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Understanding Orbital Mechanics Through a Step-by-Step Examination of the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)
Denny Sissom Elmco, Inc. May 2003

www.stk.com

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SSMD-1102-366 [1]

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The Ground-Based Midcourse Defense Architecture (2004)

SSMD-0403-433 [2]

Radars IFICS (In-Flight Interceptor Communications System) Ground-Based Interceptors Battle Management (BMC3) Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)
SBIRS High GEO (Geo-Stationary Orbits) SBIRS High HEO (Highly-Elliptical Orbits) SBIRS Low (Low-Altitude Orbits) SBIRS Ground Station Processing (MCS)

www.stk.com

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SBIRS Model Overview

SSMD-0403-433 [3]

SBIRS High

SBIRS Communication
Launch Detection Boost Tracking Mission Control Station (MCS) Launch Detection Boost Tracking DSP/GEO

SBIRS Low

LEO Payload

GEO Payload

HEO Payload

2D Detection Report

Launch Detection Boost Tracking Mid-Course Tracking Discrimination

Mission MissionControl ControlStation Station One Central CONUS One Central CONUSLocation Location Boost Boostand andCoast CoastTracking Tracking Booster BoosterTyping Typing Launch LaunchPoint PointEstimation Estimation Impact Point Prediction Impact Point Prediction

SBIRS Architecture
Four Satellites in Geostationary Orbits (GEO) Two Satellites in Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO) Twenty or more Satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Ground-Based Mission Control Station (MCS)

Acquisition Sensor - Wide FOV (WFOV) - SWIR Band - Boost Detection Track Sensor - Narrow FOV (NFOV) - Multiple Wavebands - 2-Axis Gimbal Control - Precise Midcourse Acquisition, Tracking, & Discrimination

Scanner Rapid Global Coverage SWIR, MWIR Bands Taskable Scan Rate and Revisit Starer SWIR, MWIR Bands Taskable Revisit Follow-on and replacement for DSP

Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) Scanner Only - SWIR, MWIR Bands - Taskable Scan Rate and Revisit

DSP Payload
Scanner Only - SWIR Band - Periodic Revisit GEO Satellites Rotating Platform Provides 2D Detection Reports to MCS

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SBIRS Concept of Operations

SSMD-0403-433 [4]

SBIRS High (GEO and/or HEO) Acquire Target (SBIRS Low Can Also Acquire Target) Data Transmitted From SBIRS High To Mission Control Station (MCS) Track Data Is Transmitted From MCS To SBIRS Low SBIRS Low Acquires And Hands Data Over From Acquisition Sensor To Track Sensor Animation Showing Concept of Operations Data Handed Over To Other SBIRS Low Spacecraft and MCS From www.stk.com Track Data Sent From MCS To Battle Manager www.stk.com
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Keplers Laws
SSMD-0403-433 [5]

Area 1 = Area 2 Planetary Motion over 30 Days Planetary Motion over 30 Days

Area 1

Area 2

Average Distance

Keplers First Law: The Orbits of Planets (or Satellites) are Ellipses with the Sun at a Focus Keplers Second Law: The Orbits of the Planets Sweep Out Equal Areas in Equal Time Keplers Third Law: The Square of the Orbit Period (The Time it Takes to Go Around Once) is Proportional to the Cube of the Average Distance to the Sun

a3 P = 2
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Where: P = Period (sec) a = Semi-Major Axis (km) = Gravitational Parameter (km3/s2) = GMearth G = Universal Gravitational Constant (Nm2/kg2) Mearth = Mass of the Earth (kg)
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Newtons Law and the Restricted TwoBody Equation of Motion

v v F = ma Fg = Gm1m2 R2
SSMD-0403-433 [6]

Newtons Second Law

Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation

v r Em R Fg = R2 R v v E m R v & & = m a = m R R2 R v v R && + R =0 R2 R

Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation in Vector Form with Earth as Central Body (E = GMearth = 3.986 x1014 m3/s2) Combining Newtons Two Laws, assuming:
(1) (2) (3) No perturbations (drag, earths oblateness, other planets, etc.) Bodies are spherically symmetric m1 >> m2

We Get the Restricted Two-Body Equation of Motion Which is a Second-Order, Non-Linear, Vector Differential Equation YUK!

This Equation Represents a Conic Section (Circle, Ellipse, Parabola, or Hyperbola)

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A Few More Useful Equations for Orbital Mechanics

v v v H = R mV v v v h = R V E= 1 m mV 2 2 R
SSMD-0403-433 [7]

Angular Momentum

v v H Specific Angular Momentum, where h m

Total Mechanical Energy for Orbiting Spacecraft (Must remain constant!)
E

Apogee: High PE = -m/R Low KE = mV2

Earth

Perigee: Low PE = -m/R High KE = mV2

V2 = 2 R = 2a

Specific Mechanical Energy, where

E m

Shows We can Easily Find Specific Mechanical Energy Just Knowing the Semi-Major Axis
- is negative for circles and ellipses - is zero for parabolas - is positive for hyperbolas Pg 7 of 27

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Geocentric Equatorial Coordinate System

SSMD-0403-433 [8]

Origin Center of Earth Fundamental Plane Earths Equator Principle Direction (I-Axis)
Vernal Equinox Direction Found by Drawing a Line from the Earth to the Sun on the First Day of Spring Points at First Star in Aries Constellation (First Point of Aries) Denoted by Rams Head Symbol Wanders Due to Earth Spin-Axis Wobble Because of the Wobble, Sometimes the Vernal Equinox Direction is Specified at a Certain Time or Epoch Fixed at Vernal Equinox direction at Noon on January 1, 2000 at Greenwich Meridian by International Astronomical Union (More Truly Inertial)

K-Axis
North Pole www.stk.com
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Semi-Major Axis and Eccentricity

The Size and Shape of a Orbit
SSMD-0403-433 [9]

e>1
Semi-Major Axis Apogee radius Perigee radius

e=1

Apogee Altitude Apogee Center of Ellipse

Perigee Altitude Perigee

e=0 0<e<1 circle ellipse

C = distance from center of Earth to center of ellipse = eccentricity * semi major axis

Size Determination: Semi-Major Axis Shape Determination: Eccentricity

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Inclination
The Orientation of an Orbit
SSMD-0403-433 [10]

Tilt of Orbital Plane with Respect to Fundamental Plane (of GeocentricEquatorial Coordinate System) Angle Between Specific Angular Momentum Vector ( h = R V ) and the Vector Perpendicular to the Fundamental Plane Pointing Through the North Pole (K-axis) Inclination Orbital Type Diagram Ranges from 0 to 180
h
i

0 or 180 90 0 i < 90

Equatorial Polar Direct or Prograde (Moves in the Direction of Earths Rotation) Indirect or Retrograde (Moves Against the Direction of Earths Rotation)

i= 90 Ascending node

90 < i 180

J I

Ascending node

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Right Ascension of Ascending Node (RAAN or )

The Swivel of an Orbit
SSMD-0403-433 [11]

Angle, Along the Equator, Between Principle Direction (i.e., First Point of Aries) and the Point Where the Orbital Plane Crosses the Equator, from South to North (The Ascending Node), Measured Eastward Not the Same As the Longitude of the Ascending Node
RAAN Relative to Inertial Frame (Geocentric-Equatorial) Longitude of Ascending Node Relative to Rotating Earth

Ranges from 0 to 360

J
Ascending Node

I
Equatorial Plane

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Argument of Perigee ()
The Orientation of the Orbit within the Orbital Plane
SSMD-0403-433 [12]

Angle Along Orbital Path Between the Ascending Node and the Perigee Always measured Along the Orbital Path in Direction of Spacecraft Motion Perigee Closest Approach to Earth Ranges from 0 to 360
K
Perigee

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True Anomaly at Epoch

The Spacecrafts Location within an Orbit
SSMD-0403-433 [13]

Angle Along Orbital Path from Perigee to Spacecrafts Position Always Measured Along Orbital Path in Direction of Spacecraft Motion The Only Orbital Element Set Parameter That Varies with Time as the Spacecraft Travels Around its Fixed Orbit, Assuming a SphericallySymmetric Earth (A So-So Assumption)
V
R

Perigee

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Summary of Orbital Elements

SSMD-0403-433 [14]

Element
a

Name
Semimajor Axis Size

Description

Range of Values
Depends on the Conic Section e = 0: Circle 0 < e < 1: ellipse 0 i 180 Never

Undefined

Eccentricity

Shape unit Tilt, angle from K vector to specific angular momentum vector h Swivel, angle from vernal equinox to ascending node Angle from ascending node to perigee Angle from perigee to the spacecrafts position

Never

Inclination

Never

Right ascension of the ascending node Argument of perigee True anomaly

0 360

When i = 0 or 180 (equatorial orbit) When i = 0 or 180 (equatorial orbit) or e = 0 (circular orbit) When e = 0 (circular orbit)

0 360

0 360

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Alternate Orbital Elements

SSMD-0403-433 [15]

A Circular Orbit?

What Do We Do With: A Circular Equatorial Orbit?

No RAAN No Argument of Perigee No True Anomaly

No Argument of Perigee No True Anomaly

An Equatorial Orbit?
No RAAN No Argument of Perigee
Element u Name Argument of latitude Longitude of perigee True longitude Description Angle from ascending node to the spacecrafts position Angle from the principal direction to perigee Angle from the principal direction to the spacecrafts position

Range of Values 0 u 360 0 360

Undefined Use when there is no perigee (e = 0) Use when equatorial (i = 0 or 180) because there is no ascending node Use when there is no perigee and ascending node (e = 0 and i = 0 or 180)

0 l 360

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SBIRS High Scenario

SSMD-0403-433 [16]

SBIRS High is a Molniya Type Orbit Russian word for Zipper or Lightning Large Dwell Time over Northern Hemisphere Usually a 12-Hour Orbit with High Eccentricity (0.7) and Perigee in Southern Hemisphere Has Inclination of 63.4 (No Rotation of Perigee) Covers High Latitudes and Polar Regions Very Well

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SBIRS Low Coverage Studies

SSMD-0403-433 [17]

SBIRS Low Constellation Showing Threat Object Coverage (Sensor Footprints in Green, Sensor Acquisitions in Yellow) SBIRS Low Constellation As Implemented In TESS
Coverage Almost Complete Utilizing 24 Satellites Orbital Element Set Propagation Within TESS

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SBIRS DSP (GEO)

SSMD-0403-433 [18]

From www.stk.com

Geostationary Orbits (Fixed ECR) Above and Below-the-Horizon Viewing Ability

www.stk.com

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In Summary
SSMD-0403-433 [19]

Excellent References
Expensive: Cheap: Understanding Space An Introduction to Astronautics, Jerry Jon Sellers $66.00 at www.walmart.com Fundamentals of Astrodynamics, Roger R. Bate $9.00 at www.walmart.com Introduction to Space Dynamics, William Tyrrell Thomson $9.00 at www.walmart.com TRW Space Data, Neville J. Barter, editor Free from TRW Space and Electronics Group

Free:

Excellent Web Site

www.heavens-above.com Iridium Flares, ISS, HST, etc.

Excellent Software
Satellite Tool Kit from Analytical Graphics, Inc. (www.stk.com) Price: Free to Over $100,000

Training Available for Basic Orbital Mechanics

www.stk.com
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SSMD-0403-433 [20]

Supplemental Charts

www.stk.com

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Ground-Based Midcourse Defense Architecture (2004)

SSMD-0403-433 [21]

GBIs IFICS BMC3

BMC3

Cobra Dane IFICS

GBIs IFICS UEWR

GBIs IFICS BMC3 GBR-P

AEGIS GBIs IFICS

SBIRS MCS

www.stk.com

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GMD with SBIRS High and DSP

SSMD-0403-433 [22]

From www.stk.com

www.stk.com

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SBIRS Waveband Utilization

SSMD-0403-433 [23]

SBIRS High

SBIRS DSP, High, and Low Utilize Different Sensor Wavebands Different Target Types are Visible in Different Wavelengths Synergy Between Satellites Allow Full Tracking of Threat Objects from Initial Launch Through MidCourse Provides Extended Capability for Strategic and Theater Missile Defense
Visible
V B G Y OR

DSP/GEO
MWIR (3-8 m) SWIR (1-3 m) SWIR (1-3 m)

PBVs

PBV Plumes

Upper Stage Boost Phase

LowAltitude Boost Phase

SBIRS Low
LWIR (8-14 m) MWIR (3-8 m) SWIR (1-3 m) Visible (0.4-0.7 m)
Extreme Infrared

MidCourse Tracking

Near Infrared

Middle Infrared

Far Infrared

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.5

10

15

20

30

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Effects of Earths Oblateness on Orbiting Spacecraft

SSMD-0403-433 [24]

22 km

R v FJ 2

Nodal NodalRegression RegressionRate Rate

22 km

Perigee PerigeeRotation RotationRate Rate

. Equatorial Bulge Causes Slight Shift in Direction Gravity Pulls Spacecraft Modeled by Complex Mathematics Referred to as the J2 Effect Earth is 22 km Bigger (radius) at Equator Causes Nodal Regression Rate (Movement of the RAAN, ) and . a Perigee Rotation Rate ( )
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www.stk.com
Graphs from Understanding Space by Jerry Jon Sellers

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Sun Synchronous Orbits

If Someone Gives You Lemons, Make Lemonade! (Part 1)
SSMD-0403-433 [25]

Despite the Complexities That the J2 Effect Cause, There are Advantages Sun-Synchronous Orbits Take Advantage of the Rate of Change of the RAAN Inclination is Set to Give Approximately a One-Degree Nodal Regression Eastward per day (Note that the Earth Moves 0.9863 Degrees per day in its Orbit Around the Sun (i.e., 360 /365 days) Spacecrafts Orbital Plane Always Maintains Same Orientation to Sun

Earth moves around the Sun at 1 /day

Spacecraft Always Sees Same Sun Angle When It Passes Over a Particular Point on Earth Suns Shadows Cast by Objects on Earths Surface Will Not Change When Pictures are Taken Days or Weeks Apart Good for Remote Sensing, Reconnaissance, Weather, etc.
Orbital plane rotates at ~1 /day due to earths oblateness

Inclination = 97.03

Orbital plane

Sun line

Sun angle

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Molniya Orbits
If Someone Gives You Lemons, Make Lemonade! (Part 2)
SSMD-0403-433 [26]

Another Advantage of the J2 Effect Molniya Russian word for Zipper or Lightning Large Dwell Time over Northern Hemisphere Usually a 12-Hour Orbit with High Eccentricity (0.7) and Perigee in Southern Hemisphere Has Inclination of 63.4 (No Rotation of Perigee) Covers High Latitudes and Polar Regions Very Well

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Geosynchronous Orbit No Perigee Rotation

SSMD-0403-433 [27]

Orbits Every 24 Hours Inclination of 63.4 degrees No Perigee Rotation

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