear case one
gets:
2 1
z z
L
t t
p
t
p
t
F
M
z
M
A
z
M
B
z
M
K
z
1
3 2 1 2
+
(A.11)
u
V
K z
V
C K z
V
A z
t
e
q
t
e
tp c
t
e
p
4 4
) (
4
3 2 3
+ +
i.e.. in a matrix form (A.8) it is:
L
t
t
e
q
t
e
tp c
t
e
p
t
p
t
p
t
F
M
u
V
K z
z
z
V
C K
V
A
M
A
M
B
M
K
z
z
z
H
E
D

1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+

1
1
1
]
1

0
1
0
4
0
0
4
) (
4
0
0 1 0
3
2
1
3
2
1

(A.12)
For the nonlinear case one gets the form (A.7):
2 1
z z
L
t t
p
t
p
t
F
M
z
M
A
z
M
B
z
M
K
z
1
3 2 1 2
+

,
_

+
3 3 2 3
1 4 4 4
z
u
u
P u w C
V
z
V
C z
V
A z
s d
t
e
t
e
tp
t
e
p

(A.13)
44
How to handle the load ?
Let us explain this by examples !
EXAMPLE 1
Form the complete mathematical model for the system of Fig. A.3!
The control input is the valve stroke.
NOTE: The load does not introduce any new state variable.
The actuator is modeled by (A.11) for a linear analysis or (A.13)
for a nonlinear analysis.
The model includes the load force F
L
.
We now look for the mathematical model of the load in order to
express the load force F
L
.
Load
Rolling without
sliding
Cylinder:
mass m
radius r
Fig. A.3
Fig. A.3
Actuator
45
Eqations of load dynamics:
fr L
F F a m
, for translation
r F I
fr

, for rotation (about the center)
where a is the acceleration, is the angular acceleration, and
I is the moment of inertia.
Note that there is no sliding and accordingly
N F
fr

(thus
friction
fr
F
is unknown).
Having in mind:
r a /
and
2
2
1
r m I
, the above equations
yields:
ma F
L
3
2

,
ma F
fr
3
1

.
The motion of the wheel center equals the the piston motion
x
p
, and so:
2
z x a
p

=>
2
3
2
z m F
L

.
One can see that F
L
does not introduce new state variables but
depends on the existing one.
F
L
Load force i.e.
actuator output force
F
L
Friction force (dry)
F
fr
46
For a linear analysis, load force is substituted into (A.11) (or,
may be it is simpler to substitute into (I)). In any case, one
gets:
2 1
z z
3 2 1 2
) 3 / 2 ( ) 3 / 2 ( ) 3 / 2 (
z
m M
A
z
m M
B
z
m M
K
z
t
p
t
p
t
+
+
+

+


u
V
K z
V
C K z
V
A z
t
e
q
t
e
tp c
t
e
p
4 4
) (
4
3 2 3
+ +
or in a matrix form
u
V
K z
z
z
V
C K
V
A
m M
A
m M
B
m M
K
z
z
z
E
D
t
e
q
t
e
tp c
t
e
p
t
p
t
p
t

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
+ +

+

1
1
1
]
1

4
0
0
4
) (
4
0
) 3 / 2 ( ) 3 / 2 ( ) 3 / 2 (
0 1 0
3
2
1
3
2
1
which is the final form (A.6).
For a nonlinear analysis, load force is substituted into (A.13)
(or, into (I)), to get:
2 1
z z
3 2 1 2
) 3 / 2 ( ) 3 / 2 ( ) 3 / 2 (
z
m M
A
z
m M
B
z
m M
K
z
t
p
t
p
t
+
+
+

,
_

+
3 3 2 3
1 4 4 4
z
u
u
P u w C
V
z
V
C z
V
A z
s d
t
e
t
e
tp
t
e
p

which is the final form (A.5).

EXAMPLE 2
Form the linear mathematical model for the system of Fig. A.4 !
47
The control input is the valve stroke.
NOTE: The load introduces one additional degree of freedom
(x
2r
) and accordingly two additional state variabls
) , (
2 2 r r
x x
.
The actuator is modeled by (A.11) for a linear analysis or
(A.13) for a nonlinear analysis.
The model includes the load force F
L
.
We now look for the mathematical model of the load in order to
express the load force F
L
.
NOTE: F
L
is
in reverse
direction
(negative)
F
L
x
2r
Load
Body: mass m
2

Cylinder:
mass m
1
radius r
Fig. A.4
Fig. A.4
Actuator
x
p
= x
1
48
Eqations of load dynamics:
- for the wheel: translation and rotation
g m F F a m
L 1 1 1 1
+
r F I
1 1

- for the body (translation only)
1 2 2 2
F g m a m
Accelerations are:
p
x a
1
,
r p r
x x a a x a
2 2 1 2 2
+ +
, r r
x a
2 2

Having in mind:
r a
r
/
2

and
2
1 1
2
1
r m I
, the equations of load
dynamics, after some transformations, become
L r p
F x m x m
2 1 1
2
1

g m x m m x m
r p 2 2 1 2 2
)
2
1
( +
x
2
=
=x
p
+ x
2r
m
2
g
x
2r
F
1
F
1
x
p
= x
1
F
L
F
L
m
1
m
2
m
1
g
49
Besides the old state variables (comming from the actuator),
i.e. z
1
, z
2
, z
3,
we have introduced two new state variables
(due to the new degree of freedom of the load, x
2r
):
r
x z
2 4

, r
x z
2 5

.
In this case the above equations of dynamics become
L
F z m z m
5 1 2 1
2
1

g m z m m z m
2 5 1 2 2 2
)
2
1
( +
with
5 4
z z
,
or, after additional transformation,
g
m m
m m
z
m m
m m m
F
L
1 2
2 1
2
1 2
2
1 2 1
) 2 / 1 (
) 2 / 1 (
) 2 / 1 (
) 2 / 1 ( ) 2 / 3 (

2
1 2
2
1 2
2
5
) 2 / 1 ( ) 2 / 1 (
z
m m
m
g
m m
m
z

(*)
5 4
z z
For a linear analysis, (A.11) is combined with the above three
relations. First, F
L
from the first relation is substituted into the
second equation from (A.11) (note that the sign of F
L
has
changed due to the oposite action of the force). Then, from this
modified second equation of (A.11), 2
z
is substituted into the
second relation of the above set (*). Now, this modified
second relation form (*), and the third relation from (*) are
supplemented to the set (A.11). In this way, five state
equations are obtained:
2 1
z z
2 3 23 2 22 1 21 2
G z D z D z D z + + +

u E z D z D z
3 3 33 2 32 3
+ +
5 4
z z
5 3 53 2 52 1 51 5
G z D z D z D z + + +
50
where
1
) 2 / 1 (
2
2
1
) 2 / 1 (
2 1
) 2 / 3 (
21
m m
m m m
t
M
K
D

+

;
1
) 2 / 1 (
2
2
1
) 2 / 1 (
2 1
) 2 / 3 (
22
m m
m m m
t
M
p
B
D

+

1
) 2 / 1 (
2
2
1
) 2 / 1 (
2 1
) 2 / 3 (
23
m m
m m m
t
M
p
A
D

;
g G
m m
m m m
t
M
m m
m m
1
) 2 / 1 (
2
2
1
) 2 / 1 (
2 1
) 2 / 3 (
1
) 2 / 1 (
2
2 1
) 2 / 1 (
2

t
e
p
V
A D
4
32

;
t
e
tp c
V
C K D
4
) (
33
+
;
t
e
q
V
K E
4
3

21
1 2
2
51
) 2 / 1 (
D
m m
m
D

; 22
1 2
2
52
) 2 / 1 (
D
m m
m
D

23
1 2
2
53
) 2 / 1 (
D
m m
m
D

; 2
1 2
2
1 2
2
5
) 2 / 1 ( ) 2 / 1 (
G
m m
m
g
m m
m
G

The obtained model describes the dynamics of the entire system.

The model is in a linear canonical form, like (A.6).
The matrix form is

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

5
2
3
5
4
3
2
1
53 52 51
33 32
23 22 21
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 1 0
G
G
u
E
E
z
z
z
z
z
D
D D D
D D
D D D
z
z
z
z
z

Actuator and valve controlled by the force on the spool

The model involves (I) (IV) .
The state variables and state vactor are:

p
x z
1
,
p
x z
2
, L
P z
3 , v
x z
4 , v
x z
5 ,
) , , , , (
v v L p p
x x P x x z
(A.14)
51
Control input is the force to valve spool,
i
F u
. (A.15)
Let us rewrite (I)-(IV) acoording to notation (A.14) and
(A.15):
(I)
L p t p
F Kz z B z M z A + + +
1 2 2 3


(II) 3 3 2
4
z
V
z C z A Q
e
t
tp p L

+ +
(III)
3 4
z K z K Q
c q L

(for linear analysis), or

,
_

3
4
4
4
1
z
z
z
P z w C Q
s d L

(for nonlinear analysis)

(IV)
4 5 5
z K z B z M u
f f s
+ +
From (A.14), it follows that
2 1
z x z
p

and 5 4
z x z
v

By combining the above relations, for the linear case one
gets:
2 1
z z
L
t t
p
t
p
t
F
M
z
M
A
z
M
B
z
M
K
z
1
3 2 1 2
+

4 3 2 3
4 4
) (
4
z
V
K z
V
C K z
V
A z
t
e
q
t
e
tp c
t
e
p

+ +
(A.16)
5 4
z z
u
M
z
M
B
z
M
K
z
s s
f
s
f
1
5 4 5
+
i.e.. in a matrix form (A.8) it is
52
L
t
s
t
e
q
t
e
tp c
t
e
p
t
p
t
p
t
F
M
u
M
z
z
z
z
z
V
K
V
C K
V
A
M
A
M
B
M
K
z
z
z
z
z
H
E
D

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1 0 0 0 0
0
4 4
) (
4
0
0 0
0 0 0 1 0
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1

(A.17)
For the nonlinear case one gets the form (A.7):
2 1
z z
L
t t
p
t
p
t
F
M
z
M
A
z
M
B
z
M
K
z
1
3 2 1 2
+

,
_

+
3
4
4
4 3 2 3
1 4 4 4
z
z
z
P z w C
V
z
V
C z
V
A z
s d
t
e
t
e
tp
t
e
p

5 4
z z
u
M
z
M
B
z
M
K
z
s s
f
s
f
1
5 4 5
+
(A.18)
How to handle the load ?
We could explain this by examples ! The examples would be
done completely analogously like Examples 1 and 2, so like
it was done for the spool-stroke controlled actuator.
6.3. Three-Way Valve Controlled Piston
6.4. Pump Controlled Motor
NOT DISCUSSED FOR THE MOMENT
53
6.5. Valve Controlled Motor with Load Having Many
Degrees of Freedom
Let the load be in the form of n masses connected by means of
springs (stiffness) and dampers, as shown in Fig. 6.8. A
combination of a spring and a damper will be called simply
spring (a real spring actually involves stiffness and damping).
m
1
, m
2
, ... , m
n
masses
k
1
, k
2
, ... , k
n
stiffnesses
b
1
, b
2
, ... , b
n
damping constants
Position coordinates (degrees of freedom) for the entire system:

- x
p
, x
v
(for the acruator and valve) plus
- x
1
, x
2
, ... , x
n
(for the load)
Dynamics of the actuator and the valve is described by
eqs. (I) (IV) .
Q
L
k
n
x
n
x
2
x
1
b
1
k
2
m
1
k
1
x
p
F
i
x
v
Q
L
Valve
m
2
b
2
m
n
b
n
Fig. 6.8
Fig. 6.8
load F
L
54
This model includes the load force F
L
.
Dynamics of the load can be described by the following set of n
equations:




2 spring in force
) ( 1 spring in force
)] ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( [
2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
x x b x x k x x b x x k x m
L
F
p p
+ +

3 spring in force 2 spring in force
)] ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( [
3 2 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2
x x b x x k x x b x x k x m + +
. . .
. . .
. . .


n
n n n n n n n n
x x b x x k x m
spring in force
)] ( ) ( [
1 1
+

(A.19)
The complete mathematical model (actuator plus load) includes:
- eqs. (I) (IV) , fot the acatuator and valve, plus
- set of n equations (A.19).
Force F
L
in (I)(IV) can be eliminated since it is the force in
spring 1 and it is

) ( ) (
1 1 1 1
x x b x x k F
p p L
+
,
as given in the first equation of the set (A.19).
The load has intruduced additional degrees of freedom and
accordingly additional state variables. The entire set of state
variables (vector z) is :
z = (
p
x
,
p
x
,
L
P
,
v
x
,
v
x
, (from the actuator)

n n
x x x x x x , , , , , ,
2 2 1 1
(from the load)).
The model can be put in a canonical form.
55
6.6. Pressure Transients in Power Elements
NOT DISCUSSED FOR THE MOMENT
6.7. Non-linear Analysis of Valve Controlled Actuators
We, in our course (and this text), discussed
nonlinear analysis in Section 6.2. Equation (5.33),
used in Sec. 6.2., concides with (6.93) being
crucial in the current section 6.7.
7. ELECTROHYDRAULIC SERVOVALVES
As we have mentioned, the valve and the actuator were controlled
by
- spoll stroke x
v
, or
- force F
i
imposed on the valve spool.
In any case, there is a question:
Question: How to generate the appropriate stroke or force ? ?
56
ANSWER: Some kind of motor is needed to create the force (or
torque) and consequently the stroke ! It is called the torque
motor.
So, servovalve means the valve (one or two stages)
plus the torque motor .
7.1. Types of Electrohydraulic Servovalves
Single-stage servovalve
The torque motor is directly connected to the spool valve.
Torque motors have limited power capabilities. This
- limits the torque/force that can be generated,
- limits the flow capacity of the valve, and
- may lead to stability problems in some applications.
Two-stage servovalve
Force/torque
Torque motor
Spool of the
valve
Torque motor
Stage 1
Valve of
different type
Stage 2
Spool valve
force/torque
amplified
force/torque
57
Stage 1 is a hydraulic preamplifier. It augments the
force/torque generated by the motor to the level that can
overcome all the problems: flow forces, stiction, acceleration,
vibrations, etc.
Stage 1 can be:
- spool valve,
- jet pipe valve, and
- flapper valve .
Stage 2, the main spool, is alvays a spool valve.
Types of feedback between the two stages (most common types):
- direct feedback ,
- force deedback , and
- spring centered spool.
With direct feedback, the main spool follows the first stage in
a one-to-one relation. We talk about hydraulic follower.
With force feedback, there is a deformable element, a spring,
between the two stages.
7.2. Permanemnt Magnet Torque Motor
58
59