Alexandria University Faculty of Engineering Dept.

of Marine Engineering & Naval Architecture

By/ Basem Elsayed TawfekNo: 21 1-what is meant by global pollution? Give examples.

From the beginning of the industrial revolution, pollution has become an increasing concern. With the development technology there has come the threat of acid rain, global warming (the Greenhouse effect), and the deterioration of the protective Ozone layer around the Earth. The destruction of the Ozone layer allows harmful ultra-violet radiation to get through into our atmosphere creating problems such as the increased risk of developing skin cancer. Air pollution has brought a significant increase in respiratory diseases and illnesses, such as asthma and bronchitis. Examples: Mounting air pollution--Uncontrolled garbage--Water scarcity--Global climate change--soil pollution--water pollution

2- Show how interaction between the pollution types & their assessment?
Pollution types are: Air Pollution: Human contamination of Earths atmosphere can take many forms and has existed since humans first began to use fire for agriculture, heating, and cooking. During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, however, air pollution became a major problem. As early as 1661 British author and founding member of the British Royal Society John Evelyn reported of London in his treatise Fumifugium, the weary Traveller, at many Miles distance, sooner smells, than sees the City to which he repairs. This is that pernicious Smoake which fullyes all her Glory, superinducing a sooty Crust or Furr upon all that it lights. Air pollution can also damage the upper atmospheric region known as the stratosphere. Excessive production of chlorine-containing compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (compounds formerly used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and in the manufacture of polystyrene products) has depleted the stratospheric ozone layer, creating a hole above Antarctica that lasts for several weeks each year. As a result, exposure to the Suns harmful rays has damaged aquatic and terrestrial wildlife and threatens human health in high-latitude regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. Water pollution:

The demand for fresh water rises continuously as the worlds population grows. From 1940 to 1990 withdrawals of fresh water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and other sources increased fourfold. Of the water consumed in the United States in 1995, 39 percent was used for irrigation, 39 percent was used for electric power generation, and 12 percent was used for other utilities; industry and mining used 7 percent, and the rest was used for agricultural livestock and commercial purposes. Sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides are the main causes of water pollution. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that about 37 percent of the countrys lakes and estuaries, and 36 percent of its rivers, are too polluted for basic uses such as fishing or swimming during all or part of the year. In developing nations, more than 95 percent of urban sewage is discharged untreated into rivers and bays, creating a major human health hazard. Soil Pollution Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal materials that forms during a long process that may take thousands of years. It is necessary for most plant growth and is essential for all agricultural production. Soil pollution is a buildup of toxic chemical compounds, salts, pathogens (diseasecausing organisms), or radioactive materials that can affect plant and animal life. Unhealthy soil management methods have seriously degraded soil quality, caused soil pollution, and enhanced erosion. Treating the soil with chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides interferes with the natural processes occurring within the soil and destroys useful organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. For instance, strawberry farmers in California fumigate the soil with methyl bromide to destroy organisms that may harm young strawberry plants. This process indiscriminately kills even beneficial microorganisms and leaves the soil sterile and dependent upon fertilizer to support plant growth. This results in heavy fertilizer use and increases polluted runoff into lakes and streams. Solid wastes: Solid wastes are unwanted solid materials such as garbage, paper, plastics and other synthetic materials, metals, and wood. Billions of tons of solid waste are thrown out annually. The United States alone produces about 200 million metric tons of municipal solid waste each year (see Solid Waste Disposal). A typical American generates an average of 2 kg (4 lb)

of solid waste each day. Cities in economically developed countries produce far more solid waste per capita than those in developing countries. Moreover, waste from developed countries typically contains a high percentage of synthetic materials that take longer to decompose than the primarily biodegradable waste materials of developing countries. Areas where wastes are buried, called landfills, are the cheapest and most common disposal method for solid wastes worldwide. But landfills quickly become overfilled and may contaminate air, soil, and water. Incineration, or burning, of waste reduces the volume of solid waste but produces dense ashen wastes (some of which become airborne) that often contain dangerous concentrations of hazardous materials such as heavy metals and toxic compounds. Composting, using natural biological processes to speed the decomposition of organic wastes, is an effective strategy for dealing with organic garbage and produces a material that can be used as a natural fertilizer. Recycling, extracting and reusing certain waste materials, has become an important part of municipal solid waste strategies in developed countries. According to the EPA, more than onefourth of the municipal solid waste produced in the United States is now recycled or composted. Recycling also plays a significant, informal role in solid waste management for many Asian countries, such as India, where organized waste-pickers comb streets and dumps for items such as plastics, which they use or resell. Hazardous Waste Hazardous wastes are solid, liquid, or gas wastes that may be deadly or harmful to people or the environment and tend to be persistent or no degradable in nature. Such wastes include toxic chemicals and flammable or radioactive substances, including industrial wastes from chemical plants or nuclear reactors, agricultural wastes such as pesticides and fertilizers, medical wastes, and household hazardous wastes such as toxic paints and solvents. About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons 70 percent from the chemical industry. The use, storage, transportation, and disposal of these substances pose serious environmental and health risks. Even brief exposure to some of these materials can cause cancer, birth defects, nervous system disorders, and death. Large-scale releases of hazardous materials may cause thousands of deaths and contaminate air, water, and soil for many years. The worlds worst nuclear reactor accident took place near Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986 The accident killed at least 31 people, forced the evacuation and relocation of more than 200,000 more, and sent a plume of radioactive

material into the atmosphere that contaminated areas as far away as Norway and the United Kingdom. 3-Greenhouse shed effect is being now rated to be more over the world caused thermal heating of the environment. Discuss briefly this statement, given an example? Greenhouse gases trap heat energy rising from the earth and prevent it from escaping into outer space. This warms up the earth and the lower atmosphere. The main gases which trap the heat are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorocarbons and water vapor. Nature produces just enough greenhouse gases to keep the lower atmosphere warm. The problem is that since the Industrial Revolution began in the 1800s, we have tripled the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly by burning fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil to make electricity and gas. We create even more when we use electricity, petrol and gas in our homes, factories, cars and other transport, and when we clear and burn native vegetation. The increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has upset the delicate balance of nature, and traps more energy than the atmosphere needs. This is causing the atmosphere to warm up.

4-Kyoto convention for anti heating of the environment?

It is an agreement made: by governments at the UN Climate Change Convention in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 To reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that developed countries send into the atmosphere to 5.2% below their 1990 levels, by the year 2012. The Kyoto Convention was a follow up to the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, where governments decided that the world should reduce greenhouse gas emissions to their 1990 levels by 2000. Because this voluntary approach had not worked, many governments saw the need for a legally binding global agreement to cut greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Convention developed a broad agreement to cut greenhouse gases, which was called the Kyoto Protocol. Since then there have been a number of meetings to finalize the rules for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol on climate change, so that countries can approve the Protocol in their parliaments.

5-Propose and suggest some aspects to reduce the environmental marine impact on environmental due to: (1) Oil spill accident (2) Collision accident (3) Leakiness of ballast water
(1) Oil spill accidents Oil spill facts Spill Prevention and Response One of the major lessons of the Exxon Valdez oil spill was that the spill prevention and response capability in Prince William Sound was fundamentally inadequate. In March 1989, nearly 11 million gallons of oil spread slowly over open water during three days of flat calm seas. Despite the opportunity to skim the oil before it hit the shorelines, almost none was scooped up. A response barge maintained by Alyeska Pipeline Service Company was out of service and unavailable for use. Even if it had responded, there were not enough skimmers and boom available to do an effective job. Since that time, several significant improvements have been made in oil spill prevention and response planning. (2) Collision accidents

Recent estimates are that one-third of all oil pollution of the worlds oceans is caused by activities generally characterized as marine transportation. Tankers understandably are the single largest contributor of such pollution. The pollution damage threat from any vessel to ocean ecosystems and surrounding environments is serious and substantial. Both short term and long term effects of oil pollution have been assessed, resulting in general agreement that oil spills must be reduced from their present level. The world tanker fleet has greatly expanded in recent years principally through a major use of supertankers which now number 623 ships totaling 127 million dwt or over one half of the world tanker tonnage. An equivalent number of supertankers are now under construction throughout the world. Technical Improvements It is necessary to treat the oil pollution problem on a total systems basis in order to make meaningful improvement. Fitting double bottoms or double hulls on tankers offer a significant degree of protection from oil pollution in the event of grounding and/or collision accidents. Inert gas systems can substantially reduce risks of tank explosions and resulting major casualties. Improved maintenance, inspection and survey procedures can help alleviate tanker structural failure problems. A substantial portion of tanker accidents are caused by human error and improvements in the training and licensing of shipboard personnel are greatly needed. Vessel traffic systems and other navigational aids are also in need of continual upgrading and improvement. The International Pollution Convention of 1973 provides some major improvements in the regulation of tanker caused pollution worldwide and deserves U.S. efforts to ratify. The Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972 provides authority to the U.S. Coast Guard for certain regulatory action independent of international treaty, if necessary. The National Transportation Safety Board needs to have more autonomous investigative authority than now exists in the case of marine accidents. 3-For Leakiness of ballast water

Exotic organisms may be carried in ballast water and in the sediments in ballast tanks aboard foreign going ships. If these organisms are discharged into coastal waters in New Zealand they may become established in the local environment. This could displace native species, damage the ecology and affect human health and the economy. New Zealand currently has in place voluntary controls on discharge in New Zealand territorial waters of ballast water loaded in foreign waters. The controls, based on International Maritime Organization recommendations are presently administered by the Ministry of Agriculture Quarantine Service under the Biosecurity Act 1993 and after 01 July 1997, by the Ministry of Fisheries. To minimize the risk of introducing exotic marine organisms into New Zealand via ballast water discharges, masters and officers of ships observing the voluntary controls are asked to take note of the following: When discharging ballast water The best way to prevent exotic organisms from entering through ballast discharges is to avoid discharging ballast in New Zealand waters. If ballast discharges cannot be avoided they should be limited to that required for safety and stability requirements and should follow this given order of preference a. ballast from deep ocean exchange; b. ballast loaded in New Zealand waters; c. ballast loaded in foreign open sea waters; d. Ballast loaded in foreign ports.

6-Investigate the means of keeping marine environment intact from pollution?

As hard as people might try, accidents do occur inevitably. However, there are ways to limit such accidents and spills and avenues to ensure that response is immediate. What's Being Done to Make Shipping Safer? Double hulls or double bottoms are being introduced and, since 1993, is a requirement for all new tankers. Ships' crews must be well trained and experienced. Electronic charting is being introduced. It is a computerbased video display that allows navigators to track the ship's course in relation to hazards, and warns the navigator of potential danger, both visually and audibly. All ships must have radar systems to improve navigation. A technology known as "load-on-top" allows oil and water mixtures from cleaning to separate, resulting in less pollution. Strict fire safety regulations apply on board.

Comparison between a conventional and a double hull.

Vessel Design There are a few common designs for large ships, including double hulls and double bottoms. Each design has its advantages and drawbacks. Although structural improvements to ships make tanker traffic safer, recent advances like double hulls will not eliminate spillage under all circumstances. Oil Storage and Handling As much as 92 percent of all oil spills involving tankers happen at a terminal when oil is being loaded or discharged. Precautions at terminals include monitoring oil flows, regular inspections of hoses and connections, and routine checks of tank levels. Weather conditions are monitored closely. Dikes around storage tanks prevent oil from escaping if an accident does occur. Marine Traffic Control Marine traffic control systems are in place in many major shipping areas. The systems can be as simple as traffic lanes in heavily traveled waters or they can be very sophisticated networks. Governments are introducing control systems for marine operations similar to those we take for granted at airports. But no matter how simple or complex, traffic control greatly minimizes collisions and the risk of ships running aground. Controlling Pollutants by Taxation Taxation can be utilized to encourage or discourage certain activities in addition to raising funds to support government programs. Pollution would be allowed, but it would be taxed at a rate proportional to the environmental insult. This general philosophy is followed at the present time by requiring that polluters pay fines roughly proportional to the amount of pollution. Some economists suggest that a tax on pollution will simply be a license to pollute and therefore encourage pollution rather than discourage it. Other economists, however, indicate that pollution taxes should be based on the severity of the pollution with some sort of graduated tax. A little pollution requires a little tax; a large pollution requires a larger tax. An important aspect of this concept is that the words little and large must be accompanied by monetary values that reflect the true and total cost to society of these pollutants. Taxation economists believe that anyone utilizing the resource should pay for it because it really belongs to everyone, and if environmental quality is degraded then the individual responsible for it should pay for that degradation. International Covenants

There are a few international covenants under which US operates. The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization ( IMCO) has sponsored three conventions resulting in a number of regulations. The first of these was the 1954 Oil Pollution Convention. This convention places limitations on the rate of discharge, the oil content, and the distance from land for oily ballast discharge water from ships. The enforcement of this convention is left up to the flag state, that is, the country where the ship is registered. The second convention was the 1971 amendment to the Oil Pollution Convention, which branched out, in a different direction by addressing vessel design. Unfortunately this part of this amendment has not been ratified by any maritime nations.

7-State briefly marine pollution sources, causes, and effects.

Rubbish dumped in the drain

Toxics Toxic waste is the most harmful form of pollution to marine creatures. Once a form of toxic waste affects an organism, it can be quickly passed along the food chain and might eventually end up as seafood, causing various problems. Toxic wastes arrive from the leakage of landfills, dumps, mines and farms. Sewage and industrial wastes introduce chemical pollutants like DDT and Sevin. Farm chemicals (insecticides and herbicides) along with heavy metals (e.g. mercury and zinc) can have disastrous effect on marine life. Mercury-- touted most dangerous toxic Top priority is usually given to control the pollutant that poses a threat to human health, the most serious being conservative pollutants, especially mercury. Major sources of mercury include rivers, marine outfalls and direct dumping. Natural inputs like the weathering of mercury-bearing rocks, volcanic gases also contribute to mercury in the ocean.

Dissolved mercury in the sea is adsorbed onto particulate matter and also forms stable complexes with organic compounds occurring in the sea. Inorganic mercury can also be can also be easily accumulated by living organisms. A classic example of mercury poisoning happened in Minamata, a small Japanese coastal town dependent on fishing for a livelihood. In 1952, a nearby factory produced vinyl chloride and acetaldehyde, which required mercuric sulphate as a catalyst. Typically 300-1000g of mercury is lost for each ton of acetaldehyde produced, 5% of which is in the form of methyl mercury. Mercuric chloride when used as a catalyst produced 1g of methyl mercury per ton of product. Accumulated contamination was as high as 200p.p.m mercury at the factory outfall. The effects began with the death of a large amount of fish in the early 1950s. This later affected birds, cats, pigs, and humans. Birds lost coordination to fly. Cats were seen running in circles and foaming at the mouth. Local residents called these occurrences "the disease of the dancing cats". Later, the disease was termed "Minamata Disease" when humans began to have symptoms of methyl mercury poisoning.

Mercury poisoning causes fish kills.

Other Toxic Materials Toxic materials are substances derived from industrial, agricultural, household cleaning, gardening and automotive products. They do not always kill wildlife, as mentioned in the introduction, but they can threaten inland and coastal waters. Examples of toxic materials include:

Dioxins Sources of dioxins come from bleaching paper and are used in the process of making herbicides. Dioxins and related compounds degrade slowly and are toxic to marine life. They cause genetic chromosomal aberrations in marine life and are suspected of causing cancer in humans.

PCBs PCBs are used in the making of pre-1970s electrical equipment and hydraulic fluids. Developmental problems in children and reproductive problems in some other animals have been linked to PCBs. Slowly degrading PCBs accumulate as they pass along the ocean food web.

PAHs Sources of PAHs include Oil Spills, road run off, and burning wood and coal. Marine life and a few people have suffered ill effects from PAHs. PAHs cause genetic and chromosomal problems in fish and most marine organisms. Sewage and fertilizers The discharge of sewage can cause public health problems either from contact with polluted waters or from consumption of contaminated fish or shellfish. The discharge of untreated sewage effluents also produces long-term adverse impacts on the ecology of critical coastal ecosystems in localized areas due to the contribution of nutrients and other pollutants. Pollution due to inadequate sewage disposal causes nutrient enrichment around population centers, and high nutrient levels and even eutrophication near treatment facilities and sewage outfalls. Around the world, untreated sewage flows into coastal waters, carrying organic waste and nutrients that can lead to oxygen depletion, as well as disease-causing bacteria and parasites that require closing beaches and shellfish beds (See Figure 4)

The inadequate number of sewage treatment plants in operation, combined with poor operating conditions of available treatment plants, and the disposal practices of discharging mostly untreated wastewater are likely to have an adverse effect on the ocean. Oil

The sites most vulnerable for accidents are areas where tankers and barges move through restricted channels and in the vicinity of ports. In spite of regulations established, tankers and barges do not always use port facilities for the disposal of bilge and tank washing and wastes, and a significant amount of oil, which exceeds that from accidental oil spills (See Figure 5), is discharged into the coastal areas this way.

The impact of oil pollution on the ecology of coastal and marine ecosystems is particularly destructive following massive oil spills caused by maritime accidents. However, gas exchange between the water and the atmosphere is decreased by oil remaining on the surface of the water, with the possible result of oxygen depletion in enclosed bays where surface wave action is minimal. Coral death results from smothering when submerged oil directly adheres to coral surfaces and oil slicks affect sea birds and other marine animals. In addition, tar accumulation (See Figure 6) on beaches reduces tourism potential of coastal areas.

Marine pollution from land-based activities

Mining and Dredging

Mining is not actually a pollutant but it does affect the marine ecosystem and its habitat. Mining can erode beaches, degrade water quality, and spoil coastal habitats. Mining coral to process lime can remove the habitat of local marine species and weakens coastal storm defences. Mined or dredged areas take a very long time to recover. Because of this, strict regulations govern the dredging of the ocean floor Synthetic Organic Chemicals Many different synthetic organic chemicals enter the ocean and become incorporated into organisms. Ingestion of small amounts can cause illness or death. Halogenated hydrocarbons are a class of synthetic hydrocarbon compounds that contain chlorine, bromine, or iodine are used in pesticides, flame retardants, industrial solvents, and cleaning fluids. The level of synthetic organic chemicals in seawater is usually very low, but some organisms can concentrate these toxic substances in their flesh at higher levels in the food chain. That is an example of biological amplification. Marine debris More garbage such as plastic bags, rope, helium balloons, and stray fishing gear, build up in our oceans every year. Synthetic materials stay in the environment for years, killing or injuring ocean species, like right whales and leatherback turtles, which mistake litter for food or get entangled in it. Ghost fishing by lost nets not only kills innocent ocean creatures but also reduces fishers catches.

8-Contingency plans for protection of marine environment have been proposed by different maritime nations to safeguard marine environment from pollution hazardous. Discuss briefly this statement?
Contingency plans are best divided into two distinct parts. The first should be a descriptive policy document outlining the overall strategy of the plan, while the second should form the operational plan concerned with procedures to be followed when a spill occurs. The strategy segment of the plan should define the policy, responsibilities and rationale for the operational plan which is essentially an action checklist with pointers to information sources. A plan should be reasonably complete in itself and should not entail reference to a number of other publications, which

causes delay. A loose-leaf format facilitates regular updating and there should be provision for listing and dating amendments. Strategy

The strategy section should cover eight main areas: Introduction; Risk Assessment; Resources at Risk and Priorities for Protection; Response Strategies; Organization and Management; Equipment, Supplies Services and Manpower; Communications & Control; and Training, Exercises and Updating Procedures. In the introduction, the authority or lead agency responsible for the formulation and implementation of the plan and an explanation of the statutory requirements, if any, should be defined. The geographical coverage of the plan should be outlined and reference made to interfaces with other plans. The expected frequency and size of spills and the types of oil likely to be encountered should be addressed. Historical spill data where available may allow a quantitative assessment. The number of calls made by vessels, particularly tankers, is relevant. A range of possible spill scenarios can be developed from an analysis of oil related activities and the types of oil handled in or transported through the area. The probable movement and fate of slicks should studied and recorded. Details of oil types and prevailing meteorological and oceanographic conditions should be annexed. Amenity areas, ecologically sensitive areas, sea water intakes, fisheries, mariculture, seabirds and marine mammals and other resources likely to be threatened by oil spill should be identified. Since it will not be possible to give equal protection to all sensitive resources, priorities need to be determined. Account should be taken of the practical problems as well as the relative economic and environmental values of each resource and their sensitivity to oil pollution. Seasonal variations e.g. of beaches and breeding areas should be noted. Information on the location and sensitivity of resources and priorities for protection is frequently provided in the form of maps annexed to the contingency plan. Clean-up strategies should be determined in relation to the perceived risk and agreed response priorities. Account should be taken of the limitations

of spill control techniques and the most appropriate equipment chosen for the anticipated weather conditions and oil types. Shoreline clean-up strategies should be prepared for the types of coastline likely to be encountered. Predetermined temporary waste storage sites and disposal routes should be detailed. Maps detailing strategies and restrictions, access points and waste sites should be annexed. The outline of the response organization and the responsibilities of those likely to be involved should be detailed. Central coordination under a single organization which has complete responsibility for handling the operation should be considered in order to minimize confusion. However, procedures for coordination between organizations should be outlined. The size of the response organization will depend on the area covered by the plan, the severity of the threat and the sensitivity of any threatened resources. Relevant government departments, advisors and experts should be annexed. The siting of response equipment and the procedures for mobilization should be determined. An inventory of available equipment should be annexed. Provision for food clothing, shelter, medical facilities and other logistics support should be also detailed. The availability of back-up support should be recorded, both nationally and internationally. In the latter case, provision should be made for customs and immigration procedures as well as financial arrangements. The manpower required to respond to a spill should be estimated. Additional manpower may be required in the case of large spills. Contractors and other sources of manpower should be annexed. The establishment of a fully equipped communications centre should be predetermined to ensure that the correct information is passed to the correct people. The centre should act as a central channel for all information. Where clean-up operations are conducted over extended distances, portable communications centers should be located close to the scene of operations. Supplies of charts, maps, reports, manuals etc. should be provided for. Accurate recording of all actions and maintenance of appropriate documentation related to the use of manpower, equipment and materials as well as expenditure is vital for future reference and the submission of claims for compensation. Training programs should be developed for all levels of response personnel. Exercises should be held at regular intervals to ensure the plan functions correctly and to familiarize all participants with its contents. Detailed equipment should be mobilized and deployed to test its actual availability and performance. An oil spill provides the best opportunity for improving a plan. Events should be reviewed soon after clean-up has been completed and the plan revised on the basis of lessons learnt.