Body Image 3 (2006) 131144 www.elsevier.

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Psychometrics properties of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ)

Todd G. Morrison a,*, Melanie A. Morrison b
Centre for Research on Life Stress (CROLS), Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland b Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask., Canada S7N 5A5 Received 3 October 2005; received in revised form 29 March 2006; accepted 30 March 2006
a

Abstract The psychometric soundness of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ) was examined using two independent samples of Canadian male post-secondary students (Ns = 250 and 310, respectively). Exploratory and conrmatory factor analyses suggested that the nal 19-item version of the SMAQ is represented by three latent constructs, which we have labeled: intention to become more muscular (eight-items), positive attributes of muscularity (nine-items), and engagement in muscle-building activities (two-items). Alpha coefcients for the intention and positive subscales were very good (i.e., range = .86.92). Correlation coefcients between the two-items comprising the engagement subscale also suggest that they can be combined into a composite measure (rs = .70 [study 1] and .58 [study 2]). Various tests of criterion-related and construct validity were conducted, with results indicating that the SMAQ subscales are valid indicants of the drive for muscularity. # 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Drive for muscularity; Male body image; Factor analysis; Reliability; Validity; Psychometric properties

Psychometric properties of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ) Research suggests that there is an ideal mesomorphic male physique, which includes broad shoulders, six pack abdominal muscles, greater chest muscularity, a slim waist, and dened muscle tone (Kimmel & Mahalik, 2004; Murray, Touyz, & Beumont, 1996). Studies further demonstrate that many men wish to attain this lean, yet muscular body ideal, even though it is far removed from the physique they possess currently (Grogan & Richards, 2002; Morrison, Morrison, & Hopkins, 2003). For
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +353 91 524411; fax: +353 91 521355. E-mail addresses: Todd.Morrison@nuigalway.ie (T.G. Morrison), Melanie.Morrison@usask.ca (M.A. Morrison). 1740-1445/$ see front matter # 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.03.005

example, in a recent Canadian study, Morrison, Morrison, Hopkins, & Rowan (2004b) found that approximately 73% of the male undergraduate students participating in their study evidenced the desire for a more muscular build, as measured by the discrepancy in gures they selected to denote their current versus ideal physique. Similar proportions have been identied in studies using American college students (e.g., 78%: Hatoum & Belle, 2004; 85%: Vartanian, Giant, & Passino, 2001). Given such ndings, it is not surprising that Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, and Cohane (2004) concluded that there appears to be a striking gulf between mens actual and desired muscularity (p. 117). Indeed, results from their research indicated that male participants (154 American undergraduate students) selected an ideal that was approximately 25 lb greater in muscularity and 8 lb lower in body fat than their current physique.

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Mens desire to attain a muscular mesomorphic body is not astonishing given the predominance of this body in cultural artifacts such as toys, advertisements, motion pictures, and music videos (Olivardia et al., 2004; Rohlinger, 2002). As well, the positive characteristics ascribed to men possessing a muscular build (e.g., strong, brave, adventurous, physically healthy, and good-looking) may offer further incentive for some males to pursue this body type (Ryckman, Butler, Thornton, & Lindner, 1997). The muscular mesomorphic ideal is far removed from the corporeal reality of most men. Therefore, attempting to achieve it necessitates engaging in various behaviors such as dieting and exercise (Grogan, 1999). Some mens determination to be muscular also may lead to reliance on more extreme methods such as cosmetic surgery and use of performance-enhancing drugs. For example, Olivardia et al. (2004) found that 27% of the male college students in their study reported using body-building supplements (e.g., creatine) and/or substances such as anabolic steroids for the purposes of building muscle mass and losing fat. In another study with male college students, Hatoum and Belle (2004) observed that 56% of participants lifted weights to build muscle, and 30% reported at least sometimes consuming dietary supplements to enhance muscularity. Surgical procedures such as pectoral implants and liposuction also appear to be increasing among men (Grogan, 1999; Rogers, 1999). The drive for muscularity is an individual difference variable formulated to account for variations in the desire to achieve an idealized, muscular physique (McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Morrison et al., 2003). This construct does not represent a drive in the traditional sense; however, the term is used so that it might be parallel to the drive for thinness, which is a well researched concept in the literature on female body image (e.g., Davis, Karvinen, & McCreary, 2005). The parallelism of these terms is important as both denote individuals motivation to achieve culturally idealized, albeit gender-specic, body types. Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ) Cafri and Thompson (2004) assert that the growing interest in the assessment of muscle appearance attitudes, particularly among men, makes it imperative that researchers attend to the methodological issues related to assessment of this construct (p. 229). This recommendation served as the rationale for the current study, which focuses on testing the psychometric

properties of a measure of the drive for muscularity: the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ; Edwards & Launder, 2000). The SMAQ consists of 20-items (e.g., Being muscular gives me condence) and uses a sevenpoint Likert-type response format (denitely, strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree, and denitely not). In the published article outlining the scales development, Edwards and Launder (2000) conducted two preliminary studies (Ns = 112 and 152). Although the specic details of these studies are not provided, the resultant ndings led to the production of a rened 32-item version, which then was distributed to a third sample (N = 303). An unspecied form of factor analysis with varimax rotation was used to assess the dimensionality of the modied scale. A seven-factor solution was obtained; however, on the grounds of interpretability, only three factors were inspected. The 20-items with the highest factor loading values then were subjected to another factor analysis using varimax rotation. A two-factor solution was obtained, which supported the authors hypothesis that concerns about muscularity reect two underlying constructs (the desirability of muscularity and the positive attributes associated with being muscular). Ten-items loaded on the rst-factor (drive for muscularity [DFM], and 10 loaded on the second-factor (positive attributes of muscularity [PAM]). Results indicated that the DFM and PAM had high levels of scale score reliability (as = .94 and .91, respectively). No additional psychometric testing of the SMAQ or its subscales was conducted. Recently, Tylka, Bergeron, and Schwartz (2005) used the SMAQ to validate a newly created measure entitled the male body attitudes scale (MBAS). Alpha coefcients for scores on the DFM and PAM subscales were excellent (both .92). Further, scores on the DFM and PAM correlated signicantly with total scores on the MBAS as well as total scores on one of that measures three subscales (attitudes toward muscularity). The DFM and PAM also correlated signicantly with the muscularity-oriented body image subscale of the drive for muscularity scale (DMS, McCreary & Sasse, 2000). These ndings suggest that the two subscales of the SMAQ possess criterion-related validity. However, as no formal hypotheses concerning these subscales and variables outside the parameters of muscularity were formulated, the construct validity of the SMAQ is unknown. In addition, Tylka et al. (2005) did not assess the scales dimensionality. Findings obtained by Edwards and Launder (2000) and Tylka et al. (2005) suggest that the SMAQ holds

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promise as a measure of the drive for muscularity. However, as psychometric assessment is an incremental process involving multiple strands of evidence accumulated from different studies, further investigation of this measure is warranted. Study 1 The purposes of this study were two-fold: (1) to assess the measures dimensionality using current guidelines for best practice in exploratory factor analysis as articulated by Costello and Osborne (2005), Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, and Strahan (1999) and Preacher and MacCallum (2003); and (2) to examine the criterion-related and construct validity of the SMAQ. The former type of validity was investigated by examining the association between scores on this measure and another psychometrically sound indicant of the drive for muscularity (the Drive for Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire: Morrison et al., 2003; Morrison et al., 2004b; Morrison & Harriman, 2005). If both scales are assessing the same construct then one would anticipate a strong correlation between scale scores (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). The construct validity of the SMAQ was assessed by testing hypotheses formulated in accordance with previous research on the drive for muscularity. Specically, Mayville, Williamson, White, Netemeyer, and Drab (2002) and Morrison et al. (2003) obtained negative correlations between participants drive for muscularity and their level of physical appearance selfesteem. Several researchers also documented that participants self-reported consumption of protein and supplements to build muscle mass correlated positively with their drive for muscularity (e.g., Hildebrandt, Langenbucher, & Schlundt, 2004; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Morrison et al., 2004b). If these associations between appearance esteem, consumption of protein, and the drive for muscularity are observed in the current study, they would offer additional strands of evidence in favor of the SMAQs construct validity. Method Participants The sample was comprised of 250 men attending a large university in Ont., Canada. Participants mean age was 22.3 years (SD = 4.8), and their stated majors included biology, economics, computer science, and engineering. No additional demographic information was gathered.

Measures Appearance self-esteem scale (ASES; Pliner, Chaiken, & Flett, 1990). The ASES examines individuals satisfaction with their physical appearance (e.g., When I get dressed for the day, I am satised with my appearance). The measure contains six-items and, in the current study, uses a ve-point Likert-type response format (never, rarely, sometimes, often, and very often). Scale scores can range from 6 to 30, and higher scores represent greater levels of appearance self-esteem. Morrison, Kalin, and Morrison (2004a) reported that the measure had acceptable scale score reliability coefcients (as = .75 [males] and .85 [females]). As well, these authors reported that adolescent participants appearance self-esteem correlated negatively with their absolute level of global body satisfaction, as measured by gural stimuli. Using a sample of undergraduate psychology students, Hewitt et al. (2003) found that, as expected, scores on the ASES correlated negatively with two-dimensions of perfectionistic self-presentation: non-display of imperfection (i.e., concerns over being seen by others in a less-than-perfect manner) and perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., the need to promote oneself to others as being perfect). These strands of evidence suggest that the ASES is sufciently sound for the purposes of the current study. Indeed, Hewitt et al. (2003) used this scale to examine the construct validity of a newly developed measure entitled the perfectionistic self-presentation scale. Consumption of muscle-building substances Four-items were used to assess participants consumption of substances to increase muscle mass (e.g., I take supplements such as creatine, yohimbe, etc. for the purpose of building muscle mass). Each-item used a ve-point Likert-type response format (never, rarely, sometimes, often, and very often) with higher scores denoting more frequent consumption (possible scale total is 420). Similar measures have been employed by other researchers investigating engagement in various muscle-building techniques (e.g., Hatoum & Belle, 2004; Morrison et al., 2004b; Smolak, Murnen, & Thompson, 2005). For example, Smolak et al. (2005) used a ve-item instrument which had a scale score reliability coefcient of .75. Scores on this measure of muscle-building also correlated negatively with scores on a measure of body esteem, and positively with scores on measures of depression and the propensity to engage in social comparison. Morrison et al. (2004b) obtained an alpha coefcient of .79 for their three-item measure of protein/supplement consumption, and observed that

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male university students scores on this measure were signicantly associated with their drive for muscularity. These associations suggest that brief indices assessing engagement in muscle-building techniques possess acceptable levels of scale score reliability and are construct valid. Drive for Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (DMAQ; Morrison et al., 2004b). The eight-item DMAQ assesses the desire to achieve a more muscular body (e.g., I think I need to gain a few pounds of bulk [muscle mass]). The scale uses a ve-point Likert-type response format (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree), with total scores ranging from 8 to 40. Higher scores represent a stronger drive for muscularity. A series of studies conducted by Morrison and associates (2003, 2004b, 2005) revealed that the DMAQ has good scale score reliability (i.e., a coefcients ranged from .80 to .84). Further, the measures discriminative validity has been investigated, with results conrming a hypothesized difference between varsity athletes and non-athletes (i.e., the former obtained signicantly higher scores on the DMAQ). Additional tests of construct validity have been conducted with scores on the DMAQ correlating positively with variables such as vanity and engagement in muscle-building behavior (e.g., weight-lifting and protein consumption), and negatively with global body satisfaction, as determined by currentideal discrepancies on gural rating stimuli. In a recent review of the literature on the drive for muscularity, Morrison, Morrison, and McCann (in press) concluded that although there are no gold standards available currently to measure this drive, the DMAQ has considerable evidence attesting to its psychometric soundness. Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ; Edwards & Launder, 2000). Based on the authors initial ndings, this 20-item scale consists of two 10-item subscales. The drive for muscularity (DFM) subscale measures the desire for greater musculature and participation in activities that are designed to achieve this corporeal state (e.g., I would like to spend more time building up my muscles). The positive attributes of muscularity (PAM) subscale measures the extent to which participants agree that being more muscular confers certain benets such as enhanced attractiveness and masculinity (e.g., I feel more of a mature man when I have large muscles). In the current study, a ve-point scale was used (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree). A scoring procedure similar to the one recommended by Edwards and Launder (2000) was adopted (i.e., responses denoting strong agreement and agreement

received scores of 2 and 1, respectively, with neutral responses and those indicating disagreement receiving scores of zero). Thus, total scores on each subscale could range from 0 to 20, with higher scores denoting more of the construct in question. Procedure A convenience sample of participants was recruited whereby male students in various public areas of the university (e.g., cafeteria) were approached, and asked if they would be interested in participating in a brief survey. Ethics regulations were satised by an informed consent sheet which told prospective respondents that their participation in the study was strictly voluntary; that any information they provided would be anonymous and condential; and that they could terminate their involvement and/or omit any items they wished without penalty or consequence. No remuneration was given to those agreeing to participate. Results The dimensionality of the SMAQ was examined using maximum likelihood (ML) parameter estimation with oblique rotation (oblimin, delta set at zero). The suitability of the data for exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was assessed using the KaiserMeyerOlkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartletts test of sphericity. For the former, values closer to 1.0 suggest that the data in question are better suited for EFA, with values less than .50 indicating that factor analysis should not be used. For the latter, a signicant x2 value allows one to reject the hypothesis that the variables being factor analyzed are unrelated to one another (i.e., the correlation matrix for the data is an identity matrix) (SPSS, 12.0.1). As the KMO statistic was .90 and Bartletts test was statistically signicant ( p < .001), EFA was appropriate for these data. Parallel analysis was used for the purpose of factor retention (OConnor, 2000). Stated briey, this technique generates eigenvalues from random data sets that match (or are parallel to) the actual data set in terms of number of participants and number of variables. The ith eigenvalue from the output obtained using the random data then is compared to the ith eigenvalue obtained using the actual data set. Factor retention stops when a given eigenvalue for the random data becomes larger than its corresponding eigenvalue for the real data. Using the SPSS syntax provided by OConnor (2000), 1000 random data sets were generated, each consisting of 250 participants and 20 variables (each

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variable corresponding to one-item on the 20-item SMAQ). The rst three eigenvalues for the random data (1.54, 1.44, and 1.36) were smaller than their real data counterparts (7.63, 2.10, and 1.53, respectively). However, the fourth eigenvalue for the random data (1.30) was larger than the fourth eigenvalue for the real data (1.17) suggesting that three-factors should be retained. This three-factor model then was analyzed for t using ML parameter estimation with oblimin rotation. The factor loadings, eigenvalues (and their proportion of variance accounted for) are provided in Table 1. To gauge the appropriateness of this model, two t statistics were used: root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the relative chi-square (i.e., Q value, see Smith & Hale, 2004). For the RMSEA, values of .05 or less denote good t; .08 or less represent adequate t; and .10 or greater indicate room for improvement in model specication (Finch & West, 1997). For Q, values between 2.0 and 3.0 denote acceptable t (Carmines & McIver, 1981). For the three-factor model, Q was 2.05 and the RMSEA was .065. Both of these values suggest that this

model provides an adequate representation of the drive for muscularity as measured by the SMAQ. Forced oneand two-factor models also were tested. However, the t statistics suggested that neither model offered a better representation of the data than the three-factor model detailed above (i.e., one-factor: Q = 4.34, RMSEA = .12; two-factor: Q = 2.91, RMSEA = .088). Inspection of the pattern coefcients for the threefactor model suggests that the drive for muscularity factor identied by Edwards and Launder (2000) has been partitioned into two-factors: one representing the intention to become more muscular (factor 1, intention), and the other representing engagement in musclebuilding activities (factor 2, engagement). Factor 3 maps onto the positive attributes about muscularity (PAM) that was noted by these authors; specically, all 10-items on the PAM loaded onto the third-factor. Thus, for subsequent analyses, the SMAQ was divided into three subscales: intention to become more muscular (intention, eight-items), engagement in muscle-building activities (engagement, two-items), and positive attributes about muscularity (PAM, 10-items).

Table 1 Factor pattern matrix coefcients for the SMAQ (N = 250) Scale item Intention to become more muscular .121 .739 .133 .508 .050 .602 .097 .011 .053 .827 .194 .185 .014 .901 .473 .247 .195 .540 .842 .025 Engagement in muscle-building activities .004 .038 .129 .300 .144 .049 .017 .867 .079 .080 .195 .688 .022 .045 .151 .078 .034 020 .047 .175 Positive attributes about muscularity .499 .033 .609 .002 .502 .029 .641 .076 .635 .018 .584 .031 .640 .020 .173 .467 .570 .204 .064 .627

I feel that I am less attractive to prospective partners when I have small muscles than when I have larger muscles I would like to be bigger in the future Men with small muscles are less masculine than men with larger muscles I aim to develop further my physique I feel badly about my body when I do not feel very big or muscular I would like to spend more time building up my muscles I think that large muscles are a sign of masculinity I often engage in bodybuilding I feel more masculine when I am more muscular I intend to become more muscular in the future Being larger, stronger-looking, and more muscular makes men more attractive to prospective partners I often engage in activities that build up my muscles I feel less of a man when I have small muscles than when I have large muscles I want to be more muscular than I am now It is important to me that I should be more rather than less muscular Being muscular gives me condence I feel that when I have small muscles I do not look as good as when I have large muscles I would prefer to be more rather than less muscular I would like to be more muscular in the future I feel more of a mature man when I have large muscles

Note: The eigenvalues for factors 1, 2, and 3 are 7.63, 2.10, and 1.53, respectively. The proportions of variance accounted for are, in order: 38.2, 10.5, and 7.7 (cumulative percentage = 56.3). Relevant loadings for each factor are in bold.

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Table 2 Descriptive statistics for all measures in study 1 (N = 250) Scale SMAQ Intention subscale Engagement subscale PAM subscale Consumption of muscle-building substances DMAQ ASES M 6.87 1.41 4.06 7.21 26.28 20.39 SD 3.91 1.26 3.76 4.12 5.61 3.66 Possible minima 0 0 0 4 9 8 Possible maxima 16 4 20 20 38 30 a (95% CI) .90 (.88.92) r = .70 .86 (.83.88) .87 (.84.90) .80 (.76.84) .64 (.57.71)

Note: DMAQ, drive for muscularity attitudes questionnaire; ASES, appearance self-esteem scale.

Reliability analysis Scale score reliability coefcients were calculated for the intention and PAM subscales. As the behavioral measure contains two-items, computing an alpha coefcient was inappropriate; instead, a simple correlation coefcient was used to determine whether the twoitems adhere together. As per the recommendation of Fan and Thompson (2001), condence intervals also were computed for score reliabilities. Alpha coefcients for all measures as well as means, standard deviations, and score minima and maxima are provided in Table 2. Validity assessment The criterion-related validity of the SMAQ subscales was assessed by correlating scores on each measure with scores on the DMAQ. As expected, total scores on the DMAQ were positively associated with intention (r [224] = .77, p < .001), engagement (r [229] = .33, p < .001), and PAM (r [227] = .55, p < .001). The magnitude of these correlations varied considerably. However, we believe these differences may be attributed to the narrow content of the DMAQ which focuses on individuals desire to become more muscular. This scale does not contain any behavioral items, and does not directly measure respondents positive beliefs about musculature in terms of enhanced attractiveness and masculinity. Steigers Z-test (Meng, Rosenthal, & Rubin, 1992) revealed that the difference between these correlations was statistically signicant with the r value for DMAQ/ intention being greater than the r value for either DMAQ/ PAM (Z = 5.32, p < .01) or DMAQ/engagement (Z = 8.20, p < .01). Two hypotheses were tested to examine the construct validity of the SMAQ subscales. Congruent with published research (e.g., Mayville et al., 2002), participants appearance esteem correlated negatively with total scores on intention and PAM (r [225] = .23 and r [226] = .39, respectively, p < .001). No statis-

tically signicant correlation was observed between appearance esteem and the engagement subscale (r = .04). As the alpha coefcient for the ASES was low and its 95% condence interval suggested that values less than .60 were not implausible, all correlations were recalculated correcting for attenuation due to random measurement error (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). The nonsignicant correlation between the ASES and engagement remained so (r = .06) while the magnitude of the other r values increased nominally (e.g., ASES/ intention = .30, and ASES/PAM = .53). The nal test of construct validity involved assessing the correlation between the drive for muscularity and consumption of muscle-building substances. The resultant correlation coefcients were in accord with the hypothesis; specically, positive associations were noted between consumption and scores on the SMAQ subscales: intention (r [228] = .39, p < .001), PAM (r [230] = .38, p < .001), and engagement (r [236] = .50, p < .001). Again, Steigers Z-test (Meng et al., 1992) was used to compare the magnitude of these correlations. Results indicated that the r value for participants consumption of muscle-building substances and their scores on the engagement subscale was signicantly higher than the r value for either consumption/intention (Z = 1.86, p < .05) or consumption/PAM (Z = 1.90, p < .05). As both consumption and engagement measures assess behaviors pertinent to building muscle mass, it is not surprising that they evidenced the strongest correlation. Exploratory analysis Two linear multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess whether the three subscales of ` -vis appearthe SMAQ possess differential utility vis-a ance esteem and consumption of muscle-building substances. If the subscales emerge as predictors for different criterion measures or are associated with said

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measures in varying ways, such results serve to justify the division of the SMAQ into smaller subscales. However, if no differences emerge, then one might question whether there is any practical advantage to the scales tripartite structure. In the rst regression, scores on the ASES served as the criterion measure. The overall regression equation was statistically signicant, F (3, 213) = 12.39, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .14; however, only the PAM subscale emerged as a unique predictor (b = .35, t = 4.53, p < .001). The direction of this beta weight suggests that satisfaction with ones appearance is inversely related to the extent to which one believes that individuals in Western society accrue advantages as a function of being more muscular. In the second regression, scores on the consumption measure were the criterion. Again, the overall regression equation was statistically signicant, F (3, 213) = 12.39, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .30. This time, however, the engagement subscale emerged as the predictor (b = .40, t = 6.41, p < .001). The nature of this association suggests that as participation in bodybuilding increases, so does consumption of protein and other supplements for acquiring muscle mass. Such ndings suggest that the three subscales of the SMAQ possess differential utility as predictor variables and that treating them as a composite measure may result in a loss of information. Discussion The results of this study provide additional strands of evidence in support of the psychometric soundness of the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ). Each of the elements tested (dimensionality, reliability, and validity) will be discussed briey. With respect to examining the SMAQs factor structure, a number of improvements over the analysis conducted by Edwards and Launder (2000) were made. Parallel analysis in conjunction with ML parameter estimation and oblique rotation were used instead of the problematic eigenvalue greater than 1.0 criterion and an unspecied method of factor extraction, which employed varimax rotation. These differences may be responsible for our retention of three-factors in contrast to the two identied by Edwards and Launder. In the current study, items reecting the intention to possess a more muscular body and those delineating active participation in bodybuilding loaded onto different factors. This distinction was supported by exploratory multiple regression analysis (i.e., the engagement subscale emerged as a statistically signicant predictor of consumption of muscle-building substances whereas

the intention subscale did not). The separation of ` -vis mens pursuit of intention and behavior vis-a muscularity makes conceptual sense as it is compatible with major theories in health psychology (e.g., the Theory of Planned Behavior). However, in the absence of conrmatory factor analysis, the SMAQs dimensionality remains speculative. The reliability coefcients for the intention and PAM subscales of the SMAQ were excellent (>.85). The 95% condence intervals calculated for these coefcients provides a lower limit of plausibility; thus, for the intention and PAM subscales, alpha values less than .88 and .83, respectively, are relatively implausible. Inspection of the item-total correlations also reveals that all items on the SMAQ exceed the minimum accepted value of .30 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). An alpha coefcient was not computed for the two-item engagement subscale; however, the correlation between the items was substantial (r = .70) suggesting that they may be combined. The criterion-related and construct validities of the measure also were examined. As hypothesized, scores on the SMAQ subscales correlated signicantly with scores on the DMAQ. Further, the magnitude of these correlations differed as a function of subscale foci. The DMAQ, the content of which is cognitive, correlated most strongly with the intention and PAM subscales, which are similarly beliefs-based. Though statistically signicant, the correlation between the DMAQ and the behavioral subscale (i.e., engagement) was weaker. These ndings in conjunction with those reported by Tylka et al. (2005) suggest that the SMAQ possesses criterion-related validity (i.e., its subscales correlate with other instruments designed to assess the same construct). Two hypotheses generated to test the scales construct validity also were supported. The differential nature of these correlations (i.e., one was positive, the other negative) makes it unlikely that these ndings may be attributed to artifacts such as common method bias. Further, the value of the SMAQs tripartite structure was evident in the differential correlations between scores on the measure of protein/supplement consumption and the intention, engagement, and PAM subscales. As consumption measured behavior rather than intention or beliefs, it is not surprising that it correlated most strongly with engagement, which focuses on participation in weight-lifting. Based on these ndings, it would appear that the SMAQ subscales possess good scale score reliability and acceptable criterion-related and construct validity. However, in recognition of the fact that psychometric

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testing is an incremental and ongoing process, a second study was conducted to evaluate the SMAQs dimensionality and construct validity. Study 2 The purposes of study 2 were to replicate the SMAQs dimensionality using conrmatory factor analysis (CFA) and to further investigate the reliability and construct validity of the intention, engagement, and PAM subscales. The rationales underlying the tests for construct validation are outlined briey. Research suggests that mens tness magazines promote a muscular mesomorphic ideal. For example, in a recent content analysis of two leading mens health publications (Mens Fitness and Mens Health), results indicated that approximately 96% of the models featured were classied as low in body fat. Further, a vast majority of these men (82%) were categorized by independent coders as very muscular. Given such content, it seems likely that men who report reading this category of magazine may evidence a stronger drive for muscularity. Indeed, in a recent study of male university students, Morrison et al. (2003) found that as participants drive for muscularity increased, so did the frequency with which they read mens tness publications. The authors also reported that individuals who indicated never reading any of the tness magazines appearing on a 19-item checklist had a lower drive for muscularity in comparison to those who reported sometimes or often reading at least one of the magazines listed. Using a small sample of male university students, Hatoum and Belle (2004) similarly observed that the number of male-directed magazines (e.g., Details and Esquire) participants reported at least skimming in the past month correlated positively with their drive for muscularity and with various behavioral indicants of muscle-building (e.g., weight-lifting and supplement use). Several recent studies indicate that the tendency for adolescent and college-age males to compare their appearance to the appearance of others correlates positively with their drive for muscularity (Morrison et al., 2003; Tylka et al., 2005) and with their selfreported engagement in muscle-building strategies (Smolak et al., 2005). Further, it has been argued that universalistic targets (i.e., the idealistic bodies presented in mass media such as tness magazines) may have a particularly powerful inuence on mens attitudes toward muscularity as the artice of these targets tends to be obscured by their depiction as realistic and achievable representations of real people (Labre, 2005, p. 188).

On the basis of the aforementioned research, it was hypothesized that participants drive for muscularity would correlate positively with: (a) their exposure to tness magazines; and (b) the frequency with which they engage in universalistic social comparison on the dimension of physical appearance. If these hypotheses receive support, then additional strands of evidence have been accumulated in support of the SMAQs construct validity. Method Participants The sample was comprised of 310 male students attending a comprehensive college in Alta., Canada. Their mean age was 23.2 (SD = 5.65), and they were enrolled in various programs including arts (e.g., psychology), science (e.g., computers) and apprenticeship training (e.g., welding and motor mechanics). No other demographic information was gathered. Measures Magazine checklist (Morrison et al., 2003). This instrument was comprised of a list of 19 tness magazines that target male readers (e.g., American Health and Fitness, Flex, and Mens Fitness). On a three-point scale (never, sometimes, and often), participants were asked to please indicate how frequently you read the following magazines. Total scores could range from 19 (no magazines read) to 57 (all magazines listed were read often). This type of measure has been used by various researchers examining the association between media consumption and the affective, cognitive, and/or behavioral dimensions of body image in men (e.g., Hatoum & Belle, 2004; Morrison et al., 2003) and women (e.g., Tiggemann, 2003; Vaughan & Fouts, 2003). Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ; Edwards & Launder, 2000). Based on the ndings obtained in study 1, the SMAQ appears to contain three subscales: (1) intention to become more muscular (intention, eight-items); (2) engagement in muscle-building activities (engagement, two-items); and (3) positive attributes about muscularity (PAM, 10items). Details concerning the response format and possible range of scores for each subscale are outlined in the previous study. Assessments of the three subscales psychometric properties conducted in study 1 offer preliminary evidence in support of this tripartite division.

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Universalistic social comparison scale (USC; Morrison et al., 2003). This seven-item measure evaluates the extent to which individuals engage in universalistic social comparison when assessing their physical appearance. Four-items (e.g., Photographs of muscular men make me wish that I were more muscular) use a strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree response format whereas the remaining three-items (e.g., I compare my body to the muscular men I see in movies) use a never, rarely, sometimes, often, and very often format. Scores can range from 7 to 35, with higher scores denoting greater engagement in universalistic social comparison. Using a sample of Canadian college students, Morrison et al. (2003) obtained an alpha coefcient of .84, which suggests good scale score reliability. Additionally, as hypothesized, a strong positive association was obtained between participants engagement in universalistic social comparison and their intention to become more muscular. The latter nding provides some evidence attesting to the construct validity of the USC. Procedure Participants were recruited from various locations in the college (e.g., cafeteria) and asked if they would be interested in completing a brief survey on male attitudes regarding body image. Details pertinent to informed consent were relayed to all prospective respondents, none of whom received remuneration for participating in the study. Results A maximum likelihood (ML) conrmatory factor analysis was conducted using AMOS 5.0.1 (SPSS, 2003). Each model assumed that a given item loaded on one-factor only and that each items error of measurement was uncorrelated across items. Inter-correlations among factors were permitted for those models that included more than one-factor. The suitability of a given model was tested using Bentlers comparative t index (CFI), Q, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). In this study, the following cut-off values were used: .95 (CFI; Hu & Bentler, 1999), <2 (Q; Byrne, 1989), and .08 (RMSEA; Finch & West, 1997). Given that one-factor and two-factor models also were tested, the Akaike information criterion (ACI) was used to compare the relative t of these models. Superior model t is denoted by lower AIC values (Pratarelli & Browne, 2002).

Fit statistics revealed that a one-factor model was inadequate (i.e., CFI = .82; Q = 4.54; RMSEA = .11; AIC = 767.81). The original two-factor model proposed by Edwards and Launder (2000) also was tested, with t indices suggesting that this model was not optimal (i.e., CFI = .94; Q = 2.30; RMSEA = .07; AIC = 425.84). The three-factor model identied in study 1 then was examined. This model satised all t requirements (i.e., CFI = .95; Q = 1.92; RMSEA = .06; AIC = 407.18); however, inspection of the modication indices revealed that t would be improved if the item, Men with small muscles are less masculine than men with larger muscles, were permitted to cross-load on all factors. This item was subsequently deleted, and the CFA re-run. The t statistics for this nal model were excellent (i.e., CFI = .96; Q = 1.88; RMSEA = .05; AIC = 361.64). As this model was associated with the lowest AIC value, it may be concluded that, of the models tested, this one provides the best representation of the data. The nal model, including standardized path coefcients, is provided in Fig. 1. Descriptive statistics and, where appropriate, alpha coefcients are provided in Table 3. Dummy coding was used for the magazine checklist, with those who had not read any of the magazines receiving a score of 1, and those who had read one or more of them receiving a score of 2. The numbers of participants in the no-exposure and exposure groups were 140 (47.9%) and 152 (52.1%), respectively. (Eighteen participants were omitted due to missing data.) Independent samples t-tests then were used to compare the two groups scores on the SMAQ subscales. As predicted, individuals who reported that they sometimes or often read at least one of the magazines on the checklist evidenced a stronger intention to become muscular, M = 8.13 (SD = 3.99) versus 5.75 (SD = 3.73), t (289) = 5.23, p < .001, d = .62; reported greater engagement in muscle-building activities, M = 1.58 (SD = 1.22) versus .81 (SD = 1.05), t (288.7) = 5.83, p < .001, d = .68; and were more likely to endorse the (putative) positive attributes about muscularity, M = 4.68 (SD = 4.03) versus 2.99 (SD = 2.84), t (266.5) = 4.14, p < .001, d = .51. To investigate the possible association between the drive for muscularity and level of exposure to tness magazines, correlation coefcients were calculated between the SMAQ subscales and participants total scores on the checklist (M = 21.67, SD = 4.63, range = 1955). Statistically signicant correlations were obtained: magazines/intention, r (291) = .32, p < .001; magazines/engagement, r (292) = .34, p < .001; and

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Fig. 1. Conrmatory factor analysis, Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire. Note: The intercorrelations among the factors and all item coefcients were statistically signicant ( p < .001).

magazines/PAM, r (288) = .30, p < .001. Thus, as participants level of exposure to tness publications increased so did their intention to become more muscular, the strength of their belief that muscularity possesses various positive attributes, and their engagement in muscle-building behavior. Individuals scores on the measure of universalistic social comparison correlated signicantly with

scores on each of the SMAQ subscales: USC/intention (r [295] = .54, p < .001); USC/engagement (r [297] = .29, p < .001); and USC/PAM (r [293] = .68, p < .001). These ndings suggest that believing universalistic targets are a suitable referent point for self-assessments of muscularity and engaging in comparisons with said targets are associated with elevated levels of the drive for muscularity.

T.G. Morrison, M.A. Morrison / Body Image 3 (2006) 131144 Table 3 Descriptive statistics for all measures in study 2 (N = 310) Scale Intention subscale Engagement subscale PAM subscale Magazines (# read) USC M 6.94 1.20 3.82 2.04 18.15 SD 4.05 1.19 3.61 3.09 4.50 Possible minima 0 0 0 0 7 Possible maxima 16 4 18 19 33 a (95% CI)

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.92 (.91.93) r = .58, p < .001 .88 (.86.90) n/a .73 (.68.77)

Note: the engagement subscale contains two-items; thus, a correlation coefcient was computed in lieu of Cronbachs alpha. Scale score reliability of scores on the magazine checklist was not calculated as there was no logically compelling reason to believe that individuals reading Mens Fitness, for example, would be more or less likely to read Flex magazine. Mean scores on the PAM subscale are based on the nal nine-item version established using CFA. USC: Universalistic social comparison scale.

Discussion Findings from study 2 provide additional strands of support for the psychometric soundness of the SMAQ. The three-factor model hypothesized in study 1 was corroborated using conrmatory factor analysis. On the basis of this output, it appears that nine-items represent a latent construct which we have labeled intention to become more muscular; eight-items denote positive attributes about muscularity and two-items reect engagement in muscle-building activities (see Appendix A). Inspection of the modication indices did not recommend that any of these 19-items be associated with more than one latent construct. Therefore, it may be concluded that these items are unambiguous exemplars of their intended factor. The two-factor model proposed by Edwards and Launder (2000), which conates intention to become muscular and participation in muscle-building behavior, did not provide an adequate representation of the data. A one-factor model was even less satisfactory. Scale score reliability coefcients for the intention and PAM subscales of the SMAQ were excellent, with 95% condence intervals suggesting that coefcients less than .91 and .86, respectively, were relatively implausible. Although somewhat lower than in study 1, the correlation between the two-items comprising the engagement subscale was substantial enough to justify combining them. Two additional hypotheses were tested investigating the association between the constituent elements of the drive for muscularity, as measured by the SMAQ, and self-reported exposure to tness magazines and reliance on universalistic social comparison. As expected, individuals who reported reading more publications pertinent to body-building and those who saw the idealistic bodies depicted in mass media as suitable ` -vis their own appearance also points of comparison vis-a evidenced a stronger drive to become more muscular.

General discussion Collectively, the results from the two studies, which used samples of male post-secondary students from different provinces in Canada, provide evidence in support of the SMAQs psychometric robustness. Scale score reliabilities for the primary subscales (intention to become more muscular and positive attributes about muscularity) ranged from good to excellent, with the 95% condence intervals for alpha suggesting that values less than .83 were relatively implausible. Reliability coefcients were not computed for the two-item behavioral subscale. However, as correlations between the two-items were statistically signicant, we felt justied in treating them as a composite measure. Both exploratory and conrmatory factor analyses suggested that dividing the SMAQ into intention to become more muscular, engagement in muscle-building activities, and positive attributes about muscularity was appropriate. Indeed, according to the Akaike information criterion (AIC), this tripartite structure provided the best representation of the data in comparison to the onefactor and two-factor models that were tested. The usefulness of this division is further illustrated by the multiple regression analyses conducted in study 1. The two-item behavioral subscale emerged as a signicant predictor of protein consumption, whereas the intention and PAM subscales did not. In contrast, when physical appearance self-esteem was treated as a criterion measure, only the PAM subscale was a statistically signicant predictor. Differential correlations also were noted between the three subscales and a beliefs-based measure of the drive for muscularity (DMAQ). Steigers Z-test revealed that the strongest correlation was between this measure and the intention subscale, which similarly focuses on the desire to become more muscular. The weakest correlation was between the DMAQ and the engagement subscale, which measures weight-lifting behavior. Given the exploratory nature of

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both analyses, additional research is needed to further examine the associations between the three SMAQ subscales and more comprehensive indices of body image such as the multidimensional body-self relations questionnaire (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002). With one exception, the hypotheses tested in studies 1 and 2 were conrmed. Thus, there are multiple strands of evidence attesting to the construct validity of the SMAQ subscales. Additionally, the criterion-related validity of these subscales was demonstrated by their signicant correlations with another robust indicant of the drive for muscularity (i.e., the DMAQ). With respect to future research, the following streams are recommended. First, as much of the current work on the drive for muscularity is devoid of any theoretical framework, there is a need to examine this individual difference variable within comprehensive models that account for variations in body image and pathogenic weight modication. The biopsychosocial model outlined by Ricciardelli and McCabe (2004) details a number of sociocultural, psychological, and biological factors that could be tested systematically ` -vis their association with the drive for muscularvis-a ity. These include pubertal timing; perceived pressure from peers, family members, and mass media to become more muscular; sports involvement; perfectionism; race/ethnicity; and self-esteem. Other correlates of the drive for muscularity such as self-objectication (Davis et al., 2005), vanity (Morrison et al., 2004b) and endorsement of traditional attitudes about men and masculinity (McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005) also could be incorporated. The systematic testing of various hypotheses generated in accordance with the biopsychosocial model would (potentially) offer additional strands of evidence in support of the SMAQs construct validity. With respect to the second stream of research, Humphreys and Paxton (2004) note that, to date, few researchers have assessed experimentally the impact of exposure to idealized male imagery on mens body satisfaction. To our knowledge, no published research is available examining the impact of mass media on the drive for muscularity. As a result, whether mens motivation to become more muscular is relatively impervious to mass media or varies in accordance with exposure to idealistic representations of the male body is unknown. It also is imperative that experimental studies employ a range of universalistic targets beyond the commonly used models and actors. One obvious target that has been overlooked thus far is athletes. If these individuals serve as a highly salient point of comparison to young men then exposure to this type of

image may have a pronounced inuence on the drive for muscularity. Conducting experimental studies of media exposure with the SMAQ subscales serving as dependent variables would provide incremental evidence of validity. Importantly, this evidence would be obtained using a methodology that is not based on questionnaires. The third stream of research concerns the possible association between the drive for muscularity and clinical disorders such as muscle dysmorphia (MD), which may be dened as a psychiatric condition characterized by a distressing preoccupation with a perceived lack of muscle size and/or denition (Mayville et al., 2002, p. 351). Of course possessing the motivation to increase ones current level of musculature and engaging in various behaviors to achieve this goal are not tantamount to having a clinical disorder. Therefore, we believe that research in this stream will prove useful in clarifying the distinction between pathological and non-pathological manifestations of the drive for muscularity; a distinction that may be muddied at times. For example, Hildebrandt et al.s (2004) 13-item muscle dysmorphic disorder inventory (MDDI) contains item content that is quite similar to several items on the intention subscale of the SMAQ (e.g., I wish I could get bigger versus I would like to be bigger in the future). Clearly items measuring perceived interference with daily activities due to weightlifting or distress associated with being unable to weight-train warrant inclusion in scales designed to assess MD. However, it is less apparent that items reecting the desire or wish to become more muscular are characteristic of dysmorphia. Efforts to address these sorts of empirical questions may result in more complex formulations of the drive for muscularity. There are limitations to the current studies that warrant mention. First, the samples were comprised of university students, almost all of whom were Caucasian. Therefore, at present, it is unknown whether the SMAQ will evidence comparable psychometric soundness when distributed to men of various ethnicities and age groups. Research using more diverse samples is an important avenue for future inquiry. Second, in a small pilot study (N = 9) using the SMAQ, Hatoum and Belle (2004) report that participants revealed unanimous frustration with the repetitive nature of the questions (pp. 399400). None of our participants commented on this issue. However, inspection of scale items reveals that some are almost identical (e.g., I want to be more muscular than I am now and I would like to be more muscular in the future). Researchers may wish to determine the feasibility of eliminating items that they

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or pilot respondents perceive to be repetitious. Our recommendation, however, is that the 19-item version be used in its entirety, as correlations between similar items are helpful in identifying careless responding (i.e., weak correlations among similar items signify poor quality data). Third, all the validation work conducted in these studies involved questionnaires. There is no evidence that common method bias was problematic (i.e., principal components analysis conducted on the data sets for studies 1 and 2 did not result in single component solutions, see Tsikriktsis, Lanzolla, & Frohlich, 2004); however, it is recommended that future assessments of the psychometric properties of the SMAQ subscales involve the experimental stream outlined earlier or other methodologies that are not questionnaire-focused. In conclusion, although published research on male body image is less voluminous than its female counterpart (Olivardia et al., 2004), there is evidence suggesting that many men desire a more muscular body, with a smaller proportion engaging in various behaviors to attain this idealized physique (Morrison et al., 2004b). To better understand mens drive for muscularity, Edwards and Launder (2000) developed the Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ). Although their initial psychometric assessment was promising, a more systematic investigation of the scales reliability, criterion-related and construct validity, and latent structure had not been undertaken. Results from the current series of studies suggest that this scale possesses excellent psychometric properties and, consequently, will prove useful to researchers looking for a brief and easy-to-administer measure of the drive for muscularity. Appendix A Final version of Swansea Muscularity Attitudes Questionnaire (SMAQ)1 Intention to become more muscular 1. I would like to be bigger in the future. 2. I aim to develop further my physique. 3. I would like to spend more time building up my muscles. 4. I intend to become more muscular in the future. 5. I want to be more muscular than I am now.

6. It is important to me that I should be more rather than less muscular. 7. I would prefer to be more rather than less muscular. 8. I would like to be more muscular in the future. Positive attributes about muscularity 1. I feel that I am less attractive to prospective partners when I have small muscles than when I have larger muscles. 2. I feel badly about my body when I do not feel very big or muscular. 3. I think that large muscles are a sign of masculinity. 4. I feel more masculine when I am more muscular. 5. Being larger, stronger-looking, and more muscular makes men more attractive to prospective partners. 6. I feel less of a man when I have small muscles than when I have large muscles. 7. Being muscular gives me condence. 8. I feel that when I have small muscles I do not look as good as when I have large muscles. 9. I feel more of a mature man when I have large muscles. Engagement in muscle-building activities 1. I often engage in body-building. 2. I often engage in activities that build up my muscles. References
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1 These items are grouped for ease of presentation. When distributed to respondents, we recommend that they be presented in a random sequence.

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