CHAPTER

Measuring Tools and Systems

KEY TERMS OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: Perform measurements using any of the tools in this chapter. Have a working understanding of the metric and English systems of measurement. British Imperial (U.S.) system Metric system psi foot-pounds/Newtonmeters plastigage O.D. I.D. LCD

INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the common measuring instruments and systems of measurement used in repairing automobiles. The two systems of measurement that an automotive technician must understand are the British Imperial (U.S.) system and the metric system. The British system, using fractions and decimals, has been the basic measuring system in England, the United States, and Canada until recently. This system is based on inches, feet, and yards. In the 12th century, 1 inch was decreed to be a length equal to three barley corns end to end. One yard was the distance from King Henrys nose to the end of his thumb. The basis for this system is somewhat ridiculous, but we have used it for so many years that it is hard to dismiss. American manufacturers are slowly changing their tooling to the metric system to be competitive in the rest of the world, which uses the metric system. Technicians working on domestic automobiles are seeing more and more metric parts, and will need to own tools of both metric and English sizes.

approximate measurement of 60 cu. in. to the liter, 2 liters are equal to about 120 cubic inches.

Weight Measurement
The metric unit of weight is the gram, which is the weight of the amount of water it takes to fill a cube that is of a meter long on each side. A thumbtack weighs about 1 gram. The kilogram is the most common use of the gram. A kilogram equals about 2.2 pounds. All metric measurement units are related. For instance, 1000 cc of water weighs 1 kilogram.

Pressure Measurement
The metric system equivalent to pounds per square inch (psi) is expressed as kilograms per square centimeter. Both of these measurements are used in measuring atmospheric pressure at sea level: s Atmospheric pressure is one BAR in the metric system (1 kilogram per square centimeter). s Atmospheric pressure in the English system is called one atmosphere (14.7 psi).

METRIC SYSTEM
The international system (S.I.) of measurement is known as the metric system. The basis of the metric system is the meter, which is 39.37" long, slightly longer than a yard.

Temperature Measurement
On the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32 and boils at 212. In the metric system, temperature is measured in degrees centigrade, more often expressed as degrees Celsius. The temperature at which water freezes is zero degrees Celsius (0C). Water boils at 100C.

Metric Engine Size Measurement

The metric measurement of volume is the liter. A liter is the quantity of liquid that will fill a cube of a meter long on each edge. A liter is slightly larger than a quart. NOTE: There are 61.02 cubic inches in one liter. Because 1 liter is equal to 1000 cubic centimeters (cc), a 2000 cc engine is also called a 2-liter engine. Using the
40

Torque Measurement
In a later chapter, torque wrenches are discussed. Torque readings are expressed in foot-pounds in the English system. The metric equivalent is expressed in Newtonmeters.

Measuring Tools and Systems

41

A conversion chart from the English system to the metric system is included in the appendix at the back of the book.

Metric Measuring
The metric system is based on the number 10. It is a very easy system to use, because multiplying and dividing simply involves adding or subtracting zeros. For example: s (0.01) of a meter is a centimeter (cm). s 1000 meters is a kilometer (km). s (0.001) of a meter is a millimeter (mm). Because we know that 0.25 mm equals 0.010", we can make close approximations between the metric and U.S. systems when dealing with part sizes. For instance: s A 0.75 mm oversize piston is 0.030" oversize. s 0.50 mm undersize crankshaft bearings are 0.020" undersize in the inch system. The appendix at the end of most repair manuals contains a metric conversion chart. NOTE: To convert to millimeters when the inch value is known, multiply by 25.4. To convert to inches when the metric value is known, divide by 25.4.

Figure 5.2 Flat and wire types of feeler gauges. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

MEASURING TOOLS
The common steel rule is used to make approximate measurements. Common rulers used by technicians measure both in the metric system and in fractions of 1 inch (Figure 5.1). There are several common types of rulers. A tape measure is handy to have in a toolbox. The pocket-style 6" steel rule is also a popular tool. Rulers may be used with dividers or calipers to transfer measurements. Uses of the ruler are shown in subsequent chapters. (a) 1/8" Fractions of an inch 1/16" Each of these represents 1/100 of a meter

A metric ruler has lines that indicate hundredths and thousandths of a meter (see Figure 5.1b): s The hundredths are called centimeters. s The thousandths are called millimeters. s The numbered marks are centimeters. s Each of the ten small lines between the numbers is 1 millimeter. Thickness gauges are commonly called feeler gauges. They can be either the flat or wire type (Figure 5.2). Feeler gauges are commonly used to measure valve clearance, piston ring side clearance, crankshaft end play, and the gaps of spark plugs, piston rings, and ignition points. When measuring clearance with a feeler gauge, there should be a slight drag when the feeler strip is moved through the area of clearance. If a feeler gauge that is 0.001" thicker will not fit into the gap, the correct measurement has been made. In industry, this is commonly called a go/no-go measurement. Plastigage is a product used to measure oil clearance in bearings and oil pumps. It is a strip of plastic that deforms when crushed. The deformed plastic gives an idea of the amount of clearance present. Its use is covered in detail in Chapter 47.

PRECISION MEASURING TOOLS

The following tools are available in both English and metric types. Measurements in industry are commonly made in thousandths of an inch, or 0.025 mm. This is one of the advantages of the inch system. The metric system measurement of 0.1 mm is four-thousandths of an inch (0.004"), too large for precision measurement. The next closest metric measurement (0.1 mm) would be as large, or 0.0004", too precise for most of the industry.

(b)

1 centimeter

Metric

1 millimeter

Each line represents 1/1000 of a meter

Vernier Caliper
The vernier caliper was developed in the 17th century. A vernier caliper is one that has a movable scale that

Figure 5.1 (a) Common rule measurements. (b) A metric ruler.

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CHAPTER 5

Stationary jaw

Inside jaws

Metric scale Thumb Vernier adjuster scale Beam with main scale

Outside jaws

with another at one time. A magnifying glass is helpful for reading the vernier lines, but in the examples here they are highlighted. Determining the Measurement. Locate the line on the main scale that the zero on the sliding vernier scale is lined up with, or is just beyond. In Figure 5.6, the reading on the main scale is 0.025". If the zero lined up exactly on the third line, then 0.075" would be the measurement (Figure 5.7). If the vernier scale zero did not line up exactly with a line on the main scale,
Main scale 4 5 6

Adjustable jaw

Inch scale

Depth
0.025" 0.100" 1.000"

Figure 5.3 A vernier caliper. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

runs parallel to a fixed scale. The tool shown in Figure 5.3 will measure outside diameter (O.D.), and inside diameter (I.D.) from 0 to 7 inches in thousandths of an inch, or from 1 to 180 millimeters. The inside measurement is somewhat limited by the length of the jaws, so it cannot be used deep in a hole. The vernier caliper shown here can also measure depth. When the cost of a vernier caliper is compared to the cost of an entire set of micrometers, which are covered later in this chapter, the reason for its popularity becomes apparent. A vernier caliper is the most versatile measuring tool. Every technician should own one.

Figure 5.4 Measurements on the main scale are 140 of an inch, or 0.025" (twenty-five thousandths).
24 divisions on main scale 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1

10

15

20

25

Vernier scale

How to Use a Vernier Caliper

The following explanation of the main and vernier scales deals with the inch-standard vernier caliper. The same principles apply to metric verniers, but measurements are made in decimal parts of a millimeter. The main parts of the scale are shown in Figure 5.3. A fineadjustment nut found on some vernier calipers is helpful in getting a proper feel. Main Scale. The main scale of the caliper is divided into inches. Each inch is divided into 10 parts of " (0.1") each (Figure 5.4). It is customary to read precision measurements in thousandths of an inch (0.001"). Therefore, each of these " measurements is expressed as 0.100" (one hundred thousandths). The area between the 0.100" increments is further divided into fourths ( of 0.100"). Each of these lines is equal to 0.025". Vernier Scale. The vernier scale divides each of the 0.025" sections on the main scale into 25 parts, each one being 0.001" (Figure 5.5). Measurements are determined by combining readings on the sliding vernier scale with those on the main scale. There are actually only 24 divisions on the main scale to the 25 on the sliding vernier, and only one line will line up exactly

25 divisions on vernier scale

Figure 5.5 The vernier scale divides each of the main scale measurements into 25 parts.
0 Main scale 3 4 5

5 10 15 20 Movement of 0.025

25

Vernier scale

Figure 5.6 Measuring 0.025" on a vernier scale.

0 Main scale 3 4 5

10

15

20

25

Vernier scale

0.075" 0.075" Main scale 0.000" Vernier scale 0.075" Total

Figure 5.7 A 0.075" reading on the vernier scale.

Measuring Tools and Systems

43

then find the number on the vernier scale that lines up perfectly with any line on the main scale. Only one line on the vernier scale will line up perfectly. In Figure 5.8a, it is the line representing 0.005". The main scale reading is 0.100", so the reading is 0.105". In Figure 5.8b, the main scale reading is 0.275" plus the vernier scale reading of 0.012" for a total of 0.287". (a) Example: 0.100" Main scale 0.005" Vernier 0.105" Overall 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

NOTE: The main scale also shows 4", so the total reading is 4.287". An alternative to a standard vernier caliper is the dial vernier shown in Figure 5.9. It registers the 0.001" part of the measurement on its dial. This type of caliper is very popular, but more expensive. Sometimes a vernier caliper main scale is divided into 50 sections instead of 25. There is a scale for reading inside measurements and a separate scale for reading outside measurements. There is only one division between the 0.100" line and the 0.200" line. Each of these divisions represents 0.050" instead of 0.025". Reading this vernier caliper is otherwise the same as reading the 25-section caliper. Be aware of which type you are reading. An electronic caliper (Figure 5.10) works the same way as an ordinary caliper but its measurement is shown on

10

15

20

25

0.105" Reading (b) Example: 4.000" 0.275" } Main scale 0.012" Vernier 4.287" Overall 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2.222

IN

Outside measurement

5 10 15 0.012" Reading

20

25

Figure 5.8 In examples (a) and (b), select the vernier scale line that lines up exactly with any line on the main scale.

Inside jaws

Inside measurement

Outside jaws

Step measurement

Depth
Figure 5.9 A dial vernier caliper. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

Depth measurement Figure 5.10 An electronic caliper.

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CHAPTER 5

Thimble
0 1 5 0

Figure 5.13 Roll the thimble on your hand for long spindle movements. Figure 5.11 A set of outside micrometers with gauge blocks. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

a liquid crystal display (LCD) to an accuracy of 0.0005. Measurements can be in either inch or metric.

If a micrometer spindle must be moved a long way to adjust it, roll the thimble on your arm or hand (Figure 5.13.

Reading a Micrometer
The micrometer operates on a simple principle (Figure 5.14). The spindle (Figure 5.14a) has 40 threads per inch, so one revolution of the thimble will advance or retract the spindle of an inch (0.025") (Figure 5.14b). The sleeve, or barrel, is laid out in the same fashion as the frame on a vernier caliper. Each line on the barrel represents 0.025", and a new line is uncovered each time the thimble is turned one revolution. Measurement amounts are shown in Figure 5.15. As each line on the thimble passes the zero line on the hub, the mike opens another 0.001". To read

Micrometer
Micrometers are often called mikes for short. Figure 5.11 shows a set of outside micrometers. Each one has a range of only 1 inch. Because of the expense of a complete set of mikes, they are found mostly in machine shops. Micrometers have several advantages over other types of measuring instruments. They are clear and easy to read. They measure consistently and accurately, and they have a built-in adjustment to compensate for wear. A cutaway view of an outside micrometer is illustrated in Figure 5.12. Some micrometers have extra features: s A ratchet, which sees that spindle pressure is always consistent. s The lock nut, which can hold a reading so it cannot be changed accidentally. s The decimal equivalent chart stamped on the frame. s Some micrometers have a digital readout. This feature may also give metric readings. Spindle Lock nut Anvil

Spindle (40 threads per inch) One revolution = 1/40" (0.025") Thimble 25 divisions on thimble

(a)

Barrel or sleeve

Ratchet Thimble Reading in 0.001" (b)

Frame
Figure 5.12 A cutaway view of an outside micrometer. (Courtesy of The L. S. Starrett Co.)

Figure 5.14 Relationships between (a) micrometer spindle pitch (40 threads to the inch); spindle/thimble movement (140", or 0.025", per revolution); and (b) graduations on the thimble of an inch-standard micrometer.

Measuring Tools and Systems

45

.100

.025 (a) (b)

the exact number of thousandths, note the number on the thimble that lines up with the zero line. In Figure 5.16, this amount is 0.008". If you add 0.350 to 0.008, you get 0.358", which is the actual measurement in this reading. NOTE: The measurement reflects the actual size of the part. In Figure 5.17, the reading is 0.358". The reading is obtained by adding the barrel measurement to the thimble measurement. The reading is rounded off to the nearest of an inch (0.001"). The micrometer is held as shown in Figure 5.18. An experienced technician will develop a feel for the micrometer. Compare your readings to those of an experienced person until you are consistent. The readings might be off by as much as 0.001". When you have developed a consistent feel, you can calibrate your micrometers. Calibration is the process of setting a precision measuring device to read at zero. You can set your micrometers to read at zero by using a special gauge block that comes with the micrometer (see Figure 5.11).

.001

(c)
Figure 5.15 Micrometer measurements. (a) Each line on the barrel is 0.025" (one revolution of the thimble). (b) Each number on the barrel is 0.100" (four revolutions of the thimble). (c) Readings on the thimble are 0.001" (125 of a revolution of the thimble). (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

Index line

Index line Reading is taken here

A. 0.300" B. 0.050" C. 0.008" 0.358"

Figure 5.17 To read a micrometer to the nearest 0.001", add A, B, and C together. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

Thimble graduations Barrel graduations

Figure 5.16 Reading a micrometer. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles) Figure 5.18 The proper way to hold a small micrometer.

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CHAPTER 5

Slip back and forth over object

Rock from side to side

Index line

Figure 5.20 Make an approximate reading to four places (0.0003") by estimating the distance between the index line and the reading on the thimble. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

Figure 5.19 Adjust the fit of the micrometer to the part so that it is snug but not tight.

Slide the micrometer over the part and roll it back and forth (Figure 5.19). It should be snug against the part but not feel tight. Use the ratchet until you develop a good touch. Normally, a reading will be rounded off to the nearest of an inch (0.001"). But sometimes an estimate can be made to the nearest ten thousandths (0.0001") (Figure 5.20). This estimate is made by gauging the distance between the index line and the last number passed on the thimble.

Micrometer Vernier Scale

Some micrometers also have a vernier scale for making readings to 0.0001" (called tenths). Most measurements need not be more accurate than 0.001", but in case it

is needed, the vernier scale provides the capability for more accuracy. The vernier scale divides a thousandth of an inch by , into tenths of thousandths of an inch (Figure 5.21). There are 10 graduations on the top of the micrometer barrel that occupy the same space as 9 graduations on the thimble. The difference between the width of one of the 9 spaces on the thimble and one of the 10 spaces on the barrel is of one space. Because each graduation on the thimble represents 0.001", the difference between graduations on the barrel and thimble is 0.0001". If the zero lines up with a line, the reading is accurate to three decimal places (Figure 5.22). If no line on the thimble lines up exactly with the zero line, the vernier scale is used. To read to tenths, simply find the line on the vernier scale that lines up with any number on the thimble, and then add this number to your reading. The example in Figure 5.23 reads 0.3812".

Vernier scale compared to thimble scale

0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2 1

Vernier
0 0

Thimble
4

10 vernier spaces (equal to 9 thimble spaces)

24 23 22 21

9/10 thimble space (equal to 0.0009 )

9 3 21

20 1 2
19 18 17 16

1/10 thimble space (equal to 0.0001 )

Index line

15
14

20

Aligned
Figure 5.21 A micrometer vernier scale.

Measuring Tools and Systems

47

Barrel
0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Thimble
10
9 8 7 6

Vernier scale (ten-thousandths)

4 3 2 1 0

5
4 3 2 1

4 3 2 1

0 0 1 2
24 23 22 21

Thimble scale (one-thousandths)

0
24

Index line

23 22 21 19

20 20

(A) (B)

(C)(D)

(A) 0.200 (B) 0.075 (C) 0.022 (D) 0.000 0.2970 micrometer reading to exact ten-thousandth (Sum of A, B, C, and D)

19

Figure 5.22 A reading of exactly 0.2970". Both zero lines are aligned with the thimble lines.

Metric Micrometer
Except for the graduations on the hub and thimble, metric micrometers look just the same as English mikes. One turn of the thimble turns the spindle 0.5 mm, as opposed to 0.025". The hub is graduated in millimeters and half millimeters (Figure 5.24). The lines below the index line are the half millimeters (0.5 mm). Two revolutions of the thimble equal 1.0 mm on the hub. The thimble usually has 50 divisions. Every fifth line has a number from 0 to 45. Each graduation on the thimble is equal to 0.01 mm ( millimeter).

The metric micrometer is read in the same manner as its English counterpart. Just add the millimeter and half millimeter readings on the barrel to (0.01) millimeters on the thimble.

Sleeve number

Thimble mark
10

10 0

Example
0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 19 18 17 16

20
45

15
14 13 12 11

Sleeve long line

Sleeve mark

40

10 0 1 2 3
9 8 7 6

5 mm

10

0.300 0.075 0.006 0.381 sum of reading to nearest one-thousandth 0.0002 vernier scale reading 0.3812 sum of reading to nearest ten-thousandth
Figure 5.23 The vernier scale indicates 0.0002".

10 0

0.01 mm
45
40

0.5 mm
Figure 5.24 Metric micrometer markings and graduations.

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CHAPTER 5

The vernier scale feature gives the ability to read to two-thousandths of a millimeter (0.002 mm). There are only 5 divisions on this scale, compared to 10 on the English vernier scale. When one of the lines on the vernier scale lines up with any of the lines on the thimble, add that amount to the reading.

Combination Digital Mikes

There are combination micrometers that give both metric and English readings. There are two versions available. One of them gives inch readings in the conventional manner, while the other reads the metric system. LCD readings taken from the digital readout window (Figure 5.25) are accurate to 0.0001 and are convertible between inch and metric.
Figure 5.25 A digital micrometer.

Line of measurement 3" to 4" extension rod

Barrel reading 0.100" Thimble reading 0.017"

Inside Micrometers
An inside micrometer can be used to measure cylinder bores and main and rod bearing bores. The thimble of an inside micrometer does not move as freely on the barrel as the thimble of an outside micrometer. The added friction helps keep the reading from changing. Reading an inside micrometer accurately requires some practice. Inside micrometers have extension rods to make them the proper size. They have handles for use in deep cylinders. Figure 5.26 shows an example of an inside micrometer reading.

Reference point

0.100" 0.017" 3.000" 3.117"

Measured point

Figure 5.26 Taking an inside micrometer measurement. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

Telescoping and Split-Ball Gauges

An inside micrometer cannot work in cylinders smaller than about 2", so telescoping or small-hole gauges are used. These are known as transfer gauges,

because the measurements they make are read with an outside micrometer. The split-ball gauge is used on small holes such as valve guides. Be sure to take your reading at 90 to the split in the ball (Figure 5.27).

Small hole gauge

Outside micrometer

Valve guide Take measurements in three locations

Small hole gauge

Hole gauge method to measure valve guide wear

Figure 5.27 Small-hole gauges. After setting the gauge to size, read the size with an outside micrometer at 90 to the split in the ball. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)

Measuring Tools and Systems

49

Thumbscrew lock
Telescoping gauge

Outside micrometer

Spring loaded contact

(a)

(b)

Figure 5.28 (a) A telescoping gauge in a cylinder bore. (b) The gauge is read with an outside micrometer.

Telescoping gauges can be used with a micrometer to measure cylinders (Figure 5.28), bearing bores, and so on.

Dial Indicators
A dial indicator can measure movements such as end play of crankshafts and valve guide wear. It can be used to measure valve-in-head depth and cylinder and main bearing bores. These processes are covered in subsequent chapters. An indicator (Figure 5.29) is a very sensitive instrument consisting of small gears activated by Line of measurement

spindle movement. It can measure in inches or millimeters. Movement is transmitted through a small gear to an indicating hand on a dial. The dial can be either balanced or continuous (Figure 5.30). Longrange indicators are equipped with revolution counters. Indicators are comparison instruments because an indicator reading must be compared to a known measurement (Figure 5.31). When measuring thrust

Indicating hand

0+ 1 2

Revolution counter Travel distance

Graduated dial face Spindle

Reference point
Figure 5.29 Dial indicator nomenclature. Balanced Continuous clockwise Continuous counterclockwise

10 20 30 40

10 20 30 80 70

90

10 20 30 20 30

10

90 80 70

50

40

60

0 50 0

50

40

40

0 100

50

60

0 100

Figure 5.30 Types of dial indicator faces.

Figure 5.31 A dial indicator is measured for comparison. (Courtesy of General Motors Corporation, Service Technology Group)

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CHAPTER 5

(b)
Figure 5.32 (a) A dial bore gauge is calibrated in a setting fixture. (b) A dial bore gauge measuring a cylinder bore. (Courtesy of Tim Gilles)

(a)

(forward and backward movement), no comparison is necessary. A special indicator and micrometer setting fixture used for measuring cylinder bores is shown in Figure 5.32a. The tool is a comparator gauge. It has a micrometer setting fixture (Figure 5.32b). If the setting fixture is set to read a cylinder bore of 4.375, then when the gauge on the indicator reads 0 it is actually reading 4.375". One type of indicator has a magnetic base. Another type has various attachments for clamping it to the workpiece (Figure 5.33). The most popular and versatile dial indicator among technicians is the visegrip indicator shown in Figure 5.34. It has many uses in the specialty areas of auto repair.
Figure 5.33 Various positions of a universal dial indicator set.

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51

Figure 5.34 A vise-grip indicator in use.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. On precision measuring instruments, how is " expressed with decimals? 2. Name the tool used to calibrate a micrometer. 3. Which scale on the micrometer is used to measure to 0.0001"? 4. When reading a small-hole gauge, how is the micrometer reading taken in relation to the split in the ball, on the split, or 90 to it? 5. Name an instrument that would be used to measure end play of a shaft. 6. What is the extra gauge that long-range dial indicators have? 7. Convert 5 inches to millimeters. 8. Convert 127 millimeters to inches. 9. Approximately how many cubic inches are there in 1 liter? 10. Approximately how many cubic inches equals 2.7 liters?

ASE-STYLE REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Technician A says that 1 liter equals 1000 cubic centimeters. Technician B says the most versatile precision measuring instrument for an automotive technician is the vernier caliper. Who is right? a. Technician A b. Technician B c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B 2. Technician A says that one revolution of the micrometer thimble equals inch. Technician B says that one revolution of the micrometer thimble equals 0.025 inch. Who is right? a. Technician A b. Technician B c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B 3. Technician A says that the English system of measurement is based on the number 10. Technician B says that calipers, dividers, and telescopic gauges are precision measuring instruments. Who is right? a. Technician A b. Technician B c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B 4. Technician A says that a micrometer can be used to measure I.D., O.D., and depth from 0" to 7". Technician B says that a feeler gauge would be used to measure valve lash (clearance). Who is right? a. Technician A b. Technician B c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B 5. Technician A says a gauge block is used to measure valve lash (clearance). Technician B says that the vernier scale on a micrometer measures to 0.001". Who is right? a. Technician A b. Technician B c. Both A and B d. Neither A nor B

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VERNIER CALIPER PRACTICE

Enter the vernier caliper readings below.
1. 2.

3.

3.

5.

4.

7.

8.

MICROMETER PRACTICE
Enter the micrometer readings below.
1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.