INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT 1.

Background
Transportation Engineering is a field or branch of civil engineering that deals with the application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods. Traffic Engineering phase of transportation engineering that deals with the planning, geometric design, and traffic operations of roads, streets, and highways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with other modes of transportation. Traffic Management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency to improve roadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for both providers and consumers of transportation services. Two types of traffic management: a. Conventional uses traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices to regulate and control traffic b. Advanced relies more on advanced technology through the use of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) It is not uncommon to have a combination of conventional and advanced methods applied to address traffic problems.

Intro to Traffic Engineering and Management

2. Introduction to Traffic Flow Theory

A. Types of Flow 1. 2. uninterrupted vehicles are not required to stop by any cause external to the traffic stream interrupted vehicles are required to stop by cause outside the traffic stream, such as a traffic sign, or signal (usually at an at-grade intersection)

B. Basic Traffic Flow Variables 1. Speed (u) rate of motion (length of road/time), {kph, m/s} 2 principal average speeds: 1) Time mean speed (Spot speed) arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point during a given interval of time common practice among traffic engineers to report the spot speed for a given location If 3 cars are traveling at constant speeds u1, u2, and u3: ut = (u1 + u2 + u3) 2) Space mean speed (Harmonic mean speed) average speed of vehicles occupying a given length of road at an instant of time

Considering again the 3 cars, the average travel time is;

t=

1 D 3 u1

D D +u +u = 2 3

1 N

D ui

The space mean speed is computed as:

us =

D N = t u1i

Relationship of time mean speed and space mean speed:

u s + s2 s2 ut = = us + us us
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Since

u s s2 = 2 , then u s = u t t ut ut t

Thus, if we talk about a relationship between variables along a sketch of road: q = kus , where us = space mean speed or average travel speed 2. Volume (q) number of vehicles passing at a point or section of roadway per lane for a given time period (number of vehicles/time), {vph, pcu/hr, veh/15-min} Flow rate same as volume but less 1-hour period (usually expanded) Time 8:00 8:15 8:15 8:30 *400 vehicles in 15 minutes **1,600 veh/hr If N cars cross a line in time T, the flow is computed as: q=N/T Time Headway time interval between the passages of consecutive vehicles Headway and flow are related as follows: Volume 400* Flow rate 1,600**

q=

1 1 N N = N = = 1 T h hi hi N i =1

Time headway inverse of volume (1/q) Space headway inverse of density (1/k) 3. Density (k) number of vehicles in a given length of roadway or lane at an instant of time (number of vehicles/length of roadway), {veh/km}
Time occupancy, Ot defined as the total time a detector is occupied divided by the total time of observation

Ot =

t
T

x100%

Intro to Traffic Engineering and Management

Ot = (d + l) k [for inductance loop detector] Ot = l k

[for ultrasonic detectors]

Space occupancy, Os total space occupied per unit length L

Os =

l
L

x100%

C. Lane Utilization distribution of the total traffic volume to the individual lanes of multi-lane freeways/highways (US HCM) also referred to as lane distribution, traffic distribution or traffic split normally measured in percentage (%) or ratio of total traffic

pi =

qi 100% Q

Where i = number of lanes, qi = volume along lane i, Q = total traffic volume, pi = usage for lane i
D. Weaving The crossing of two or more traffic streams traveling in the same general direction along a significant length of highway, without the aid of traffic control devices (US HCM) Lane change maneuver employed in weaving Measured in terms of frequency over a defined length (e.g., frequency per 100 meters) E. Level of Service (LOS) Definition:

a qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic stream and their perception by motorists and/or passengers (US HCM) Letter designation that describes a range of operating conditions on a particular type of facility

Measures of Effectiveness (MOE) parameter that describes the effectiveness or quality of service provided to the driver or passenger

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Table 1: LOS for an intersection

LOS A B C D E F Stopped delay per vehicle (sec) 10.0 > 10.0 20.0 > 20.0 35.0 > 35.0 55.0 > 55.0 80.0 > 80.0

Source: U.S. Highway Capacity Manual, 2000.

Table 2: LOS for an arterial (Urban Street Class I)

LOS A B C D E F Average Travel Speed (kph) > 67.2 > 54.4 67.2 > 43.2 54.4 > 33.6 43.2 > 25.6 33.6 25.6

Source: U.S. Highway Capacity Manual, 2000.

Table 3: LOS for a freeway

LOS A B C D E F Max (v/c) 0.28 0.33 0.47 0.55 0.66 0.75 0.79 0.89 1.00 Unstable Max service flow (pcu/hr/lane) 540 720 900 1,200 1,260 1,650 1,500 1,940 1,900 2,200 Highly variable

Source: U.S. Highway Capacity Manual, 2000.

Table 4: LOS for multilane highways. (Freeflow speed = 60 mph)

Max. Density Max. Density (pcpmpl)* (pcpkpl)** A 11 7 B 18 11 C 26 16 D 35 22 E 40 25 * pcpmpl passenger car per mile per lane ** pcpkpl passenger car per kilometer per lane LOS
Source: U.S. Highway Capacity Manual, 2000.

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Figure 1: LOS A

Figure 2: LOS B

Figure 3: LOS C

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Figure 4: LOS D

Figure 5: LOS E

Figure 6: LOS F

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Table 5: LOS for road section evaluation

Level of Service A B C D E F Volume / Capacity Ratio less than 0.20 0.21 - 0.50 0.51 - 0.70 0.71 - 0.85 0.86 - 1.00 greater than 1.0 Description free flow traffic free flow traffic moderate traffic moderate / heavy traffic heavy traffic forced flow, stop and go

Source: DPWH Highway Planning Manual

C D E

k1

k2

k3

k4 k5 F q

Figure 7: LOS and the fundamental traffic parameters q, u and k.

Table 6: LOS for a Walkways and Sidewalks (Platoon-adjusted)

LOS A B C D E F Space (ft2/person) > 530 > 90 530 > 40 90 > 23 40 > 11 23 11 Flow Rate* (person/min/ft) 0.5 > 0.5 3 >36 > 6 11 > 11 18 > 18

*Note: Rates represent average flow rates over a 5- to 6-minute period. Source: U.S. Highway Capacity Manual, 2000.

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3. Highway Capacity
A. Concepts Capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that have a reasonable expectation of passing over a given section of lane or roadway in one direction or in both directions during one hour under prevailing road and traffic conditions. Hourly capacity is influenced by the following factors:

Number of lanes; Carriageway width; Shoulder width; Gradients and their length; Truck and bus percentage of total traffic; Lateral obstructions on both or one side of the roadway; and Roadside friction

The degree of roadside friction impact on road capacity:

None: Light:

Few or no buildings along the roadside; Buildings and/or road intersections along and close to the road, 100-200 meters between these objects, pedestrians and non-motorized traffic observed occasionally; Scattered roadside development, 50-100 meters between buildings and/or road intersections, pedestrians and non-motorized traffic observed frequently; Continuous roadside development with less than 50 meters between buildings and/or road intersections, pedestrians and non-motorized traffic tend to disrupt the motor vehicle traffic and reduce travel speed to below 35 km/hr even at low traffic volume.

Medium: Heavy:

Based on studies undertaken by the Planning Services of the Dept. of Public Works and Highways (1975-1977, 1979), the Philippine road capacities for varying roadway widths and flat terrain can be estimated as follows:
Table 7: Basic hourly capacities according to road type
Road Type Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway Carriageway Width (m) 4.0 4.1 - 5.0 5.1 - 5.5 5.6 - 6.1 6.2 - 6.5 6.6 - 7.3 2 x 7.0 Roadside Friction None or Light None or Light None or Light None or Light None or Light None or Light None or Light Basic Hourly Capacity (in PCU in Both Directions) 600 1,200 1,800 1,900 2,000 2,400 7,200 (Expressway)

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Table 7 (continued)
Urban Street Urban Street Urban Street Urban Street 6.0 6.1 - 6.5 6.6 - 7.3 2 x 7.0 Heavy Heavy Heavy Heavy 1,200 1,600 1,800 6,700

Capacities under Philippine conditions are about 20 % higher than those reported in the U.S. Highway Capacity Manual of 1965. This could be due to the fact that the average passenger car unit on Philippine roads is smaller than its U.S. counterpart and may also be attributed to the behavior of local drivers (e.g., it is very common to drive quite close to the vehicle in front and roads with 2 lanes per direction are effectively used as if there were 3 lanes instead). The basic capacity reported in the U.S. HCM of 1965 is 2000 pcu/hr for both directions of a 2lane, flat, 7.3-meter road without roadway friction. As can be seen from Table 1, the Philippine corresponding capacity is 2400 pcu/hr. For multi-lane highways in flat terrain, such as expressways, the lane capacities (if lane width is at least 3.5 meters) are estimated as follows:
Table 8: Hourly capacities for multi-lane highways No. of lanes per direction Hourly capacity, pcu/lane

2 1,800

3 1,750

4 1,700

B.Passenger Car Equivalent Factors

The capacity is normally expressed in passenger car unit per hour (pcu/hr) and would depend on the so-called passenger car equivalent factors (PCEF) of the different vehicle classes that compose the traffic. These factors express the impact of slow-moving vehicles and heavy vehicles interacting with gradients and length of gradients.
Table 9: PCEF values (DPWH, Highway Planning Manual, 2003 No. 1 2 3-5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Vehicle Type

Motor tricycle Passenger car Passenger and goods utility and small bus Large bus Rigid truck, 2 axles Rigid truck, 3 axles Truck semi-trailer, 3 and 4 axles Truck semi-trailer, 5+ axles Truck trailers, 4 axles Truck trailers, 5+ axles

PCEF 2.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

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C. Level of Service

Following the definitions used by the DPWH Highway Planning Manual (2003) for the evaluation of road sections, the levels of service are as follows:
Table 9: Level of Service (LOS) criteria

Level of Service A B C D E F

Volume / Capacity Ratio less than 0.20 0.21 - 0.50 0.51 - 0.70 0.71 - 0.85 0.86 - 1.00 greater than 1.0

Description free flow traffic free flow traffic moderate traffic moderate / heavy traffic heavy traffic forced flow, stop and go

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4. Intersections
A. At-grade Intersections

Forms of at-grade intersections: a) 3-leg intersection: T- or Y- shaped

b) 4-leg intersection

c) Offset intersection
<50 m <50 m

d) Multi-leg intersections

B. Conflicts at intersections

There are three types of conflicts among the different traffic flows present in a typical intersection: diverging, merging and crossing. Of these three, crossing conflicts are most critical since they may lead to more serious types of accidents. As such, it is desirable to minimize if not eliminate these types of conflicts. Figures 8 and 9 show the typical conflicts at 3- and 4-leg intersections, respectively.

Figure 8: Conflicts at a 3-leg intersection (total: 9 conflicts)

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Figure 9: Conflicts at a 4-leg intersection (total: 32 conflicts) C. Types of Control

1) Uncontrolled Priority rules may vary by country: on a 4-way intersection traffic from the right often has priority; on a 3-way intersection either traffic from the right has priority again, or traffic on the continuing road. For traffic coming from the same or opposite direction, that which goes straight has priority over that which turns off. 2) Yield yield or give way signs provide basis for priority for streets where legal superiority has to be established. This is often used for streets with low traffic volumes. 3) Stop stop signs provide basis for priority for major streets over minor street approaches with stop signs (i.e., two-way stop-controlled intersection). In cases where a fourway stop-control is employed, all approaches have equal priority. Such will work very well for cross streets whose traffic flows are approximately equal. 4) Traffic circles it is another form of unsignalized intersection, vehicles are directed to move around a circular path (in the case of the Philippines, counter-clockwise). Circles include roundabouts, mini-roundabouts, stop-controlled circles, signalcontrolled circles, etc. Examples are shown in Figure 10.
Roundabouts also called rotaries or rotundas, it is a form of traffic circle. The scheme works well when the number of turning vehicles almost equals the number of through vehicles. Effectiveness is dependent on traffic volume and space available for effective weaving and geometric improvements as movement is characterized by merging and diverging of flows. The number of conflicts present for a roundabout provided for a 4-leg intersection is 20, including 4 crossing conflicts.

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(a) Modern Roundabout

(b) Traffic circle

Figure 10: Examples of traffic circles

5) U-turn slots the scheme applied in Metro Manila is an approximation of roundabouts or rotaries. However, it usually favors a particular road (i.e., designated minor road through traffic must negotiate U-turn slots). The number of conflicts is the same as roundabouts and a typical U-turn configuration is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Typical U-turn scheme configuration

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6) Signals control of traffic is done by separation in time, i.e., conflicts at intersections are minimized by giving right-of-way to particular movements. Critical conflicts such as crossing and merging are practically eliminated with only a maximum of 2 diverging movements allowed at any given time given the phasing of traffic flows.

Figure 12: Example of phasing at a 4-leg intersection

7) Grade separation traffic flows are separated in space. These are applied at intersections of major roads or highways, especially in cases where traffic volume is heavy along particular movements. Grade separation typically involves overpasses, underpasses or combinations. A full cloverleaf is an example of grade separation provided for all typical movements at a 4-leg intersection.

(a) EDSA-Ortigas

(b) Balintawak

Figure 13: Examples of grade separation

Major considerations: Minimize conflicts Minimize delay Facilitate pedestrian movement

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D. Channelization

Objectives of channelization: Prohibition of movements Definition of vehicle paths Promotion of safe speeds Separation of conflicts Angles of cross and merge Facilitation of high priority movements Facilitation of traffic control Accommodation of slow and decelerating vehicles Safe refuge for pedestrians

Figure 14: Examples of channelization

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5. Traffic Studies
A. Definitions Traffic Study is the collection and analysis of measurable factual data relating to traffic and its characteristics. Traffic studies are made: to provide a basis for planning and designing traffic facilities to assist traffic operation by determining the need for traffic control devices such as signs, traffic control signals, pavement markings, etc. to evaluate the effect of changes made for traffic by conducting before and after studies B. Standard required data

1. Document no. - code for field sheet; 2. Location - exact place or area of survey; a map is used to show what was being measured and where observers were stationed; 3. Time - year, month, date, day of the week, time of day, duration of the survey; 4. Surveyor - identity of person, post and responsibility; 5. Weather - meteorological conditions during the survey (e.g., clear, cloudy, stormy); 6. Traffic control - traffic control measures in force (e.g., truck ban, odd-even); 7. Method - survey methodology being applied (for reference in accuracy and relevance); 8. Others - factors that may have affected data (e.g., road accidents).
C. Planning and Conduct of Traffic Studies

Planning includes: Selection and instruction of personnel Acquisition of equipment Preparation of appropriate survey/field forms (this will be dependent on the purpose) Development of schedule for data collection deployment of surveyors and equipment employment
Presurveys Conducted to determine limits in the survey Site visit, reconnaissance, ocular inspection test of field forms and observation posts (including identification) Survey Plan Purposes of the Plan: 1. to facilitate execution of survey 2. to identify constraints (e.g., manpower, materials) 3. to tailor method for requirement 4. to compensate for changes in personnel
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5. to determine logistical requirements 6. to program information

Parts of the Plan: I. Name of survey II. Purpose III. Expected output IV. Study area - detailed definition with map of proper scale V. Team organization VI. Equipment VII. Methodology VIII. Schedule (Man-hour requirements, conveyance schedule, fuel schedule, logistics, projected expenses) IX. Analysis - describes how the collected data will be analyzed X. Miscellaneous - any other important elements not stated before Note: The survey report format will be similar to the survey plan format with some additions. This will include name of survey, Purpose, Description of study area, Output (summary of most important findings), Actual method used and analysis of data collection, Summarized data, and Appendices (containing raw data). D. Traffic Data Types

Traffic data tends to fall into four broad categories: 1. Physical inventory 2. Population characteristics 3. Operational parameters 4. Special purpose data
PHYSICAL INVENTORY DATA current details concerning the existing street and highway network

Include information such as : 1) Street and highway links - direction, number of lanes, length, width and so on 2) Control devices - number and location of all signs, signals and markings 3) Parking spaces - number and location of all on-street and off-street parking spaces 4) Roadway conditions - number, location, and severity of all physical defects to pavement or other roadway structures
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS DATA describe various aspects of the population of road users, their vehicles, and the highways on which they travel. Road user characteristics - include data concerning the age and sex of drivers, the amount of driving they do annually, their reaction times, their visual acuity, their accident and violation experience, etc. These are usually acquired from secondary sources or through interview surveys. OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS are measures that quantify the characteristics of traffic streams in motion. These focus on three primary operational parameters (volume, speed, density)
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Frequently conducted parametric studies

1) Volume studies consists of volume counts and are the most basic as volume is the unit used to quantify traffic demand or the amount of traffic Traffic demand - the number of vehicles that desire to traverse a particular section of highway during a specified time period Traffic volume - the number of vehicles currently traversing a highway segment Among the data that we can derive from traffic counts are : a. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) - total yearly volume divided by the number of days in a year. b. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) - total volume during a given time period (bet. 1 to 365 days) divided by the number of days in the time period. c. 30th Highest Annual Hourly Volume (30HV) - the hourly volume corresponding to the 30th place when all hourly volumes for a designated year are arranged from highest to lowest. Special types of volume counts: 1. Duration Counts 2. Midblock Counts 3. Intersection Counts 4. Peak hour count 5. Cordon Counts

Time of study - Peak hour - 12 hour count (7 A.M. - 7 P.M.; 6 A.M. - 6 P.M.) - 16 hour count (7 A.M. - 11 P.M.) - 24 hour count (Midnight to midnight) 2) Speed studies generally focus on the speed of vehicles passing a point under uncongested conditions. These studies provide information on driver desires and their perception of reasonable operating speed. 3) Travel time and delay studies used for: Evaluation of congestion - source, type of delays Before and after studies - evaluation of effectiveness of change Assignment of traffic to networks - comparison of 2 or more routes for travel time Economic studies - data is used for benefit-cost analysis Trend studies - analysis of level of service at different times 4) Headway and spacing studies used to evaluate intersection capacity and performance (departure headway) and for studies of the interaction among different vehicle types in the traffic stream
SPECIAL PURPOSE DATA cannot be collected by direct observation and requires additional data other than inventory, population and parametric data.

Among the studies focusing on special purpose data are: 1) Accident studies - concern the following:
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Identification of locations of unusually high or unacceptable accident experience Acquiring sufficient information to describe each accident Acquiring sufficient information to relate each accident to physical, environmental, and personal conditions involved in it. 2) Parking studies - involve inventories of parking supply and a variety of counting techniques used to estimate demand. It includes gathering of information, such as trip purposes, tolerable walking distances, parking duration, etc. 3) Pedestrian studies - similar to vehicular studies but require special techniques for effective observation. These may require interviews and other methods to obtain trip purpose, origin, destination, etc. 4) Origin-Destination studies - involve the determination of travel patterns and is often used in assessing the benefits of a roadway. It may focus on vehicle trips, passenger or person trips, or commodity flow.
Data required when considering vehicle trips: 1. Origin 5. Trip purpose 2. Destination 6. Time of travel 3. Routes taken 7. Frequency of trip 4. Travel time 8. Trip cost Data required when considering person trips: 1. Origin - original origin, boarding location(s) 2. Destination - alighting point(s), final destination 3. Transfers - location(s), waiting time, # of transfers 4. Travel time - original origin to final destination 5. Trip purpose

6. Time of travel (start) 7. Frequency of trip(s) 8. Modes used - (e.g., walk, tricycle, jeepney, walk) 9. Travel cost - total

Data required when considering commodity flow: 1. Origin 4. Type of goods 2. Destination 5. Volume of commodity 3. Type of vehicle 6. Frequency of trip(s) Survey Techniques

1. 2. 3. 4.

Roadside interview usually 30% to 50% of volume (20% minimum if done with traffic count) Driver postcard leave questionnaire and have it mailed back (not effective in Manila and Cebu) License plate technique get license plate number for vehicles at entry and exit points. Coverage should be established beforehand Lights on - drivers are asked to turn on their lights for a particular route (good for a small area only)

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6. Development of Traffic Management Plan

A. Typical Objectives of a Transport and Traffic Management Plan Study

Assess the existing traffic conditions through compilation of primary and secondary data; Design an efficient traffic circulation plan to ensure smooth, safe, and environmentfriendly vehicular and pedestrian flow; Identify traffic management measures and alternatives appropriate to alleviate congestion; Develop a transportation infrastructure plan for the short, medium and long-term periods; and Recommend policy directions to sustain programs for the short, medium, and longterm plans.

Development of the traffic management plan will involve the compilation of available data including:

Public Transport Terminals Public Transport Routes Road Network Inventory Parking Facilities Accident Incidence Environmental Characteristics

B. Typical traffic and transport surveys

Classified Traffic Volume Survey Pedestrian Volume Survey Parking Survey Travel Time and Delay Survey Transportation Facilities Survey Road Network Inventory Public Transport Terminal Survey

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7. References
Department of Public Works and Highways (2004) Road Safety Design Manual. Gerlough, D.L. and Huber, M.J. (1975) Traffic Flow Theory: A Monograph, Transportation Research Board Special Report 165, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. McShane, W.R. and Roess, R.P. (1990) Traffic Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Sigua, R.G. (2008) Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City.

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