Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Center of gravity – is a point about which nose heavy and tail heavy
moment are exactly equal in magnitude.
1
Residual fuel and oil are fluids that will not be normally drain out
because they are trapped in fuel , oil line or tanks. they must be
included in aircraft empty weight.
Useful load- is determined by subtracting empty weight from max.
allowable gross weight. It consists of max. oil,fuel
,passenger,baggage,pilot,co-pilot and other crew
member.Determinig the distribution of this weight is called Weight
check.
2
Fuels and Fuel System
Jet fuels are composed of hydro carbons with a little more carbon
and usually a higher sulphur content then gasoline. Inhibitors may
be added to reduce corrosion and oxidation. Anti icing additives also
blended to prevent fuel icing.
Two type of jet fuel- 1)Kerosene grade turbine fuel, named JET A
2)A blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions designated JET B. There
is third type JET A-1, which is made for operation at extremely low
temperatures.
Jet A was developed as heavy kerosene having higher flash point and
lower frezzing point than most of kerosene. It has very low vapor
pressure. It contains more heat nergy per gallon then does Jet B
Jet B is similer to Jet A. It is a blend of kerosene and gasoline.these
fuels are not interchangeable.
A high volatile fuel is required for starting in cold weather and to
make arieal restart easier. Low volatile is desired to reduce the
possibility of vapor lock and to reduce fuel losses by evaporation.
Jet fuels range in color from colorless liquid to straw colored (amber)
liquid, depending on age or the crude petroleum sources.
Fuel contamination- The higher the viscosity of fuel the greater is its
ability to hold contaminants. The contaminants are-Water, Rust or
Scale & Dirt.
3
Foreign particles- most common types are rust, sand, aluminium or
magnesium products, brass shavings and rubber. Rust is found in
two forms 1) Red rust, which is non magnetic 2) Black rust, which is
magnetic
Mettalaurgy
AGE HARDENING
The term as applied to soft or low carbon steels, relates to slow,
gradual changes that take place in properties of steels after the final
treatment. These changes, which bring about a condition of increased
hardness, elastic limit, and tensile strength with a consequent loss in
ductility, occur during the period in which the steel is at normal
temperatures.
AGING
Spontaneous change in the physical properties of
some metals, which occurs on standing, at
atmospheric temperatures after final cold working
or after a final heat treatment. Frequently
synonymous with the term " Age-Hardening
ALCLAD
The common name for a type of clad wrought
aluminum products, such as sheet and wire, with
coatings of high-purity aluminum or an aluminum
alloy different from the core alloy in composition.
The coatings are anodic to the core so they
protect exposed areas on the core electrolytic ally
during exposure to corrosive environments
ALLOY STEEL
Steel containing substantial quantities of
elements other than carbon and the commonly-
accepted limited amounts of manganese, sulfur,
silicon, and phosphorous. Addition of such
alloying elements is usually for the purpose of
increased hardness, strength or chemical
resistance. The metals most commonly used for
forming alloy steels are: nickel, chromium, silicon,
manganese, tungsten, molybdenum and
vanadium. "Low Alloy" steels are usually
considered to be those containing a total of less
than 5% of such added constituents.
AGING
4
ANNEALING
A heating and cooling operation implying usually
a relatively slow cooling. Annealing is a
comprehensive term. The process of such a heat
treatment may be: to remove stresses; to induce
softness; to alter ductility; toughness; electrical
magnetic, or other physical properties; to refine
the crystalline structure; to remove gases; to
produce a definite micro-structure. In annealing,
the temperature of the operation and the rate of
cooling depend upon the material being heat
treated and the purpose of the treatment.
ANODIZING (Aluminum Anodic Oxide Coating)
A process of coating aluminum by anodic
treatment resulting in a thin film of aluminum
oxide of extreme hardness. A Wide variety of dye
colored coatings are possible by impregnation in
process
ARTIFICIAL AGING
An aging treatment above room temperature.
(See Precipitation Heat Treatment and compare
with natural aging
Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond
well to heat treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of
any other material. Steels are heat treated for one of the following
reasons:
5
1. Softening
2. Hardening
3. Material Modification
Full Annealing
It is held at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material to
transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the case may be.
It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 ºC/hr (36 ºF/hr) in a
furnace to about 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Ferrite-Cementite range. At
this point, it can be cooled in room temperature air with natural
convection.
6
The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite
(depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid). The steel becomes
soft and ductile.
Top of Page
Normalizing
7
cooling.
8
tempers are an indication of the degree of cold work performed.
The heating for tempering is best done by immersing the parts in oil,
for tempering upto 350 ºC (662 ºF) and then heating the oil with the
parts to the appropriate temperature. Heating in a bath also ensures
that the entire part has the same temperature and will undergo the
same tempering. For temperatures above 350 ºC (662 ºF) it is best
to use a bath of nitrate salts. The salt baths can be heated upto
625 ºC (1157 ºF). Regardless of the bath, gradual heating is
important to avoid cracking the steel. After reaching the desired
temperature, the parts are held at that temperature for about 2
hours, then removed from the bath and cooled in still air.
Austempering
9
reaches this temperature. As the part is held longer at this
temperature, the Austenite transforms into Bainite. Bainite is tough
enough so that further tempering is not necessary, and the tendency to
crack is severely reduced.
Top of Page
Martempering
10
that is formed through rapid quenching. The biggest advantage of
Austempering over rapid quenching is that there is less distortion
and tendency to crack.
Hardness is a function of the Carbon content of the steel. Hardening
of a steel requires a change in structure from the body-centered
cubic structure found at room temperature to the face-centered cubic
structure found in the Austenitic region. The steel is heated to
Autenitic region. When suddenly quenched, the Martensite is formed.
This is a very strong and brittle structure. When slowly quenched it
would form Austenite and Pearlite which is a partly hard and partly
soft structure. When the cooling rate is extremely slow then it would
be mostly Pearlite which is extremely soft
Hardenability, which is a measure of the depth of full hardness
achieved, is related to the type and amount of alloying elements.
Different alloys, which have the same amount of Carbon content, will
achieve the same amount of maximum hardness; however, the depth
of full hardness will vary with the different alloys. The reason to alloy
steels is not to increase their strength, but increase their
hardenability — the ease with which full hardness can be achieved
throughout the material.
Such alloying also helps in reducing the need for a rapid quench
cooling — thereby eliminate distortions and potential cracking. In
addition, thick sections can be hardened fully.
Quench Media
Quenching is the act of rapidly cooling the hot steel to harden the
steel.
11
can sometimes cause distortion or cracking.
Salt Water: Salt water is a more rapid quench medium than plain
water because the bubbles are broken easily and allow for rapid
cooling of the part. However, salt water is even more corrosive than
plain water, and hence must be rinsed off immediately.
Brine
A faster quench than water is brine. In some steels that have a low
hardenability it may be necessary to go to a brine quench. Brine
solution is made by adding salt, sodium chloride, to water. The effect
of brine on the quench is to make the water more efficient by
precipitating on the steel and then blowing off very rapidly creating
rapid agitation and disrupting the vapor jacket.
Oil: Oil is used when a slower cooling rate is desired. Since oil has a
very high boiling point, the transition from start of Martensite
formation to the finish is slow and this reduces the likelihood of
cracking. Oil quenching results in fumes, spills, and sometimes a fire
hazard.
Transformations on Cooling
12
least an hour. What occurs is that the carbides will begin to
aglomulate or pool into larger more evenly spaced particles in a
ferrite matrix. It makes handfinishing much easier.
Quenchants
13
distorting the crystal lattice and creating resistance to dislocation
motion. The number of precipitates increases with increasing time
thus increasing the strength of the alloy. However, with excessive
time the precipitates become large and incoherent and their
strengthening effect decreases. Thus, during precipitation hardening
there are four main stages:
Steel Alloys
Carbon Steels
Chromium-Molybdenum Steels
14
manganese from 0.60 to 1.65 weight percent. Increasing the carbon
content to approximately 0.5 weight percent with an accompanying
increase in manganese allows medium-carbon steels to be used in
the quenched and tempered condition.
While the plain carbon type of steel remains the principal product of
the steel mills, so-called alloy or special steels are being turned out
in ever increasing tonnage. Let us now consider those alloyed steels
and their uses in aircraft.
15
and strength than may be obtained in plain carbon steel. It is used
for such articles as the balls and rollers of antifriction bearings.
16
Carbon has a major effect on steel properties. Carbon is the primary
hardening element in steel. Hardness and tensile strength increases
as carbon content increases up to about 0.85% C as shown in the
figure above. Ductility and weldability decrease with increasing
carbon.
17
Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel does not form carbides in
steel. It remains in solution in ferrite, strengthening and
toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel increases the hardenability and
impact strength of steels.
Nickel 2xxx
Nickel- 3xxx
chromium
18
Molybdenum
4xxx
Chromium
5xxx
Chromium-
vanadium 6xxx
Tungsten 7xxx
Silicon- 9xxx
manganese
Among the common materials used are ferrous metals. The term
ferrous applies to the group of metals having iron as their principal
constituent.
Identification
Stainless Steels
19
attain their stainless characteristics because of the formation of an
invisible and adherent chromium-rich oxide surface film. This oxide
establishes on the surface and heals itself in the presence of oxygen.
Some other alloying elements added to enhance specific
characteristics include nickel, molybdenum, copper, titanium,
aluminum, silicon, niobium, and nitrogen. Carbon is usually present
in amounts ranging from less than 0.03% to over 1.0% in certain
martensitic grades. Corrosion resistance and mechanical properties
are commonly the principal factors in selecting a grade of stainless
steel for a given application.
Aluminum Alloys
20
be approximately doubled. By alloying with other metals, together
with the use of heat-treating processes, the tensile strength may be
raised to as high as 96,000 psi, or to well within the strength range
of structural steel.
The first digit of the designation indicates the major alloying element
or alloy group, as shown in table 1-2. The lxxx indicates aluminum of
99.00 percent or greater; 2xxx indicates an aluminum alloy in which
copper is the major alloying element; 3xxx indicates an aluminum
alloy with manganese as the major alloying element; etc. Although
most aluminum alloys contain several alloying elements, only one
group (6xxx) designates more than one alloying element.
21
percentage. Thus, alloy 1030 indicates 99.30 percent aluminum
without special control on impurities. Alloys 1130, 1230, 1330, etc.,
indicate the same aluminum purity with special control on one or
more impurities. Likewise, 1075, 1175, 1275, etc., indicate 99.75
percent aluminum.
3xxx Series. These alloys generally are non-heat treatable but have
about 20% more strength than 1xxx series alloys. Because only a
limited percentage of manganese (up to about 1.5%) can be
22
effectively added to aluminum, manganese is used as major element
in only a few alloys.
6xxx Series. Alloys in the 6xxx series contain silicon and magnesium
approximately in the proportions required for formation of
magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), thus making them heat treatable.
Although not as strong as most 2xxx and 7xxx alloys, 6xxx series
alloys have good formability, weldability, machinability, and
relatively good corrosion resistance, with medium strength. Alloys in
this heat-treatable group may be formed in the T4 temper (solution
heat treated but not precipitation heat treated) and strengthened
after forming to full T6 properties by precipitation heat treatment.
The temper designation follows the alloy designation and shows the
actual condition of the metal. It is always separated from the alloy
designation by a dash.
23
The letter O indicates dead soft, or annealed, condition.
The letter T indicates fully heat treated. Digits are added to the T to
indicate certain variations in treatment.
T8- Soluton heat treated, cold worked and then artificially aged
T9- Soluton heat treated, artificially aged, and then cold worked
Alloys 6061, 6062, and 6063 are sometimes used for oxygen and
hydraulic lines and in some applications as extrusions and sheet
metal.
24
Alloy 2017 is used for rivets, stressed-skin covering, and other
structural members. Alloy 2024 is used for airfoil covering and
fittings. It may be used wherever 2017 is specified, since it is
stronger.
Alloy 2014 is used for extruded shapes and forgings. This alloy is
similar to 2017 and 2024 in that it contains a high percentage of
copper. It is used where more strength is required than that
obtainable from 2017 or 2024.
Alloy 3003 is similar to 1100 and is generally used for the same
purposes. It contains a small percentage of manganese and is
stronger and harder than 1100, but retains enough work ability that
it is usually preferred over 1100 in most applications.
Alloy 5052 is used for fuel lines, hydraulic lines, fuel tanks, and wing
tips. Substantially higher strength without too much sacrifice of
workability can be obtained in 5052. It is preferred over 1100 and
3003 in many applications.
Alclad is the name given to standard aluminum alloys that have been
coated on both sides with a thin layer of pure aluminum. Alclad has
very good corrosion-resisting qualities and is used exclusively for
exterior surfaces of aircraft. Alclad sheets are available in all tempers
of 2014, 2017, 7075, and 7178.
25
The casting alloys are identified by a letter preceding the alloy
number. This is exactly opposite from the case of wrought alloys, in
which the letters follow the number. When a letter precedes a
number, it indicates a slight variation in the composition of the
original alloy. This variation in composition is made simply to impart
some desirable quality. In casting alloy 214, for example, the
addition of zinc, to increase its pouring qualities, is designated by the
letter A in front of the number, thus creating the designation A214.
When castings have been treated, the heat treatment and the
composition of the casting are indicated by the letter T and an
alloying number. An example of this is the sand casting alloy 355,
which has several different compositions and tempers and is
designated by 355-T6, 355-T51, and A355-T51.
Copper Alloys
Copper alloys are commonly used for their electrical and thermal
conductivities, corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication, surface
appearance, strength and fatigue resistance. Copper alloys can be
readily soldered and brazed, and a number of copper alloys can be
welded by arc, and resistance methods. Color of copper alloys is a
significant reason for using them for decorative purposes. For
decorative parts, conventional copper alloys having specific colors
are readily available
• Corrosion resistance
• Electrical conductivity
• Thermal conductivity
• Color and surface appearance
26
Dealloying is another form of corrosion that affects zinc containing
copper alloys. During dezincification of brass, selective removal of
zinc results in gradual replacement of sound brass by weak, porous
copper. Unless stopped the metal is weakened and liquids or gases
may be capable of leaking through the porous structure.
Monel
K-Monel
Titanium Alloys
27
oxide protective layer. This makes titanium useful in surgical
implants and some chemical plant equipment applications.
• Uniform corrosion
• Pitting corrosion
• Intergranular corrosion
• Crevice corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion
• Stress corrosion cracking
Uniform Corrosion
• Coatings
• Inhibitors
• Cathodic protection
• Proper materials selection
Pitting Corrosion
28
Pitting is a localized form of corrosive attack. Pitting corrosion is
typified by the formation of holes or pits on the metal surface.
Pitting can cause failure due to perforation while the total corrosion,
as measured by weight loss, might be rather minimal. The rate of
penetration may be 10 to 100 times that by general corrosion.
Pits may be rather small and difficult to detect. In some cases pits
may be masked due to general corrosion. Pitting may take some
time to initiate and develop to an easily viewable size.
Crevice Corrosion
• Flanges
• Deposits
• Washers
• Rolled tube ends
• Threaded joints
• O-rings
• Gaskets
• Lap joints
• Sediment
Some methods for reducing the effects of crevice corrosion are listed
below:
29
PROPERTIES OF METALS
Hardness
Brittleness
Malleability
Ductility
Elasticity
30
applied load was removed. Each metal has a point known as the
elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be loaded without causing
permanent distortion. When metal is loaded beyond its elastic limit
and permanent distortion does result, it is referred to as strained. In
aircraft construction, members and parts are so designed that the
maximum loads to which they are subjected will never stress them
beyond their elastic limit.
Toughness
Density
Fusibility
Conductivity
31
Contraction and expansion are reactions produced in metals as the
result of heating or cooling. A high degree of heat applied to a metal
will cause it to expand or become larger. Cooling hot metal will
shrink or contract it. Contraction and expansion affect the design of
welding jigs, castings, and tolerances necessary for hot-rolled
material
There are three basic methods of metal working. They are hot-
working, cold-working, and extruding. The process chosen for a
particular application depends upon the metal involved and the part
required, although in some instances you might employ both hot-
and cold-working methods in making a single part.
Hot-Working
Almost all steel is hot-worked from the ingot into some form from
which it is either hot- or cold-worked to the finished shape. When an
ingot is stripped from its mold, its surface is solid, but the interior is
still molten. The ingot is then placed in a soaking pit, which retards
loss of heat, and the molten interior gradually solidifies. After
soaking, the temperature is equalized throughout the ingot, which is
then reduced to intermediate size by rolling, making it more readily
handled.
The rolled shape is called a bloom when its sectional dimensions are
6 x 6 inches or larger and approximately square. The section is called
a billet when it is approximately square and less than 6 x 6 inches.
Rectangular sections that have width greater than twice the
thickness are called "slabs." The slab is the intermediate shape from
which sheets are rolled.
32
discussed later in this chapter, hot-rolled materials are frequently
finished by cold-rolling or drawing to obtain accurate finish
dimensions and a bright, smooth surface.
Pressing is used when the parts to be forged are large and heavy,
and this process also replaces hammering where high-grade steel is
required. Since a press is slow acting, its force is uniformly
transmitted to the center of the section, thus affecting the interior
grain structure as well as the exterior to give the best possible
structure throughout.
Cold-Working
33
While there are several cold-working processes, the two with which
you are principally concerned are cold-rolling and cold-drawing.
These processes give the metals desirable qualities that cannot be
obtained by hot-working.
The size of the rod used for drawing depends upon the diameter
wanted in the finished wire. To reduce the rod to the desired wire
size, it is drawn cold through a die. One end of the rod is filed or
hammered to a point and slipped through the die opening, where it is
gripped by the jaws of the draw, then pulled through the die. This
series of operations is done by a mechanism known as the
drawbench, as shown in figure 1-23.
Extruding
34
The principal advantage of the extrusion process is in its flexibility.
Aluminum, because of its workability and other favorable properties,
can be economically extruded to more intricate shapes and larger
sizes than is practicable with many other metals. Extruded shapes
are produced in very simple as well as extremely complex sections.
ALLOYING OF METALS
35
Wrought iron produces long shafts that are a duIl red color as they
leave the stone, and they end up a white color. Cast iron sparks are
red as they leave the stone, but turn to a straw color. Low-carbon
steels give off long, straight shafts that have a few white sprigs. As
the carbon content of the steel increases, the number of sprigs along
each shaft increases, and the stream becomes whiter in color. Nickel
steel causes the spark stream to contain small white blocks of light
within the main burst
.HARDNESS TESTING
BRINELL TESTER
36
through he microscope. After measuring the diameter of the
impression, the measurement is converted into the Brinell hardness
number on the conversion table furnished with the tester
ROCKWELL TESTER
For hardened steels, the diamond penetrator is used, the major load
is 150 kilograms, and the hardness is read on the C scale. When this
reading is recorded, the letter C must precede the number indicated
by the pointer. The C-scale setup is used for testing metals ranging in
hardness from C-20 to the hardest steel (usually about C-70). If the
metal is softer than C-20, the B-scale setup is used. With this setup,
the 1/16-inch ball is used as a penetrator, the major load is 100
kilograms, and the hardness is read on the B scale. numbers in the
outer circle are black, and the inner numbers are red.
The Rockwell tester is equipped with a weight pan, and two weights
are supplied with the machine. One weight is marked in red. The
other weight is marked in black. With no weight in the weight pan,
the machine applies a major load of 60 kilograms. If the scale setup
calls for a 100-kilogram load, the red weight is placed in the pan. For
a 150-kilogram load, the black weight is added to the red weight. The
black weight is always used in conjunction with the red weight; it is
never used alone. Practically all testing is done with either the B-
scale setup or the C-scale setup. For these scales, the colors may be
used as a guide in selecting the weight (or weights) and in reading
the dial. For the B-scale test, use the red weight and read the red
numbers. For a C-scale test, add the black weight to the red weight
and read the black numbers.
37
hard materials. If the metal tests below C-22, then change to the
steel ball.
Use the steel ball for all soft materials-those testing less than B-100.
Should an overlap occur at the top of the B scale and the bottom of
the C scale, use the C-scale setup.
Before the major load is applied, the test specimen must be securely
locked in place to prevent slipping and to properly seat the anvil and
penetrator. To do this, a load of 10 kilograms is applied before the
lever is tripped. This preliminary load is called the "minor load." The
minor load is 10 kilograms regardless of the scale setup. When the
machine is set up properly, it auto-matically applies the 10-kilogram
load.
NONMETALLIC MATERIALS
TRANSPARENT PLASTICS
38
Transparent plastics are manufactured in two forms of material-solid
(monolithic) and laminated. Laminated plastic consists of two sheets
of solid plastic bonded to a rubbery inner layer of material similar to
the sandwich materials used in plate glass.
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
39
Figure 1-32.-Sandwich construction.
SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION
40
core runs perpendicular to the aluminum alloy facings, and the core
and aluminum facings are firmly bonded together under controlled
temperatures and pressures.
Solid Rivets
Solid rivets are classified by their head shape, by the material from
which they are manufactured, and by their size. Rivet head shapes
and their identifying code numbers are shown in figure 2-1. The
prefix MS identifies hardware that conforms to written military
standards. The prefix AN identifies specifications that are developed
and issued under the joint authority of the Air Force and the Navy.
The rivet codes shown in figure 2-1 are sufficient to identify rivets
only by head shape. To be meaningful and precisely identify a rivet,
certain other information is encoded and added to the basic code.
41
A letter or letters following the head-shaped code identify the
material or alloy from which the rivet was made. Table 2-1 includes a
listing of the most common of these codes. The alloy code is followed
by two numbers separated by a dash. The first number is the
numerator of a fraction, which specifies the shank diameter in thirty-
seconds of an inch. The second number is the numerator of a fraction
in sixteenths of an inch, and identifies the length of the rivet. The
rivet code is shown in figure 2-2.
Rivet Composition
ALLOY 2117 RIVETS.— Like the 1100-F rivets, these rivets need no
further treatment before use and can be stored indefinitely. They are
furnished in the solution-heat-treated (T4) temper, but change to the
42
ALLOY 2017 AND 2024 RIVETS.— As mentioned in the preceding
paragraph, both these rivets are supplied in the T4 temper and must
be heat treated. These rivets must be driven within 20 minutes after
quenching or refrigerated at or below 32°F to delay the aging time
24 hours. If either time is exceeded, reheat treatment is required.
These rivets may be reheated as many times as desired, provided the
proper solution heat-treatment temperature is not exceeded. The
2024-T4 rivets are stronger than the 2017-T4 and are, therefore,
harder to drive. The
43
2017-T4 rivet is identified by the raised teat on the head, while the
2024-T4 has two raised dashes on the head.
C- Copper alloy
M- monel
ALLOY 5056 RIVETS.— These rivets are used primarily for joining
magnesium alloy structures because of their corrosion-resistant
qualities. They are supplied in the H32 temper (strain-hardened and
then stabilized). These rivets are identified by a raised cross on the
head. The 5056-H32 rivet may be stored indefinitely with no change
in its driving characteristics.
Flat head rivet- like round head rivet,is used on interior structures. It
is used where maximum strength is needed and where there is not
sufficient clearance to use a round head rivet.
Countersunk rivet are used to fasten sheet over other sheet must fix.
They are also used on exterior surfaces it offer only small resistance
to airflow
44
Blind Rivets
In places accessible from only one side or where space on one side is
too restricted to properly use a bucking bar, blind rivets are usually
used. Blind rivets may also be used to secure nonstructural parts to
the airframe.
Figure 2-3 shows a blind rivet that uses a mechanical lock between
the head of the rivet and the pull stem. Note in view B that the collar
that is attached to the head has been driven into the head and has
assumed a wedge or cone shape around the groove in the pin. This
holds the shank firmly in place from the head side.
Hi-shear (pin) rivets are essentially thread less bolts. The pin is
headed at one end and is grooved about the circumference at the
other. A metal collar is swaged onto the grooved end. They are
available in two head styles—the flat protruding head and the flush
100-degree countersunk head. Hi-shear rivets are made in a variety
of materials, and are used only in shear applications. Because the
shear strength of the rivet is greater than either the shear or bearing
strength of sheet aluminum alloys, they are used primarily to rivet
thick gauge sheets together. They are never used where the grip
length is less than the shank diameter. Hi-shear rivets are shown in
figure 2-4.
45
Figure 2-4.—Hi-shear rivet.
The collars are identified by a basic code number and a dash number
that correspond to the diameter of the rivet. An A before the dash
number indicates an aluminum alloy collar. The NAS528-A5 collar
would be used on a 5/32-inch-diameter rivet pin. Repair procedures
involving the installation or replacement of hi-shear rivets generally
specify the collar to be used.
Rivnuts
46
Open-end rivnuts are the most widely used, and are recommended in
preference to the closed-end type. However, in sealed flotation or
pressurized compartments, the closed-end rivnut must be used.
FASTENERS (SPECIAL)
Lock-Bolt Fasteners
The blind lock bolt, shown in view B of figure 2-6, is similar to the
self-plugging rivet shown in figure 2-3. It features a positive
mechanical leek for pin retention.
Hi-Lok Fasteners
47
Figure 2-6.—Lock bolts.
48
cadmium-plated alloy steel with protruding or 100-degree flush
heads. Collars for the pins are made of anodized 2024-T6 aluminum
or stainless steel. The threaded end of the pin is recessed with a
hexagon socket to allow installation from one side. The major
diameter of the threaded part of the pin has been truncated (cut
undersize) to accommodate a 0.004-inch maximum interference-free
fit. One end of the collar is internally recessed with a 1/16-inch,
built-in variation that automatically provides for variable material
thickness without the use of washers and without fastener preload
changes. The other end of the collar has a torque-off wrenching
device that controls a predetermined residual tension of preload
(10%) in the fastener.
Jo-Bolt Fasteners
Turlock Fasteners
Turn lock fasteners are used to secure panels that require frequent
removal. These fasteners are available in several different styles and
are usually referred to by the manufacturer’s trade name.
Figure 2-8.—Jo-bolt.
49
assembly is riveted to the access door frame, which is attached to
the structure of the aircraft. The grommet is a sheet metal ring held
in the access panel with the retaining ring. Grommets are furnished
in two types: the flush type and the protruding type. Besides serving
as a grommet for the hole in the access panel, it also holds the stud
assembly. The stud assembly consists of a stud, a cross pin, a spring,
and a spring cup. The assembly is designed so it can be quickly
inserted into the grommet by compressing the spring. Once installed
in the grommet, the stud assembly cannot be removed unless the
spring is again compressed.
50
Figure 2-9.-Camloc 4002 series fastener.
51
52
Figure 2-10.-Camloc high-stress panel fastener.
53
Figure 2-11.—Airloc fastener.
FLAT-HEAD PINS.— The flat-head pin is used with tie rod terminals or
secondary controls, which do not operate continuously. The flat-head
pin should be secured with a cotter pin. The pin is normally installed
with the head up. See figure 2-17. This precaution is taken to
54
maintain the flat-head pin in the installed position in case of cotter
pin failure.
Bolts
55
Figure 2-19.—Bolt terms and dimensions.
The three principal parts of a bolt are the head, thread, and grip. The
head is the larger diameter of the bolt and may be one of many
shapes or designs. The head keeps the bolt in place in one direction,
and the nut used on the threads keeps it in place in the other
direction.
Unnecessarily long bolts can affect weight and balance and reduce
the aircraft payload capacity. In addition, if a bolt is too long or too
short, its grip is usually the wrong length. As shown in figure 2-20,
grip length should be approximately the same as the thickness of the
material to be fastened. If the grip is too short, the threads of the
bolt will extend into the bolt hole and may act like a reamer when the
material is vibrating. To prevent this, make certain that no more than
two threads extend into the bolt hole. Also make certain that any
threads that enter the bolt hole extend only into the thicker member
that is being fastened. If the grip is too long, the nut will run out of
threads before it can be tightened. In this event, a bolt with a shorter
grip should be used, or if the bolt grip extends only a short distance
through the hole, a washer maybe used. A second bolt dimension
that must be considered is diameter. Figure 2-19 shows that the
diameter of the bolt is the thickness of its shaft. If this thickness is
1/4 of an inch or more, the bolt diameter is usually given in fractions
56
of an inch; for example, 1/4, 5/16, 7/16, and 1/2. However, if the
bolt is less than 1/4 of an inch thick, the diameter is usually
expressed as a whole number. For instance, a bolt that is 0.190 inch
in diameter is called a No. 10 bolt, while a bolt that is 0.164 inch in
diameter is called a No. 8.
Class 1 is loose fit, Class 2 is free fit, C lass 3 is medium fit, Class 4 is
close fit. Generally aircraft bolt are manufactured in class 3 fit.
Aircraft bolt are manufactured from Cadmium plated or zinc plated
corrosion resistant steel , unplated corrosion resistant steel and
anodized aluminium alloy.
BOLT HEADS.— The most common type of head is the hex head. See
figure 2-20. This type of head may be thick for greater strength or
relatively thin in order to fit in places having limited clearances. In
addition, the head may be common or drilled to lockwire the bolt. A
hex-head bolt may have a single hole drilled through it between two
of the sides of the hexagon and still be classed as common. The
drilled head-hex bolt has three holes drilled in the head, connecting
opposite sides of the hex. Figure 2-20.-Correct and incorrect grip
lengths.
57
Figure 2-21.—Bolt heads
Seven additional types of bolt heads are shown in figure 2-21. Notice
that view A shows an eyebolt, often used in flight control systems.
View B shows a countersunk-head, close-tolerance bolt. View C
shows an internal-wrenching bolt. Both the countersunk-head bolt
and the internal-wrenching bolt have hexagonal recesses (six-sided
holes) in their heads. They are tightened and loosened by use of
appropriate sized Allen wrenches. View D shows a clevis bolt with its
characteristic round head. This head may be slotted, as shown, to
receive a common screwdriver or recessed to receive a Reed-and-
Prince or a Phillips screwdriver.
58
View G shows a hi-torque style driving slot. This single slot is
narrower at the center than at the outer portions. This and the center
dimple provide the slot with a bow tie appearance. The recess is also
undercut in a taper from the center to the outer ends, producing an
inverted keystone shape. These bolts must be installed with a special
hi-torque driver adapter. They must also be driven with some type of
torque-limiting or torque-measuring device. Each diameter of bolt
requires the proper size of driver for that particular bolt. The bolts
are available in standard and reduced 100-degree flush heads. The
reduced head requires a driver one size smaller than the standard
headBOLT THREADS.— Another structural feature in which bolts may
differ is threads. These usually come in one of two types: coarse and
fine. The two are not interchangeable. For any given size of bolt
there is a different number of coarse and fine threads per inch. For
instance, consider the 1/4-inch bolts. Some are called 1/4-28 bolts
because they have 28 fine threads per inch. Others have only 20
coarse threads per inch and are called 1/4-20 bolts. To force one size
of threads into another size, even though both are 1/4 of an inch,
can strip the finer threads or softer metal. The same thing is true
concerning the other sizes of bolts; therefore, make certain that bolts
you select have the correct type of threads.
59
BOLT IDENTIFICATION.— Unless current directives specify
otherwise, every unserviceable bolt should be replaced with a bolt of
the same type. Of course, substitute and interchangeable items are
sometimes available, but the ideal fix is a bolt-for-bolt replacement.
The part number of a needed bolt may be obtained by referring to the
illustrated parts breakdown (IPB) for the aircraft concerned. Exactly
what this part number means depends upon whether the bolt is AN
(Air Force-Navy), NAS (National Aircraft Standard), or MS (Military
Standard).
The series number shows another type of information other than bolt
class. With a few exceptions, it indicates bolt diameter in sixteenths
of
60
Figure 2-23.—AN bolt part number breakdown.
an inch. For instance, in figure 2-23, the last digit of the series
number is 4; therefore, this bolt is 4/16 of an inch (1/4 of an inch) in
diameter. In the case of a series number ending in 0, for instance
AN30, the 0 stands for 10, and the bolt has a diameter of 10/16 of an
inch (5/8 of an inch).
Refer again to figure 2-23, and observe that a dash follows the series
number. When used in the part numbers for general-purpose AN
bolts, clevis bolts, and eyebolts, this dash indicates that the bolt is
made of carbon steel. With these types of bolts, the letter D means
2017 aluminum alloy. The letters DD stand for 2024 aluminum alloy.
For some bolts of this type, a letter H is used with these letters or
with the dash. If it is so used, the letter H shows that the bolt has
been drilled for safetying. C indicates corrosion resitant steel. A
indicates that shank is undrilled.
Next, observe the number 20 that follows the dash. This is called the
dash number. It represents the bolt’s grip (as taken from special
tables). In this instance the number 20 stands for a bolt that is 2
1/32 inches long.
61
Figure 2-24.-NM bolt part number breakdown.
Nuts
Aircraft nuts differ in design and material, just as bolts do, because
they are designed to do a specific job with the bolt. For instance,
some of the nuts are made of cadmium-plated carbon steel, stainless
steel, brass, or aluminum alloy. The type of metal used is not
identified by markings on the nuts themselves. Instead, the material
must be recognized from the luster of the metal.
62
Nuts also differ greatly in size and shape. In spite of these many and
varied differences, they all fall under one of two general groups: self-
locking and nonself-locking. Nuts are further divided into types such
as plain nuts, castle nuts, check nuts, plate nuts, channel nuts, barrel
nuts, internal-wrenching nuts, external-wrenching nuts, shear nuts,
sheet spring nuts, wing nuts, and Klincher locknuts
CASTLE NUTS.— These nuts are used with drilled shank bolts, hex-
head bolts, clevis bolts, eyebolts, and drilled-head studs. These nuts
are designed to be secured with cotter pins or safety wire. Used in
tension loads.
CASTELLATED SHEAR NUTS.— Like the castle nuts, these nuts are
castellated for safetying. They are not as strong or cut as deep as the
castle nuts. Used in shear load only.
CHECK NUTS.— These nuts are used in locking devices for nonself-
locking plain hex nuts, setscrews, and threaded rod ends.
63
PLATE NUTS.— These nuts are used for blind mounting in inaccessible
locations and for easier maintenance. They are available in a wide
range of sizes and shapes. One-lug, two-lug, and right-angle shapes
are available to accommodate the specific physical requirements of
nut locations. Floating nuts provide a controlled amount of nut
movement to compensate for subassembly misalignment. They can
be either self-locking or nonself-locking. See figure 2-27.
BARREL NUTS.— These nuts are installed in drilled holes. The round
portion of the nut fits in the drilled hole and provides a self-
wrenching effect. They are usually self-locking.
Figure 2-26.–Nuts.
64
Figure 2-27.–Self-locking nuts.
Screws
65
tensile strengths as the equivalent size bolt. They differ from
structural bolts only in the type of head. These screws are available
in round-head, countersunk-head, and brazier-head types, either
66
MACHINE SCREWS.— The commonly used machine screws are the
flush-head, round-head, fillister-head, socket-head, pan-head and
truss-head types.
CAUTION
67
WASHERS
Washers such as ball socket and seat washers, taper pin washers,
and washers for internal-wrenching nuts and bolts have been
designed for special applications. See figure 2-31.
Ball socket and seat washers are used where a bolt is installed at an
angle to the surface, or where perfect alignment with the surface is
required at all times.
Taper pin washers are used in conjunction with threaded taper pins.
They are installed under the nut to effect adjustment where a plain
washer would distort.
CABLES
68
If the strands are twisted in the direction of twist around the center
strand or core, the lay is called a lang lay. There is a right and left
lang lay. The only other twist arrangement-twisting the strands
alternately right and left, then twisting them all either to the right or
to the left about the core—is called a reverse lay. Most aircraft cables
have a right regular lay.
69
Figure 2-32.-Cable cross section.
Fittings
70
Figure 2-33.—Types of cable terminal fittings.
single-shank ball end is usually used on the ends of cables, and the
double-shank ball end may be used at either the ends or in the center
of a cable run. Figure 2-33 shows the various types of terminal
fittings.
Turnbuckles
71
Figure 2-34.-Thimble, bashing, and shackle fittings.
and the other has left-hand threads, The barrel has matching right-
and left-hand threads internally. The end of the barrel, with left-hand
threads inside, can usually be identified by either a groove or knurl
around the end of the barrel. Barrels and terminals are available in
both long and short lengths. When you install a turnbuckle in a
control system, it is necessary to screw both of the terminals an
equal number of turns into the turnbuckle barrel. It is also essential
that all turnbuckle terminals be screwed into the barrel at least until
not more than three threads are exposed. On initial installation, the
72
turnbuckle terminals should not be screwed inside the turnbuckle
barrel more than four threads. Figure 2-36 shows turnbuckle thread
tolerances.
GUIDES
73
Figure 2-37.—Typical cable guides.
from rubbing against nearby metal parts. They are also used as
supports to reduce cable vibration in long stretches (runs) of cable.
Figure 2-37 shows some typical cable guides.
Fairleads
Grommets
74
Grommets are made of rubber, and they are used on small openings
where single cables pass through the walls of unpressurized
compartments.
Pressure Seals
Pressure seals are used on cables or rods that must move through
pressurized bulkheads. They fit tightly enough to prevent air
pressure loss, but not so tightly as to hinder movement of the unit.
Pulleys
75
Figure 2-38.-Control system components.
76
Figure 2-39.-Series 145 and 155 quick-disconnect couplings.
beams, which are used for the same purpose in rigid control systems.
STATIC DISCHARGERS
77
aircraft being struck by lightning. Static dischargers are subject to
damage or significant changes in resistance characteristics as a
result of lightning strike to the aircraft, and should be inspected after
a lightning strike to ensure proper static discharge operation. Static
dischargers are fabricated with a wick of wire or a conductive
element on one end, which provides a high resistance discharge path
between the aircraft and the air. See figure 2-56. They are attached
on some aircraft to the ailerons, elevators, rudder, wing, horizontal
and vertical stabilizer tips, etc. Refer to your applicable aircraft’s
MIM for maintenance procedures.
COTTER PINS
Cotter pins are used to secure bolts, screws, nuts, and pins. Some
cotter pins are made of low-carbon steel, while others consist of
stainless steel and are more resistant to corrosion. Also, stainless
steel cotter pins may be used in locations where nonmagnetic
material is required. Regardless of shape or material, all cotter pins
are used for the same general purpose—safetying. Figure 2-57 shows
three types of cotter pins and how their size is determined.
NOTE: Whenever uneven prong cotter pins are used, the length
measurement is to the end of the shortest prong.
SAFETY WIRE
Safety wire comes in many types and sizes. You must first select the
correct type and size of wire for the job. Annealed corrosion-
resistant wire is used in high-temperature, electrical equipment, and
aircraft instrument applications. All nuts except the self-locking
types must be safetied; the method used depends upon the particular
installation.
TORQUING OF FASTENERS
78
Fastener fatigue failure accounts for the majority of all fastener
problems. Fatigue breaks are caused by insufficient tightening and
the lack of proper preload or clamping force. This results in
movement between the parts of the assembly and bending back and
forth or cyclic stressing of the fastener. Eventually, cracks will
progress to the point where the fastener can no longer support its
designed load. At this point the fastener fails with varying
consequences.
TORQUING PROCEDURES
For the nut to properly load the bolt and prevent premature failure, a
designated amount of torque must be applied. Proper torque reduces
the possibility of the fastener loosening while in service. The correct
torque to apply when you are tightening an assembly is based on
many variables. The fastener is subjected to two stresses when it is
tightened. These stresses are torsion and tension. Tension is the
desired stress, while torsion is the undesirable stress caused by
friction. A large percentage of applied torque is used to overcome
this friction, so that only tension remains after tightening. Proper
tension reduces the possibility of fluid leaks.
79
The recommended torque values provided in table 3-4 have been
established for average dry, cadmium- plated nuts for both the fine
and coarse thread series of nuts. Thread surface variations such as
paint, lubrication, hardening, plating, and thread distortion may alter
these values considerably. The torque values must be followed
unless the MIM or structual repair manual for the specific aircraft
requires a specific torque for a given nut. Torque values vary slightly
with manufacturers. When the torque values are included in a
80
Figure 3-12.—Torque wrenches.
81
to do so, steel parts or where specifically Always tighten by rotating
the nut first if possible. When space considerations make it
necessary to tighten the fastener by rotating the bolt head, approach
the high side of the indicated torque range. Do not exceed the
maximum allowable torque value. Maximum torque ranges should be
used only when materials and surfaces being joined are of sufficient
thickness, area, and strength to resist breaking, warping, or other
damage.
For corrosion-resisting steel nuts, use the torque values given for
shear-type nuts. The use of any type of drive-end extension on a
torque wrench changes the dial reading required to obtain the actual
values indicated in the torque range tables. See figure 3-12.
TORQUING COMPUTATION
where:
If you desire to exert 100 inch-pounds at the end of the wrench and
extension, when La equals 12 inches and Ea equals 6 inches, it is
possible to determine the handle setting by making the following
calculation:
82
S = 66.7 inch–pounds
TYPES OF HOSE
There are two basic types of hose used in military aircraft and
related equipment. They are synthetic rubber and
polytetrafluoroethylene, commonly known as Teflon@ or PTFE.
Bulk hose identification will vary with the materials from which the
hose is constructed. It is important that you are able to clearly
identify the proper hose to be used by recognizing the various hose
markings.
83
Figure 5-1.—Medium pressure synthetic rubber hose, MIL-H-8794.
84
2d quarter — April, May, June
Flared Fitting
85
Figure 6-12.—Tube flaring toot (single-flare).
tighten the yoke setscrew to secure the tube in the grip die and hold
the yoke in place. Strike the top of the plunger several light blows
with a hammer or mallet, turning the plunger a half turn after each
blow. Loosen the setscrew and remove the tube from the grip die.
Check to make sure that no cracks are evident and that the flared
end of the tube is no larger than the largest diameter of the sleeve
being used. The double-flare tube joint is used on all 5052 aluminum
alloy tubes with less than 1/2-inch outside diameter, except when
used with NAS 590 series tube fittings and NAS 591 connectors or
NAS 593 con-nectors. Aluminum alloy tubing used in low-pressure
oxygen systems or corrosion-resistant steel used in brake systems
must be double flared. Double flare reduces the chance of cutting the
flare by overtightening. When fabricating oxygen lines, make sure
that all tube material and tools are kept free of oil and grease. Use
the tube flaring tool (fig. 6-13) to prepare tube ends. Check tube end
for roundness, square cut, cleanliness, and make sure there are no
draw marks or scratches. Draw marks can split the tubing when it is
flared.
86
Use a deburring tool to remove burrs from the inside and outside of
tube. Remove filings, chips, and grit from inside the tube. Clean the
tube. Select the proper size die blocks, and place one-half of the die
block into the flaring tool body with the countersunk end towards the
ram guide. Install the nut and sleeve, and lay the tube in the die
block with 1/2 inch protruding beyond countersunk end. Place the
other half of the die block into the tool body, close latch plate, and
tighten the clamp nuts fingertight. Insert the upset flare punch in the
tool body with the gauge end toward the die blocks. The upset flare
punch has one end counterbored or recessed to gauge the amount of
tubing needed to form a double lap flare. Insert the ram and tap
lightly with a hammer or mallet until the upset flare punch contacts
the die blocks, and the die blocks are set against the stop plate on
the bottom. Use a wrench to tighten the latch plate nuts alternately,
beginning with the closed side, to prevent distortion of the tool.
Reverse the upset flare punch; insert the upset flare punch and ram
into the tool body. Tap lightly with a hammer or mallet until the
upset flare punch contacts the die blocks. Remove the upset flare
punch and ram. Insert the finishing flare punch and ram. Tap the ram
lightly until a good seat is formed (fig. 6-14). Check the seat at
intervals during the finishing operation to avoid overseating.
Flareless Fitting
87
presetting tool or flareless fitting body in a vise. Slide a nut and then
a sleeve onto the tube, and make sure the pilot and cutting edge of
the sleeve points toward the end of tube. Select the lubricant from
table 6-4, and lubricate fitting threads, tool seat, and shoulder
sleeve. Place the tube end firmly against the bottom of the presetting
tool seat, while slowly screwing the nut onto the tool threads with a
wrench until the tube
Open Center
88
the system pressure line goes through each selector valve, Fluid is
always allowed free passage through each selector valve and back to
the reservoir until one of the selector valves is positioned to operate
a mechanism.
Closed Center
In the closed center system, the fluid is under pressure whenever the
power pump is operating. Figure 7-2 shows a complex closed center
system.
89
Figure 7-1.—Basic open center hydraulic system.
90
The power pump may be one used with a separate pressure regulator
control. The power pump may be used with an integral pressure
control valve that eliminates the need for a pressure regulator. This
system differs from the open center system in that the selector or
directional control valves are arranged in parallel and not in series.
The means of controlling pump pressure will vary in the closed
center system. If a constant delivery pump is used, the system
pressure will be regulated by a pressure regulator. A relief valve acts
as a backup safety device in case the regulator fails. If a variable
displacement pump is used, system pressure is controlled by the
pump’s integral pressure mechanism compensator. The compensator
automatically varies the volume output. When pressure approaches
normal system pressure, the compensator begins to reduce the flow
output of the pump. The pump is fully compensated (near zero flow)
when normal system pressure is attained. When the pump is in this
91
fully compensated condition, its internal bypass mechanism provides
fluid circulation through the pump for cooling and lubrication. A relief
valve is installed in the system as a safety backup. An advantage of
the open center system over the closed center system is that the
continuous pressurization of the system is eliminated. Since the
pressure is built up gradually after the selector valve is moved to an
operating position, there is very little shock from pressure surges.
This action provides a smoother operation of the actuating
mechanisms. The operation is slower than the closed center system,
in which the pressure is available the moment the selector valve is
positioned. Since most aircraft applications require instantaneous
operation, closed center systems are the most widely used.
The hydraulic control valves and actuators that operate the primary
flight controls are of the tandem construction type. This design
permits operation from either or both of the two power systems.
With this arrangement, either engine can fail or be shut down
without complete loss of hydraulic power to either system. The flight
system reservoir supplies fluid to the two engine-driven flight system
pumps. The combined system reservoir supplies fluid to the two
engine-driven combined system pumps and to the auxiliary hydraulic
power system. Both reservoirs are of the pressurized piston type.
They are pressurized by engine bleed air during engine operations
and by an external air (nitrogen) source during maintenance
operations.
92
hydraulic system also controls the automatic operation of the
isolation valve. This valve is a part of the combined hydraulic system.
The isolation valve shuts off flow to the secondary systems during
flight and limits the combined system’s pressure requirements to
operation of the primary circuit. Operation of the isolation valve is
both automatic and manual. The reservoir pressurization system
provides the reservoir with a differential pressure of 40 psi to
prevent engine-driven pump cavitation. The pressure is maintained
at 40 psi by the air regulator. In the event of regulator failure, the
relief valve installed between the regulator and the reservoir
prevents overpressurization. The relief valve opens at 50 psi. The
chemical air drier removes excessive moisture from the bleed air.
Dry, clean air is sent to the reservoir through the check valve, air
regulator, and relief valve.
TWO bleeder valves are installed in the flight and combined system
reservoirs. One is found on the air side of the reservoir and the other
on the fluid side. The air side valve permits the bleeding of air
pressure during system maintenance. It allows the bleeding of any
hydraulic fluid seepage past seals to the air side. The fluid side
bleeder reduces excessive fluid level and bleeds air from the fluid
side.
RESERVOIRS
93
The reservoir is a tank in which an adequate supply of fluid for the
system is stored. Fluid flows from the reservoir to the pump, where it
is forced through the system and eventually returned to the
reservoir.
The reservoir not only supplies the operating needs of the system,
but it also replenishes fluid lost through leakage. Furthermore, the
reservoir serves as an overflow basin for excess fluid forced out of
the system by thermal expansion (the increase of fluid volume
caused by temperature changes), the accumulators, and by piston
and rod displacement. The reservoir also furnishes a place for the
fluid to purge itself of air bubbles that may enter the system. Foreign
matter picked up in the system may also be separated from the fluid
in the reservoir, or as it flows through line filters.
94
8.Instructions regarding air bleeding
2. Safety precautions
There are two classes of hydraulic reservoirs— class I and class II.
Class I reservoirs are constructed in such a manner that the air and
hydraulic fluid are not separated. Class II reservoirs are constructed
in such a manner that the pressurizing agent and fluid chambers are
separated. This is accomplished by installing a piston between the
chambers.
Nonpressurized Reservoirs
95
Filter elements are normally installed internality within the reservoir
to clean returning system hydraulic fluid. In some of the older
aircraft, a filter bypass valve is incorporated to allow fluid to bypass
the filter in the event the filter becomes clogged. Reservoirs serviced
by pouring fluid directly into the reservoir have a filler strainer
(finger strainer) assembly incorporated within the filler well to strain
out impurities as the fluid enters the reservoir.
96
valve may be mounted directly to the reservoir or in a line leading
from the reservoir, depending on the aircraft system design. During
operation, air pressure enters the inlet port and contacts the poppet
surface. When system air pressure increases to 50 psi, the poppet is
forced off its seat, which allows excessive air pressure to be
exhausted to the atmosphere. When system pressure is lowered to
49 psi, the poppet spring tension overcomes system pressure and
reseats the poppet, thus closing the valve.
PUMPS
Hand Pumps
97
This pump consists of a cylinder, a piston containing a built-in check
valve (A), a piston rod, an operating handle, and a check valve (B) at
the inlet port. When the piston is moved to the left in the illustration,
check valve (A) closes and check valve (B) opens.
Fluid from the reservoir then flows into the cylinder through inlet
port (C). When the piston is moved to the right, check valve (B)
closes. The pressure created in the fluid then opens check valve (A),
and fluid is admitted behind the piston. Because of the space
occupied by the piston rod, there is room for only part of the fluid;
therefore, the remainder is forced out port (D) into the pressure line.
If the piston is again moved to the left, check valve (A) again closes.
The fluid behind the piston is then forced through outlet port (D). At
the same time, fluid from the reservoir flows into the cylinder
through check
Power-Driven Pumps
98
is turned by a drive shaft that engages an electric motor. The
clearance between the gear teeth as they mesh and between the
teeth and pump housing is very small. The inlet port is connected to
the reservoir line, and the outlet port is connected to the pressure
line. In the illustration, the drive gear is turning in a
counterclockwise direction, and the driven (idle) gear is turning in a
clockwise direction. As the teeth pass the inlet port, fluid is trapped
between the teeth and the housing. This fluid is carried around the
housing to the outlet port. As the teeth mesh again, the fluidbetween
the teeth is displaced into the outlet port. This action produces a
positive flow of fluid under pressure into the pressure line. A shear
pin or shear section that will break under excessive loads is
incorporated in the drive shaft. This is to protect the engine
accessory drive if pump failure is caused by excessive load or
jamming of parts.All gear-type pumps are constant displacement
pumps. These pumps are usually driven by a dc wound electric
motor. For those aircraft using batteries, the pump may be used to
build up hydraulic pressure for the brake system during towing
operation.
RELIEF VALVES
Relief valves are not new to most people; different types of relief
valves are used in our homes and automobiles, as well as many other
places. Relief valves are pressure limiting or safety devices
commonly used to prevent pressure from building up to a point
where it might blow seals or burst or damage the container in which
it is installed, etc. In aircraft, relief valves are installed within
hydraulic systems to relieve excessive pressurized fluid caused from
thermal expansion, pressure surges, and the failure of a hydraulic
pump’s compensator or other regulating devices.
99
Thermal Relief Valves
SHUTOFF VALVES
ACCUMULATORS
100
2. The accumulator supplements the pump’s output when the pump
is under a peak load by storing energy in the form of fluid under
pressure.
Spherical Type
Cylindrical Type
Operation
101
In operation, the compressed-air chamber is charged to a
predetermined pressure, which is somewhat lower than the system
operating pressure. This initial charge is referred to as the
accumulator preload.
Maintenance
102
installed in naval aircraft are equipped with air pressure gauges for
this purpose. When the accumulator is not equipped with a high-
pressure air gauge, you may install one at the air preload fitting for
this purpose. The required pressure can be found in the MIM for each
aircraft. The preload pressure may be checked by another method in
case the accumulator is not equipped with an air pressure gauge.
With the system pressure (as indicated by the cockpit gauge) at the
normal operating value, relieve system pressure by operating the
wing flaps or another unit slowly. The pressure gauge reading must
be watched carefully. The last reading before the indicator needle
drops suddenly to zero is accepted as the accumulator preload air
pressure.
Servicing
PRESSURE INDICATORS
103
calibrated in pounds per square inch. Naval aircraft use both the
direct reading gauges and the synchro (electric) type.
The main part of the direct reading gauge is the Bourdon tube. The
Bourdon tube is a curved metal tube that is oval in cross-sectional
shape (fig. 7-36).
One end of the Bourdon tube is closed, while the other end has a
fitting for connecting it to a pressure source. The fitting end is
fastened to the gauge frame, while the other end is free to move so it
can operate the mechanical linkage.
Assume that fluid pressure enters the Bourdon tube. Since fluid
pressure will be transmitted equally in all directions and the area on
the outside radius of the tube is greater than that of its inside, the
force will also be greater on the outside radius, which tends to
straighten the tube. As the movable end of the tube tries to turn
outward, it turns the pivot segment gear. This gear meshes with a
smaller rotary gear to which a pointer is attached, and its movement
causes a reading on the pressure gauge. The gauge dial is calibrated
so that the needle points to a number that corresponds to the exact
pressure that is applied. When the pressure is removed, the Bourdon
tube acts as a spring, and returns to its normal position.
Synchro Type
104
synchros mechanically attached to the two separate pointers. When
the HYD PRESS SELECTOR switch (fig. 7-37) is in the No. 1 and No. 2
FLT CONT position, the pointers (marked "1" and "2") indicate the
pressure in their respective systems, independent of each other.
When the HYD PRESS SELECTOR switch is in the UTILITY position,
the synchros are connected in electrical parallel, and the pointers
align with each other and act as one.
Pneumatic System
105
system. Compressors of this type are capable of maintaining up to
and above 3,000 psi pressure during flight.
AIR FILTERS. —An air filter is usually located in the line leading into
the system compressor. Additional filters may be located at various
points in the system lines to remove any foreign matter that may
enter the system
106
CHEMICAL DRIERS. —Chemical driers are incorporated at various
locations in a pneumatic system. Their purpose is to absorb any
moisture that may collect in the lines and other parts of the system.
Each drier contains a cartridge, which should be blue in color. If
otherwise noted, the cartridge is to be considered contaminated with
moisture and should be replaced.
Since gases expand with heat and contract when cooled, air storage
bottles are usually filled to a given pressure at ambient temperature.
A graph similar to that shown in figure 7-45 is usually mounted on a
plate or decal on or near the bottle or air filler valve. If the
instruction plate is missing or not readable, the information may be
found in the General Information and Servicing section of the
applicable MIM.
107
cylinders of this type apply force in both directions. Fluid pressure
provides the force in one direction, and spring tension provides the
force in the opposite direction, In some single-acting cylinders, com-
pressed air or nitrogen is used instead of a spring for movement in
the direction opposite that achieved with fluid pressure. A three-way
directional control valve is normally used to control the operation of
this type of cylinder. To extend the piston rod, fluid under pressure is
directed through the port and into the cylinder. See figure 8-1. This
pressure acts on the surface area of the blank side of the piston, and
forces the piston to the right. This action, of course, extends the rod
to the right, through the end of the cylinder. The actuated unit is
moved in one direction. During this action, the spring is compressed
between the rod side of the piston and the end of the cylinder. Within
limits of the cylinder, the length of the stroke depends upon the
desired movement of the actuated unit.
108
cylinder shown in view A of figure 8-2 is equipped with an O-ring seal
and backup rings to prevent internal leakage of fluid from one side of
the piston to the other. Suitable seals and backup rings are also used
between the hole in the end cap and the piston rod to prevent
external leakage. In addition, some cylinders of this type have a felt
wiper ring attached to the inside of the end cap and fitted around the
piston rod to guard against the entrance of dirt and other foreign
matter into the cylinder.
SELECTOR VALVES
The typical four-way selector valve has four ports—a pressure port, a
return port, and two cylinder (or working) ports. The pressure port is
connected to the main pressure line from the power pump, the return
port is connected to the reservoir return line, and the two cylinder
ports are connected to opposite working ports of the actuating unit.
109
when excessive pressure exists within the working lines due to
thermal expansion, the poppet will open. This action allows the
excessive pressurized fluid to flow into the pressure line, where it is
relieved by the main system relief valve.
The balanced poppet selector valve has equal poppet areas. The
poppets will remain in the selected position during thermal
expansion of working line fluid. For this reason, thermal relief valves
are installed in working lines that incorporate balanced poppet
selector valves.
All poppet-type selector valves are provided with a stop for the
camshaft. The stop is an integral part of the shaft, and strikes
against a stop pin in the body to prevent overrunning. A poppet
selector valve housing usually contains poppets, poppet seats,
poppet springs, and a camshaft.
110
CHECK VALVES
The purpose of a check valve is to allow the fluid to flow in only one
direction. In some installations, such as brake systems, the check
valve confines fluid under pressure within the desired section of the
hydraulic system. The valve prevents the fluid from reversing its
normal direction of flow. The valve prevents pressure from escaping
into adjacent sections of the system.
When the pressure on the downstream side of the valve exceeds that
on the upstream side, the resultant unbalanced force seals the valve
closed, as shown in view A of figure 8-12. When the pressure is
reversed, the valve is forced open against the tension of the spring,
and the fluid flows freely through the valve, as shown in view B of
figure 8-12. The tension of the spring is relatively weak, and is
intended to be barely sufficient to support the ball in its proper
position.
SEQUENCE VALVES
111
before the doors close. A sequence valve installed in each landing
gear actuating line performs this function.
SHUTTLE VALVES
Shuttle valves are located close to the actuating unit concerned. This
location reduces to a minimum the units to be bled and isolates as
much of the normal system from the emergency system as possible.
In some installations, the shuttle valve is an integral part of the
actuating unit.
RESTRICTORS
112
fluid flow both to and from an actuating cylinder is necessary, a two-
way restrictor is installed.
One-Way Restrictor
Two-Way Restrictor
113
Two-way restrictors, regardless of whether they are of the machined
orifice type or of the plate orifice type, operate identically. Fluid
entering either port is filtered prior to flowing through the orifice,
thus protecting the orifice from possible stoppage. As the fluid is
metered through the orifice, the prescribed rate flow is directed out
the opposite port of the restrictor and to the actuating unit.
PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVES
HYDRAULIC FUSES
Fluid entering the fuse is divided into two flow paths by the control
head. The main flow is between the sleeve and body, and a
secondary flow is to the piston. Fluid flowing through the main path
exerts a force on the lock piston, causing it to move away from the
direction of flow, This movement uncovers ports, allowing fluid to
flow through the fuse.
114
The movement of the locking piston also causes a lock spring to
release the piston subassembly stop rod, thus allowing the piston to
be displaced by fluid from the secondary flow. If the flow through the
fuse exceeds a specified amount, the piston, moving in the direction
of flow, will block the ports originally covered by the locking piston,
thus blocking the flow of fluid.
Any interruption of the flow of fluid through the fuse removes the
operating force from the lock piston. This allows the lock piston
spring to return the piston to the original position, which resets the
fuse.
Proof-Testing Cables
The wheels used with tires and tubes have knurled flanges to prevent
the tire from slipping on the wheel. Wheels used with tubeless tires
have the wheel sections sealed by an O-ring, and they use special
valves that are a part of the wheel.
Figure 11-1 shows a typical divided (split) wheel. This type of wheel
is divided into two halves. The two halves are sealed by an O-ring
and held together with nuts and bolts. Each wheel half is statically
balanced. This procedure allows any two opposite halves of the same
size and type to be joined together to form one wheel assembly. If
the outboard half of a wheel is beyond repair, a new outboard half
may be drawn from supply. The new outboard half is then matched to
115
the old inboard half. This type of wheel is used on nose, main, and
tail landing gears.
The similarity of one wheel to another in size and shape is not proof
that the wheels can be inter-changed. One wheel may be designed
for heavy duty while the other may be designed to carry a lighter
load. Also, the wheels may be designed for use with different types
of brake assemblies.
116
Figure 11-1.—Typical divided (split) wheel assembly.
The bearing cups are shrink-fitted into the hub of the wheel casting,
and are the parts on which the bearings ride. The bearings are
tapered roller bearings. Each bearing is made of a cone and rollers.
This type of bearing absorbs side thrust as well as radial loads and
landing shocks. These bearings must be cleaned and lubricated in
accordance with the NAVAIR 04-10-1 manual.
The hubcap seals the outboard side of the hub. It is secured with a
lockring. On some aircraft, the hubcap is secured with screws.
TIRE CONSTRUCTION
117
The cord body consists of multiple layers of nylon with individual
cords arranged parallel to each other and completely encased in
rubber. The cord fabric has its strength in only one direction. Each
layer of coated fabric constitutes one ply of the cord body. Adjacent
cord plies in the body are assembled with the cords crossing at
nearly right angles to each other. This arrangement provides a strong
and flexible tire that distributes impact shocks over a wide area. The
functions of the cord body are to give the tire tensile strength, to
resist internal pressures, and to maintain tire shape.
118
The beads are multiple strands of high-tensile strength steel wire
imbedded in robber and wrapped in strips of open weave fabric. The
beads hold the tire firmly on the rims and serve as an anchor for the
fabric plies that are turned up around the bead wires. The chafing
strips are one or more plies of rubber-impregnated woven fabric
wrapped around the outside of the beads. They provide additional
rigidity to the bead and prevent the metal wheel rim from chafing the
tire. Tubeless tires have an additional ply of rubber over the chafing
strips to function as an air seal.
Tread Patterns
Tread Construction
The tread construction will usually be one of four types. Other tread
types may be necessary for specific circumstances or as required by
military standards, such as ice and snow treads.
119
• Reinforced cut-resistant tread. A reinforced cut-resistant tread
combines the features of both the cut-resistant and reinforced-tread
designs.
Ply Rating
Size Designation
120
Figure 11-12.—Size designation of tires.
121
Figure 11-13.—New tire identification markings.
is used to evaluate the depth of cuts in the thread area. Tires are
marked with a red dot (14) on the sidewall to indicate the
lightweight (balance) point of the tire.
122
TIRE STORAGE
TIRE INSPECTION
Mounted Inspection
123
bubbles. Replace the valve core if it is leaking. If no bubbles appear,
it is an indication that the inner tube (or tire) has a leak. When the
tire and wheel assembly shows repeated pressure loss exceeding 5
percent of the correct operating inflation pressure, it should be
removed from the aircraft and sent to the AIMD or IMA.
WARNING
After making a pressure check, you should always replace the valve
cap. Be sure that it is screwed on fingertight. The cap prevents
moisture, salt, oil, and dirt from entering the valve stem and
damaging the valve core. It also acts as a secondary seal if a leak
develops in the valve core.
Tires that are equipped with inner tubes, and operate with less than
150 psi, and all helicopter tube tires must use tire slippage marks.
The slippage mark is a red paint strip 1 inch wide and 2 inches long.
It extends equally across the tire sidewall and the wheel rim, as
shown in figure 11-16. Tires should be inspected for slippage on the
rim after each flight. If the markings do not align within one-fourth
of an inch, the wheel assembly should be replaced and the defective
assembly forwarded to the AIMD or IMA for repair. Failure to correct
tire slippage may cause the valve stem to be ripped from the tube.
The tread and sidewall should be examined for cuts and embedded
foreign objects. Figure 11-17 shows the method for measuring the
depth of cuts, cracks, and holes. Glass, stones, metal, and other
materials embedded in the tread should be removed to prevent cut
growth and eventual carcass damage. A blunt awl or screwdriver
maybe used for this purpose. You should be careful to avoid
enlarging the hole or damaging the cord body fabric.
WARNING
124
When you are probing for foreign objects, be sure you keep the probe
from penetrating deeper into the tire. Objects being pried from the
tire frequently are ejected suddenly and with considerable force. To
avoid eye injury, safety glasses or a face shield should be worn. A
gloved hand over the object may be used to deflect it.
Aircraft should not be parked in areas where the tires may stand in
spilled hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, fuel, or organic solvents. If
any of these materials is accidentally spilled on a tire, it should be
immediately wiped with a clean, absorbent cloth. The tires should
then be washed with soap and thoroughly rinsed with water.
If the aircraft stands in one place under a heavy static load for
several days, local stretching may cause an out-of-round condition
with a resultant thumping during takeoff and landing.
Dual Installations
CHAPTER 12
125
Nose Landing Gear
SHOCK STRUTS
126
Figure 12-8.–Landing gear shock strut (metering pin type).
127
fluid flow is not constant, but is controlled automatically by the
variable shape of the metering pin as it passes through the orifice.
128
the end of the lower cylinder for ready installation of the axle
assembly. Suitable connections are also provided on all shock struts
to permit attachment to the aircraft.
each shock strut to provide a means of filling the strut with hydraulic
fluid and inflating it with air or nitrogen.
A packing gland designed to seal the sliding joint between the upper
and lower telescoping cylinders is installed in the open end of the
outer cylinder. A packing gland wiper ring is also installed in a
groove in the lower bearing or gland nut on most shock struts to
keep the sliding surface of the piston or inner cylinder free from dirt,
mud, ice, and snow. Entry of foreign matter into the packing gland
will result in leaks. The majority of shock struts are equipped with
torque arms attached to the upper and lower cylinders to maintain
correct alignment of the wheel.
129
Nose gear shock struts are provided with an upper centering cam
that is attached to the upper cylinder and a mating lower centering
cam that is attached to the lower cylinder. See figure 12-10. These
cams serve to line up the wheel and axle assembly in the straight-
ahead position when the shock strut is fully extended. This prevents
the nosewheel from being cocked to one side when the nose gear is
retracted, preventing possible structural damage to the aircraft.
These mating cams
130
Figure 12-11.–Shock strut operation.
131
the attachments for installation of an external shimmy damper,
which is discussed later in this chapter.
Nose and main gear shock struts are usually provided with jacking
points and towing lugs. Jacks should always be placed under the
prescribed points. When towing lugs are provided, the towing bar
should be attached only to these lugs.
All shock struts are provided with an instruction plate that gives, in a
condensed form, instructions relative to the filling of the strut with
fluid and inflation of the strut. The instruction plate also specifies the
correct type of hydraulic fluid to use in the strut. The plate is
attached near the high-pressure air valve. It is of the utmost
importance that you always consult the applicable aircraft MIMs and
familiarize yourself with the instructions on the plate prior to
servicing a shock strut with hydraulic fluid and nitrogen or air.
Figure 12-11 shows the inner construction of a shock strut and the
movement of the fluid during compression and extension of the strut.
The com-pression stroke of the shock strut begins as the aircraft hits
the ground. The center of mass of the aircraft con-tinues to move
downward, compressing the strut and sliding the inner cylinder into
the outer cylinder. The metering pin is forced through the orifice, and
by its variable shape, controls the rate of fluid flow at all points of
the compression stoke. In this manner, the greatest possible amount
of heat is dissipated through the walls of the shock strut. At the end
of the downward stroke, the compressed air or nitrogen is further
compressed, limiting the compression stroke of the strut. If there is
an insufficient amount of fluid and/or air or nitrogen in the strut, the
compression stroke will not be limited, and the strut will "bottom"
out, resulting in severe shock and possible damage to the aircraft.
MECHANICAL LINKAGE
The landing gear drag brace (fig. 12-12) consists of an upper and
lower brace that is hinged at the center to
132
Figure 12-12.–Landing gear drag brace adjustment.
permit the brace to jackknife during retraction of the gear. The upper
brace pivots on a trunnion attached to the wheel well overhead. The
lower brace is connected to the lower portion of the shock strut outer
cylinder. On the drag brace shown in figure 12-12, a locking
mechanism is used where the lower and upper drag braces meet.
Usually in this type of installation, the locking mechanism is adjusted
so that it is allowed to be positioned slightly overcentered. You must
be able to inspect and adjust landing gear braces and lccking
mechanisms as specified in the applicable MIM.
To adjust the drag brace shown in figure 12-12, you would first
remove the cotter pin and nut (not shown) from the lock arm shaft.
With the drag brace in the full extended position, rotate the eccentric
bushings that are located on each end of the lock arm shaft.
133
Both bushings must be rotated together to ensure that the high point
of the eccentricity is the same on both bushings. Failure to do this
may result in damage to the equipment or sluggish operation. The
bushings maybe rotated in either direction until the end of the leek
arm shaft, shown as point "A" in figure 12-12, is a distance of 0.003
inch to 0.015 inch from the striker. This clearance is checked with a
feeler gauge.
Other portions of the drag brace are nonadjustable, except for the
length of its down leek cylinder. Figure 12-12 indicates the cylinder
should be adjusted to a length of 12 3/8 inches.
In the design of drag braces, the tendency has been directed toward
lessening the adjustment requirements. In some installations, drag
braces are manufactured to exact dimensions and do not require
adjustments.
Bleed the system every time you replace a part or disconnect a line.
Clear the nose gear from the deck with the hydraulic and electrical
power connected. Depress the nose gear steering switch and operate
the rudder pedals. As the nose gear steering cylinder moves, open
and close the extend and retract bleed ports. Do the same with the
relief valve bleed port at the steering cylinder until the hydraulic
fluid is free of air. Cycle the steering system five complete cycles.
Secure the bleed ports and lockwire. Disconnect electrical and
hydraulic power and remove the jack
For efficient operation of shock struts, the proper fluid level and
pneumatic pressure must be maintained. Before you check the fluid
level, you should consult the aircraft MIM. Deflating a strut can be a
dangerous operation unless the servicing personnel are thoroughly
familiar with high-pressure air valves and observe all the necessary
safety precautions.
Servicing
134
1. Position the aircraft so that the shock struts are in the normal
ground operating position. Ensure that personnel workstands, and
other obstacles are clear of the aircraft.
2. Remove the cap from the air valve, as shown in view A of figure
12-19.
135
Figure 12-19.-Servicing a landing gear strut.
3. Release the air pressure in the strut by slowly turning the air valve
swivel nut counterclockwise approximately 2 turns. This action can
normally be accomplished with the use of a combination wrench.
WARNING
When loosening the swivel nut ensure that the 3/4-inch hex body nut
is either lockwired in place or held tightly with a wrench. If the
136
swivel nut is loosened before the air pressure has been released,
serious injury may result to personnel.
5. When the strut is fully compressed, the air valve assembly may be
removed by breaking the safety wire and turning the 3/4-inch body
nut counter-clockwise.
8. Lockwire the air valve assembly to the strut, using the holes
provided in the body nut.
All aircraft struts are not measured from the same points. View E of
figure 12-19 shows another location where strut extension is
measured. The proper procedure to use will always be found on the
137
instruction plate attached to the shock strut. If these instructions are
not legible, consult the applicable MIM.
10. Tighten the air valve swivel hex nut to a recommended torque of
50-70 inch-pounds.
11. Remove the high-pressure air-line chuck and install the valve cap
fingertight
Bleeding
If the fluid level of a shock strut has become extremely low or, if for
any other reason, air is trapped in the strut cylinder, it may be
necessary to bleed the strut during the servicing operation. Bleeding
is performed with the aircraft placed on jacks. In this position, the
shock struts can be extended and compressed during the filling
operation, expelling all of the entrapped air. As mentioned earlier,
certain aircraft must be placed on jacks for routine servicing of the
shock struts. The following is a typical bleeding procedure.
2. Jack the entire aircraft until all shock struts are fully extended.
138
3. Release the air or nitrogen pressure in the strut to be bled, as
previously described in this chapter.
5. Fill the strut to the level of the filler port with hydraulic fluid.
6. Attach the bleed hose to the filler port, and insert the opposite end
of the hose into a quantity of clean hydraulic fluid.
NOTE: Compress the strut slowly and allow it to extend by its own
weight.
8. Remove the exerciser jack, and then lower and remove all other
jacks.
10. Install the air tiller valve and inflate the strut, as previously
described.
Inspection
139
Figure 12-21.-Landing gear shock strut tools.
nut and reinflating the strut, the strut must be dis-assembled and the
packings replaced.
The tools shown in figure 12-21 are typical of the tools used during
disassembly and assembly of landing gear shock struts. Normally,
each tool is designed for, and should be used only on, one type of
installation. When using wrenches, you must take care to maintain
the lugs of the wrenches in their respective positions.
These tools, like other special tools, should be kept where they will
not be subjected to rough handling, which could cause mushroomed
or deformed surfaces, making them useless for aircraft repair. Shock
strut disassembly and replacement of packings is a requirement for
advancement to first class; therefore, it is not covered in this training
manual
Viscosity,
140
dimensions and units of in the SI system. Viscosity of
a fluid is strongly dependent on temperature and is a weak function
of pressure. For example, when the pressure of air is increased from
1 atm to 50 atm, its viscosity increases only by about 10 percent
allowing one to ignore its dependence on pressure. It is seen that the
viscosity of liquids deceases with temperature while that for the
gases increases with temperature. This difference in behaviour is
explained by the cohesive and intermolecular forces within the fluid.
Liquids are characterized by strong cohesive forces and close packing
of molecules. When temperature increases cohesive forces are
weakened and there is less resistance to motion. Hence viscosity
decreases. With gases, the cohesive forces are very weak and the
molecules are spaced apart. Viscosity is due to the exchange of
momentum between molecules as a result of random motion. As the
temperature increases the molecular activity increases giving rise to
an increased resistance to motion or in other words viscosity
increases.
Kinematic Viscosity,
(1.12)
The cgs physical unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise (P). It is more
commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise
(cP). The centipoise is commonly used because water has a viscosity
of 1.0020 cP (at 20 °C; the closeness to one is a convenient
coincidence).
141
1 centipoise = 1 mPa·s.
Kinematic viscosity
Gases
Liquids
Density,
atmospheric pressure is .
142
on these quantities and is given by the equation of state of the
particular gas.
Specific Volume, v
Specific Weight,
(1.15)
Specific Gravity, SG
Pressure, p
Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on the plate.
Dimensions of pressure are F/L2 which is also called a Pascal.
Pressure values read by measuring devices such as a manometer are
the pressure levels above the atmospheric pressure and are called
gauge pressure. When pressure is referred to a vacuum it becomes
an Absolute Pressure being the sum of the gauge pressure and
atmospheric pressure Pressure is the application of force to a
surface, and the concentration of that force in a given area.
143
p=F/A
Hydrostatic pressure
p = ρgh
Stagnation pressure
144
Units
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per
square metre (N·m-2 or kg·m-1·s-2). This special name for the unit was
added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units
such as N/m².
Non-SI measures (still in use in some parts of the world) include the
pound-force per square inch (psi) and the bar.
Pascal's law
In a body of equally dense fluid at rest, the pressure is the same for
all points in the fluid so long as those points are at the same depth
below the fluid's surface Formula
145
The SI derived unit of work is the joule (J), which is defined as the
work done by a force of one newton acting over a distance of one
metre. The dimensionally equivalent newton-meter (N·m) is
sometimes used instead; however, it is also sometimes reserved for
torque to distinguish its units from work or energy.
Temperature, T
Velocity, V
146
Units of speed include:metres per second, (symbol m/s), the SI
derived unit kilometres per hour, (symbol km/h) miles per hour,
(symbol mph)
(1.17)
Bernoulli's Principle
147
equation, derived by Daniel Bernoulli, describes the behavior of a
fluid moving along a streamline.
(1)
148
thermometer is not very convenient, but other measuring
instruments can be calibrated to this scale.
Temperature in gases
149
temperature in terms of the second law of thermodynamics, which
deals with entropy. Entropy is a measure of the disorder in a system.
The second law states that any process will result in either no change
or a net increase in the entropy of the universe. This can be
understood in terms of probability. Consider a series of coin tosses. A
perfectly ordered system would be one in which every coin toss
would come up either heads or tails. For any number of coin tosses,
there is only one combination of outcomes corresponding to this
situation. On the other hand, there are multiple combinations that
can result in disordered or mixed systems, where some fraction are
heads and the rest tails. As the number of coin tosses increases, the
number of combinations corresponding to imperfectly ordered
systems increases. For a very large number of coin tosses, the
number of combinations corresponding to ~50% heads and ~50%
tails dominates and obtaining an outcome significantly different from
50/50 becomes extremely unlikely. Thus the system naturally
progresses to a state of maximum disorder or entropy.
Entropy
Measuring entropy
150
In real experiments, it is quite difficult to measure the entropy of a
system. The techniques for doing so are based on the thermodynamic
definition of the entropy, and require extremely careful calorimetry
(2)
where wcy is the work done per cycle. We see that the efficiency
depends only on qC/qH. Because qC and qH correspond to heat transfer
at the temperatures TC and TH, respectively, qC/qH should be some
function of these temperatures:
(3)
which implies:
151
g(T1)/g(T3)), where g is a function of a single temperature. We can
now choose a temperature scale with the property that:
(4)
(5)
where the negative sign indicates heat ejected from the system. This
relationship suggests the existence of a state function, S, defined by:
(6)
(7)
(8)
152
The reciprocal of the temperature is the rate of increase of entropy
with energy
The ideal gas law or equation is the equation of state of an ideal gas.
It combines the three primitive gas laws formulated by early physics
researchers. Although roughly accurate for gases at low pressures
and high temperatures, it becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher
pressures and lower temperatures. The equation has the form:
PV = nRT
153
Volume, also called capacity, is a quantification of how much space
an object occupies. The SI unit for volume is the cubic metre.
American spelling is cubic meter.
Relationship to density
The term specific volume is used for volume divided by mass. This is
the reciprocal of the mass density, expressed in units such as cubic
meters per kilogram (m³/kg).
154
For systems consisting of molecules, the internal energy is
partitioned among all of these types of motion. In systems consisting
of monatomic particles, such as helium gas and other noble gases,
the internal energy consists only of the translational kinetic energy
of the individual atoms. Monatomic particles, of course, do not rotate
or vibrate, and are not excited to higher electrical energies, except at
very high temperatures.
Measurement
where
155
must go into internal energy or the mechanical work of expanding
the system.
Equations
where
where
DH = DU + P DV
where
156
dH = T dS + V dP
Standard enthalpy
Mechanical power
where
P is power
E is energy or work W
t is time
SI unit
157
The SI unit of power is the watt, which is equal to one joule per
second.
Non-SI units
Horsepower (hp)
1 hp = 745.69987158227022 W
158
capabilities estimate that Watt was a bit optimistic; few horses could
maintain that effort for long.
Simpler formulae
where
The work is taken to be negative when the force opposes the motion.
More generally, the force and distance are taken to be vector
quantities, and combined using the dot product:
where φ is the angle between the force and the displacement vector.
This formula holds true even when the force acts at an angle to the
direction of travel. To further generalize the formula to situations in
which the force and the object's direction of motion changes over
time, it is necessary to use differentials, d, to express the
infinitesimal work done by the force over an infinitesimal
displacement, thus:
The integration of both sides of this equation yields the most general
formula, as given above.
The centripetal force is the force pulling an object toward the center
of a circular path as the object goes around the circle. An object can
travel in a circle only if there is a centripetal force on it.
159
force accelerates a particle in such a way that it moves along a
circular path. In a corotating reference frame, a particle in circular
motion has zero velocity. In this case, the centripetal force appears
to be exactly cancelled by a pseudo-force, the centrifugal force.
Centripetal forces are true forces, appearing in inertial reference
frames; centrifugal forces appear only in rotating frames.
There are two different definitions for the term Centrifugal force. One
is that centrifugal force is one of the fictitious forces that appears to
act on an object when its motion is viewed from a rotating frame of
reference. Another, less popular definition is that Centrifugal force is
the reaction force exerted by an object moving in a circular path
upon the object that is causing its circular motion, according to
Newton's Third Law.
160
center of the circle. Since this causes a change in the direction of the
object's velocity, the centripetal force causes a corresponding
centripetal acceleration, also toward the center.
161
In physics, the symbol for momentum is a small p; so the above
equation can be rewritten as:
p=m×v
The velocity of an object is given by its speed and its direction. This
means that if the direction of an object changes, its velocity changes.
Likewise if the speed changes, the velocity also changes. Because
momentum depends on velocity, it too has a magnitude and a
direction: it is a vector quantity. For example the momentum of a 5
kg bowling ball would have to be described by the statement that it
was moving westward at 2 m/s. It is insufficient to say that the ball
has 10 kg m/s of momentum; the momentum of the ball is not fully
described until information about its direction is given.
162
Newton's second law: fundamental law of dynamics
When the forces on the object all act along the same line, they can be
added as positive and negative numbers, depending on their
direction. When they do not all act along the same line, the total
must be found by vector addition.
where γ is .
163
surface can safely be assumed to be inertial. The error introduced by
the acceleration of the Earth's surface is minute.)
Whenever one body exerts force upon a second body, the second
body exerts an equal and opposite force upon the first body.
or:
The two forces in Newton's third law are of the same type, e.g., if the
road exerts a forward frictional force on an accelerating car's tires,
then it is also a frictional force that Newton's third law predicts for
the tires pushing backward on the road.
164
The forces acting between particles A and B lie along parallel lines,
but need not lie along the line connecting the particles. One example
of this is a force on an electric dipole due to a point charge, when the
dipole points in a direction perpendicular to the line connecting the
point charge and the dipole. The force on the dipole due to the point
charge is perpendicular to the line connecting them, so there is a
reaction force on the point charge in the opposite direction, but these
two force vectors are parallel and, even when extended to a line,
they never cross each other in space.
The gas laws are a set of laws that describe the relationship between
thermodynamic temperature (T), pressure (P) and volume (V) of
gases. Three of these laws, Boyle's law, Charles's law, and Gay-
Lussac's law come together to form the combined gas law, which
with the addition of Avogadro's law later gave way to the ideal gas
law. Other important gas laws include Dalton's law of partial
pressures. The kinetic theory of gases, Graham's law of effusion, and
root mean square velocity all explain how individual molecules in a
gas act and their relation to pressure, volume, and temperature.
The most important gas law is the ideal gas law which states that:
Other gas laws, such as van der Waals equation, seek to eliminate
the value differences between the ideal gas laws and the actual
gases. The van der Waals equation alters the ideal gas law to more
truely reflect how actual gases function using a series of calculated
values called van der Waals constants.
Boyle's law (sometimes called the Boyle Mariotte law) is one of the
gas laws
Boyle's Law states that the product of the volume and pressure of an
ideal gas is constant, given constant temperature. Expressed
mathematically, the formula for Boyle's law is:
165
-where: V is volume of the gas. P is the pressure of the gas. k is a
constant.
The exact value of the constant need not be known to make use of
the law in comparison between two volumes of the same amount of
gas at equal temperature:
Boyle's law, Charles's Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law form the combined
gas law. The three gas laws in combination with Avogadro's Law can
be generalized by the ideal gas law.
166
It is named after Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), who proposed it in
1883. Typically it is given as follows:
or
167
boundary layer at first flows smoothly over the streamlined shape of
the airfoil. Here the flow is called the laminar layer.
168
Aerodynamics
169
is characterized by a dimensionless number called the drag
coefficient, and is calculated using the drag equation. Assuming a
constant drag coefficient, drag will vary as the square of velocity.
Thus, the resultant power needed to overcome this drag will vary as
the cube of velocity
170
drag. Form drag follows the drag equation, meaning that it rises with
the square of speed, and thus becomes more important for high
speed aircrat
Interference drag
171
that of the critical mach of that aircraft's wing. The magnitude of the
rise in drag is impressive, typically peaking at about four times the
normal subsonic drag.
One does not have to sweep the wing, it is possible to build a wing
that is simply extremely thin.
Lift-induced drag
Aspect Ratio
Wing Planform
172
and washout of the wing sections toward the tips can produce a
similar reduction in induced drag.
Coefficient of Lift
From the pilot's point of view, where the aspect ratio and planform of
the aircraft are fixed, the important factors in determining induced
drag are angle of attack, airspeed and aircraft weight. These are
incorporated in the induced drag formula which can be seen to have
a powerful effect on the amount of induced drag generated.
Angle of attack
Induced drag increases as the angle of attack is increased. The
strength of the vortices is determined by the pressure
difference above and below the wing. When the wing is at the
zero-lift angle of attack (AoA -2° / CL = 0) there are no
vortices and therefore no induced drag. As the angle of attack
is increased, vortices form and increase in strength up to the
angle of attack for CL Max, typically 16° (varies between
aircraft). Induced drag therefore increases with angle of attack
to be at a maximum at the stalling angle.
Airspeed
Induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the
indicated airspeed (IAS). This is the opposite to the effect of
airspeed on parasite drag, which is directly proportional to
IAS². When the factors of angle of attack and airspeed are
combined, induced drag is greatest at low airspeeds and at
high angles of attack.
Weight
Increased weight means that higher angles of attack must be
used to produce a given amount of lift for a given speed.
Induced drag increases in proportion to weight squared (W²).
Some airliners and many gliders have small fins at the wing tips
winglets to minimise the vortices. Wingtip tanks have a similar
effect.
173
Induced drag must be added to the parasitic drag to find the total
drag. As discussed above, induced drag becomes less of a factor the
faster the aircraft flies because at higher speeds a smaller angle of
attack is required for the same amount of lift. The opposite occurs
with parasitic drag (the drag caused simply by pushing the aircraft
through the air), which increases with speed. The combined overall
drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed — an
aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal
efficiency.
Why don't all aircraft have high aspect-ratio wings? There are
several reasons:
174
Lift consists of the sum (technically the negative product) of all the
fluid dynamic forces on a body normal (i.e. perpendicular) to the
direction of the external flow around that body.
It is important to note that the acceleration of the air does not simply
involve the air molecules "bouncing off" the bottom of the airfoil.
Rather, air molecules closely follow both the top and bottom surfaces
of the airfoil, and so the airflow is deflected downward. In fact, the
acceleration of the air during the creation of lift can also be described
as a "turning" of the airflow.
Bernoulli's principle
The force on the wing can also be examined in terms of the pressure
differences above and below the wing. (This method of explanation is
mathematically equivalent to the Newton's 3rd law explanation as
developed above.) The relationship between the velocities and
pressures above and below the wing are nearly predicted by
Bernoulli's equation
Circulation
175
The Helmholtz theorem states that circulation is conserved. When an
aircraft is at rest, there is no circulation. As the flow speed increases
(that is, the aircraft accelerates in the air-body-fixed frame), a
vortex, called the starting vortex, forms at the trailing edge of the
airfoil, due to viscous effects in the boundary layer. Eventually the
vortex detaches from the airfoil and gets swept away from it
rearward. The circulation in the starting vortex is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the circulation around the airfoil.
Theoretically, the starting vortex remains connected to the vortex
bound in the airfoil, through the wing-tip vortices, forming a closed
circuit. In reality the starting vortex gets dissipated by a number of
effects, as do the wing-tip vortices far behind the aircraft.
Coefficient of lift
where:
Downwash
The term downwash has two nearly unrelated meanings within the
field of aerodynamics.One meaning, used most often by non-
engineers, refers to the forcing of air downward during the creation
of lift. This usage is most common with regard to helicopters where
the effect is most dramatic.The other meaning, used most often by
engineers, refers to the flow of air over the tip of a wing and is a
critical component in the creation of wing tip vortices.
176
v = fluid velocity along the streamline
g = acceleration due to gravity on Earth
h = height from an arbitrary point in the direction of gravity
p = pressure along the streamline
ρ = fluid density
Luckily, wingtip vortices only affect the portion of the wing closest to
the end. Thus, the longer a wing is, the smaller the affected fraction
of it will be. As well, the shorter the chord of the wing, the less
opportunity air will have to form vortices. This means that for an
airplane to be most efficient, it should have a very high aspect ratio.
However, increasing the wingspan reduces the manoueverability of
the aircraft, which is why combat and aerobatic planes usually
feature short, stubby wings despite the efficiency losses.
177
Another method of reducing wingtip vortices is winglets, as seen on
a number of modern airliners such as the Airbus A340. Winglets work
by interfering with the formation of the vortex, thereby effectively
increasing the aspect ratio of the wing. Winglets can yield very
worthwhile economy improvements on long distance flights
Washout
Stall (flight)
178
Stall recovery usually involves reducing the angle of attack to
"break" the stall, and adding power to begin a climb
Rigorous definition
179
Typical behavior of most airfoils.
Graph
The graph shows that the greatest amount of lift is produced just
before the critical angle of attack is reached (which in early 20th
century aviation is called the "burble point") . This angle is 17.5
degrees in this case but changes from aircraft to aircraft. The graph
shows that as the critical angle of attack is exceeded, the lift
produced by the wing decreases significantly. The aerofoil is now
stalled.
Note that this graph shows the stall angle, yet in practice most pilots
discuss stalling in terms of airspeed. This is because in general terms
one can relate the angle of attack to airspeed - a lower speed
requires a greater angle of attack to produce the necessary lift and
vice versa. Thus as speed falls, AoA increases, until the critical angle
is reached. The airspeed at which this occurs is the stalling speed of
the aircraft in that particular configuration. Deploying flaps/slats
decreases the stall speed to allow the aircraft to land at a slower
speed.
Stalling an aeroplane
In most light aircraft, as the stall is reached the aircraft will start to
descend (because the wing is no longer producing enough lift to
support the aeroplane's weight) and the nose will pitch down.
Recovery from this stalled state usually involves the pilot decreasing
the angle of attack and increasing the air speed, until smooth air flow
over the wing is resumed. Normal flight can be resumed once
recovery from the stall is complete.
180
a go-around maneuver if the pilot does not properly respond to the
out-of-trim situation resulting from the transition from low power
setting to high power setting at low speed. Stall speed is increased
when the upper wing surfaces are contaminated with ice or frost.
Stalling characteristics
A slight twist can be introduced to the wing with the leading edge
near the wing tip twisted downward. This is called washout and
causes the wing root to stall before the wing tip. This makes the stall
gentle and progressive. Since the stall is delayed at the wing tips,
where the ailerons are, roll control is maintained when the stall
begins.
The wing can be built with aerodynamic twist; the airfoil changes
shape toward the wing tip in such a way that the wing tip has a
181
lower stall speed than the wing root. This serves the same purpose
as washout.
If a forward canard is used for pitch control rather than an aft tail,
the canard is designed to stall at a slightly higher speed than the
wing (i.e. the canard stalls first). When the canard stalls, the nose
drops, lowering the angle of attack thus preventing the wing from
stalling. Thus the wing virtually never stalls.
If an aft tail is used, the wing is designed to stall before the tail. In
this case, the wing can be flown at higher lift coefficient (closer to
stall) to produce more overall lift
182
Pitch is rotation around the lateral or transverse axis. This axis is
parallel to the wings, thus the nose and tail both pitch up or down.
Types include:
183
Split flap - upper and lower surfaces are separate, the lower surface
operates like a plain flap, but the upper surface stays immobile or
moves only slightly.
Blown flaps - systems that blow engine air over the upper surface of
the flap at certain angles to improve lift characteristics.
Low-speed planforms
The primary concern in low speed flight is the aspect ratio, the
comparison of the length of the wing measured out from the
fuselage, span, compared to the length from front to back, chord.
Wings with higher aspect ratios, that is, wings that are longer and
skinnier, have lower drag for any given amount of lift than a wing of
the same area that is shorter and fatter. This is due to an effect
known as induced drag, caused by airflow over the tip of the wing. As
the size of the tip decreases compared to the wing's overall size, the
magnitude of the induced drag is reduced.
High-speed planforms
184
Just as on the lower speed designs, making the "perfect" high speed
planform is difficult for practical reasons. In this case a very thin
wing makes it difficult to use the internal room for storage of fuel
and landing gear, as well as making the wing considerably less stiff
torsionally as well as leading to increased induced drag when flying
slower.
Solutions to this problem come in many forms, notably the use of the
swept-wing and delta-wing, both of which "fool" the air into thinking
it is flowing over a thinner wing with more chord.
Speed of sound
More commonly the term refers to the speed of sound in air. The
speed varies depending on atmospheric conditions; the most
important factor is the temperature. The humidity has very little
effect on the speed of sound, while the static sound pressure (air
pressure) has none. Sound travels slower with an increased altitude
(elevation if you are on solid earth), primarily as a result of
temperature and humidity changes.
Stagnation pressure
Shock wave
185
tremendous amounts of energy (hundreds of Megawatts per square
meter for shocks generated by nuclear explosions).
Shock waves are not sound waves; a shock wave takes the form of a
very thin membrane (sheet of energy) on the order of micro-meters
in thickness. The pressure excursion within the shock wave is so
extreme that it causes the speed of sound within the wave to change.
Shock waves in air are heard as a loud "crack" or "snap" noise. Over
time a shock wave can change from a nonlinear wave into a linear
wave, degenerating into a conventional sound wave as it heats the
air and loses energy. The sound wave is heard as the familiar "thud"
or "thump" of a sonic boom, commonly created by the supersonic
flight of aircraft.
There are two types of shock waves: normal shocks and oblique
shocks. A normal shock extends perpendicular to the flow of fluid,
and the flow goes from supersonic upstream of the shock wave to
subsonic downstream. An oblique shock is formed at an angle to the
flow, and although the component of flow perpendicular to the
oblique shock goes from supersonic to subsonic in crossing the wave,
the tangent component of flow is not affected, so the net flow may
remain supersonic downstream of an oblique shock wave.
186
A cage around the engine reflects any shock waves. A spike behind
the engine converts them into trust.
Supersonic
Any speed over the speed of sound, which is approximately 343 m/s,
1,087 ft/s, 761 mph or 1,225 km/h in air at sea level, is said to be
supersonic. Speeds greater than 5 times the speed of sound are
sometimes referred to as hypersonic. The aircraft's design was
187
revolutionary introducing many innovations which are still used on
today's supersonic aircraft. The single most important development
was the all-moving tailplane which allowed control to be maintained
at supersonic speeds;
Tailplane
Stability
Control
T-tail
188
Pros
The tailplane surfaces are kept well out of the airflow behind the
wing, giving smoother flow, more predictable design characteristics,
and better pitch control. This is especially important for planes
operating at low speed, where clean airflow is required for control.
The tail surfaces are mounted well out of the way of the rear
fuselage, permitting this site to be used for the aircraft's engines.
Cons
The control runs to the elevators are more complex. The elevator
surfaces are much more difficult to casually inspect from the ground.
In aircraft fitted with an ejector seat and a
Elevator (aircraft)
189
control surface is configured to stall before the wing, causing a pitch
down and reducing the angle of attack of the wing.
Stabilizer (aircraft)
Rudder
Deep stall
190
Spin (flight)
191
This may happen during an uncoordinated turn or other maneuver.
An aircraft may be deliberately spun for purposes of training, test
flying, or aerobatics. A spin is usually entered by flying the aircraft
into a stall condition. As the stall point is reached, the rudder (and
sometimes opposite aileron) is used to yaw the aircraft. It is a
common misconception that the outboard wing is still flying while
the inner wing is stalled; in reality both wings are stalled.
Fuselage
In an aircraft, the fuselage is the main body section that holds crew
and passengers or cargo. In single engine aircraft it will usually
contain an engine, athough in some amphibious aircraft the single
engine is mounted on a pylon attached to the fuselage. The fuselage
also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific
relationships to lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability and
maneuverability.
192
is then fitted out with wiring, controls, and interior equipment such
as seats and luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built using
this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this
fashion which are then joined with fasteners to form the complete
fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined largely
by the costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production,
where a large number of identical aircraft are to be produced.
Aerodynamic heating
Mach number
It can be shown that the Mach number is also the ratio of inertial
forces (also referred to aerodynamic forces) to elastic force
Critical mach
193
Wings generate much of their lift due to the Bernoulli effect; by
speeding up the airflow over the top of the wing, the air has less
density on top than on the bottom, leading to a net upward force.
The relative difference in speed is due largely to the wing's shape, so
the difference in speed remains a fairly constant ratio over a wide
range of speeds.
But if the air speed on the top of the wing is faster than on the
bottom, there will be some speed where the air on top reaches the
speed of sound. This is the critical mach. When this happens shock
waves form on the upper wing at the point where the flow becomes
supersonic, typically behind the midline of the chord. Shock waves
generate lift of their own, so the lift of the wing suddenly moves
rearward, twisting it down. This effect is known as mach tuck.
Chord (aircraft)
194
Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is defined as
The ratio of the chord of a wing to its width (or span) is known as the
aspect ratio an important indicator of the lift-induced drag the wing
will create. In general planes with higher aspect ratios - wide skinny
wings - will have less drag. This is why gliders have long wings.
Swept wing
When a swept-wing travels at high speed, the airflow has little time
to react and simply flows over the wing. However at lower speeds
there is more time for motion and a strong streamline, and with the
front of the wing angled, some of the air is pushed to the side
towards the wing tip. At the wing root, by the fuselage, this has little
noticeable effect, but as you move towards the tip the airflow is
pushed sidewise not only by the wing, but the sidewise moving air
beside it. By the time you reach the tip the airflow is moving along
the wing instead of over it, a problem known as spanwise flow.
195
The problem with spanwise flow is that the lift of the wing is
generated by the airflow over it from front to rear. As an increasing
amount travels spanwise, the amount flowing front to rear is
reduced, leading to a loss of lift. Normally this is not much of a
problem, but as the plane slows for landing the tips can actually drop
below the stall point even at speeds where stalls should not occur.
When this happens the tip stalls, and since the tip is swept to the
rear, the net lift moves forward. This causes the plane to pitch up,
leading to more of the wing stalling, leading to more pitch up, and so
on.
The solution to this problem took on many forms. One was the
addition of a strip of metal known as a wing fence on the upper
surface of the wing to redirect the flow to the rear (see the MiG-15
as an example), another closely related design was to add a dogtooth
notch to the leading edge (Avro Arrow). Other designs took a more
radical approach, including the XF-91 Thunderceptor's wing that
grew thicker towards the tip to provide more lift there, and the
British-favoured compound sweep or scimitar wing that reduced the
sweep along the span, used on their V Bombers.
Streamline
196
particles that have passed through a particular spatial point in the
past. In steady (time-independent) flow, the streamlines, pathlines,
and streaklines coincide. A scalar function whose contours define the
streamlines is known as the streamfunction.
197
Control reversal
There are several causes for this problem: pilot error, effects of high
speed flight, incorrectly connected controls, and various coupling
forces on the aircraft.
Wing fence
198
A Polish Sukhoi Su-20, with large wing fences on inner wings.
At the Critical Mach number, local airflow over the airframe reaches
the speed of sound (due to the airflow speeding-up to go around
various curvatures in the aircraft structure) and creates shock waves
sufficient to affect the airflow over the control surfaces, resulting in
a loss of control, although the aircraft itself may still be flying
subsonically.
Vortex generator
199
the wing. They can be seen on the wings and vertical tails of many
airliners.
The purpose of the generators are to stick out of the stagnant air
near the surface of the wing, and into the freely moving air outside
the boundary layer. This layer is typically quite thin, but dramatically
reduces speed of the airflow towards the rear of the wing. The
generators mix the free stream with the stagnant air to get it moving
again, providing considerably more airflow at the rear of the wing
and thereby providing the control surfaces with more power. This
process is typically referred to as re-energizing the boundary layer.
Wingspan
The wingspan (or just span) of an airplane is the distance from the
left wingtip to the right wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777 has a
wingspan of about 60 m (200 feet). Planes with a longer wingspan
are generally more efficient because they suffer less induced drag
and their wingtip vortices do not affect the wing as much. However,
the long wings mean that the plane has a greater moment of inertia
about its longitudinal axis and therefore cannot roll as quickly and is
less manouverable. Thus, combat aircraft and aerobatic planes
usually opt for shorter wingspans to increase manouverability. Since
the amount of lift that a wing generates is proportional to the area of
the wing, planes with short wings must correspondingly have a
longer chord. An aircraft's ratio of its wingspan to chord is therefore
very important in determining its characteristics, and aerospace
engineers call this value the aspect ratio of a wing.
Dihedral
200
Dihedral on the wings and tailplane of a Boeing 737
201
Anhedral on a Harrier GR7
Dutch roll
The Dutch Roll mode can be excited by any use of aileron or rudder,
but for flight test purposes it is usually excited with a rudder doublet
or singlet. Some larger aircraft are better excited with aileron inputs.
Periods can range from a few seconds for light aircraft to a minute or
more for airliners.
202
The name comes from the movement that (Dutch) skaters make
when skating on ice.
Phugoid
203
system failure. The crew flew the aircraft with throttle only.
Suppressing the phugoid tendency was particularly difficult.
Airfoil
204
Airfoil design is a major facet of aerodynamics. Various airfoils serve
different flight regimes. A supercritical airfoil, with its low camber,
reduces transonic drag divergence, while a symmetric airfoil may
better suit frequent inverted flight. Supersonic airfoils are much
more angular in shape and can have a very sharp leading edge. While
sharper leading edged airfoils produce stiffer and lighter wings, large
rounder edges increase wing volume for fuel. Moveable high-lift
devices, flaps and slats are fitted to airfoils on most aircraft. New
airfoil design techniques continue to develop.
Types include:
205
Automatic - the slat lies flush with the wing leading edge until
reduced aerodynamic forces allow it to extend by way of springs
when needed. This type is typically used on light aircraft.
The chord of the slat is typically only a few percent of the wing
chord. They may extend over the outer third of the wing or may
cover the entire leading edge. Slats work by increasing the camber of
the wing, and also by opening a small gap (the slot) between the slat
and the wing leading edge, allowing a small amount of high-pressure
air from the lower surface to reach the upper surface, where it helps
postpone the stall.
The slat has a counterpart found in the wings of some birds, the alula
– a feather or group of feathers which the bird can extend under
control of its "thumb".
Subsonic aerodynamics
Transonic aerodynamics
206
Transonic flows are characterized by shock waves and expansion
waves. A shock wave or expansion wave is a region of very large
changes in the flow properties. In fact, the properties change so
quickly they are nearly discontinuous across the waves.
Supersonic aerodynamics
207
MILD CORROSION
· Corrosion findings characterized by discoloration or pitting with
depth of approximately 0.025mm (0.001 inch).
· Mild corrosion findings whose cumulative material during
successive inspection exceeds the allowable damage limits.
· Corrosion findings due to accidental causes as corrosive liquid
spillage or others.
NOTE: ALLOWABLE DAMAGE LIMITS ARE GIVEN IN THE
APPROPRIATE SRM CHAPTERS.
LARGER ALLOWABLE LIMITS MAY, HOWEVER, BE APPROVED FOR
PARTICULAR CASES.
MODERATE CORROSION
· Corrosion findings similar to mild corrosion but with some blister or
flaking. Depth of the corrosion may be as deep as 0.25 mm (0.01
inch) maximum.
NOTE: FINDINGS OF THE "MODERATE CORROSION" TYPE OUT OF
ALLOWABLE DAMAGE LIMITS SHOULD PROMOTE ACTION ON THE
OTHER AIRCRAFT OF THE
OPERATOR FLEET AND BE REPORTED TO THE
MANUFACTURER.
SEVERE CORROSION
· Corrosion findings with general appearance as moderate corrosion
but with severe blistering exfoliation or flaking. Depth of the
corrosion is greater than 0.25 mm (0.01 inch).
NOTE: FINDINGS OF THE "SEVERE CORROSION" TYPE SHOULD
PROMOTE IMMEDIATE ACTION ON THE OTHER AIRCRAFT OF THE
OPERATOR FLEET AND BE REPORTED TO THE MANUFACTURER AND
REGULATORY AUTHORITY
2.3. CORROSION PRONE AREA
Some areas of the aircraft are prone to corrosion due to the
particular structural detail, to dissimilar metal, build-up of moisture,
engine exhaust gas deposit, accumulation of water, debris, loose
fasteners, hydraulic fluids, ineffective drain holes plugged by dirt,
grease, abrasion, etc.
The main areas prone to corrosion are
· Door areas.
· Lavatories, galley and luggage compartment understructure.
· Internal surface of fuselage lower panels.
· Landing gear wheel wells.
· Joint with steel, C.RE.S, nickel or titanium fasteners.
· Batteries compartment.
· Rear pressure bulkhead.
· Electrical connectors.
· Lap joints and butt joints.
· Trailing edge. open areas.
208
These areas should be checked for corrosion whenever possible and
the causes that favour corrosion eliminated (water accumulation,
spillage of any kind, dirt, plugged drain holes, etc.).
2.5. CORROSION INSPECTION AND MEASUREMENT
The extent and the depth of any corrosion must be clearly identified.
The visual inspection is the most common means to detect corrosion
If the visual inspection is deemed not effective (hidden corrosion
suspected) adequate inspection technique or disassembling shall be
performed.
The most common means of inspection, other than visual inspection,
to detect corrosion are:
Eddy current inspection.
Eddy current (primarily low frequency) can be used to detect
thinning due to corrosion and cracks in multilayered structure. Low
frequency eddy current can be used to detect corrosion in underlying
structure because the Eddy current will penetrate in the second layer
with sufficient sensitivity for approximate results.
X-RAY inspection.
The X-RAY technique is effective for severe or moderate-to severe
corrosion but its use is limited for mild-to-moderate corrosion. In any
case X-RAY requires qualified and certified personnel to obtain
reliable results.
Ultrasonic inspection
Ultrasonic inspection provides sensitive detection capability for
corrosion damage detection when access is available to a surface
with a continuous bulk of material exposed to corrosion. Ultrasonic
inspection is commonly used to detect exfoliation, stress corrosion
cracks and general thinning of material. Trained personnel must
conduct the examination if any useful information has to be derived
from indicating devices. Use of calibration block may be required.
209
SYMPTOMS:
Severe local corrosion along faying surface.
CAUSE:
Penetration of oxygen and corrosive agent into a joint.
PREVENTION:
Efficient sealing of faying surfaces from corrosiveve substances.
FRETTI NG
SYMPTOMS:
Destruction of natural protective film over large surfaces and loss of
metal from surface followed by dark coloured oxidation.
CAUSE:
Abrasion of metal under load in humid environmental conditions.
PREVENTION:
Detail design and protective treatment, material selection.
GALVANI C
SYMPTOMS:
Powder-like white or grey deposits.
CAUSE:
Two dissimilar metals in contact.
PREVENTION:
Detail design, protective treatment, special assembly techniques.
(Sealing, electrical insulation of metals).
PI TTI NG
SYMPTOMS:
Holes in metal surface.
CAUSE:
Halogen ions present in attacking electrolyte (corrosive agent),
destroying surface treatment.
PREVENTION:
Protective treatment.
I NTERGRANULAR
SYMPTOMS:
Normally only perceived by cracking.
CAUSE:
Chemical action along grain boundaries within the material
Difference in electrical potential between grain and grain boundaries.
PREVENTION:
Material selection and protective treatment.
EXFOLI ATI ON
SYMPTOMS:
Flaking and loss of metal thickness.
CAUSE:
Swelling and flaking at grain ends exposed by machining.
PREVENTION:
Pre-heat treatment and material selection.
FILI FORM
SYMPTOMS:
210
Paint bulging and longitudinal propagation of blisters on surface.
CAUSE:
Paint damage.
PREVENTION:
Corrosion resistant primer, restoration of paint system.
211
NOTE 2: Refer to specific SRM chapters for information concerning
permissible damage depth.
NOTE 3: For large surfaces and in the event of filiform corrosion,
VACUBLAST treatment with glass beads is recommended.
b) Chemical action (Ref. NOTE below)
· Remove dust and degrease with solvent.
· Using a brush, apply chromic acid anhydride solution (chromic acid
(10%) + demineralized water) to the damaged area.
· Allow solution to act for 10 mn.
· Rinse off with demineralized water and rub down with a nylon
brush to eliminate dark yellow coloration.
· Wipe off with cloth.
Dry off with dry oil-free air.
NOTE: If rinsing cannot be performed correctly and in cases where
the chromic acid anhydride solution may reach inaccessible
structural stackings, do not apply chemical action.
(3) Checking of corrosion removal
Using a magnifying glass, check for evidence of corrosion and for
presence of cracks.
In doubt, conduct dye-penetrant or Eddy-current inspection.
(4) Neutralization
· Apply potassium dichromate solution (3% + demineralized water)
with brush.
· Allow solution to act until surface is dry.
· Rinse off with demineralized water and rub down with a nylon
brush to eliminate yellow traces.
(5) Final step
Overall rinsing with demineralized water and drying off with dry
oilfree air.
(6) Paint touch-up
The time elapsed between the drying phase and paint application
shall be as short as possible.
If this operation is delayed, the area treated against corrosion shall
be protected to prevent any external contamination.
· Perform paint touch-up as follows:
- Wash primer P99 or A 166 ASTRAL/SIKKENS.
NOTE:Wash primer can be replaced by application of Alodine 1200.
In this case, after Alodine application rinse off with clear water (do
not rub) and dry off with dry oil-free air.
· Apply protective finish scheme relevant to the zone:
- primer,
- top coat,
- livery.
5.3. TREATMENT OF CORROSION ON STEELS
Accomplishment of this process is applicable to steel types having
the following characteristics:
· Low-alloy steels with main added element < 5% and total alloy
elements < 10%.
212
· Bare metal condition (no cadmium plating, no chop process).
· Tensile strength < 130 hb or 1300 MPa.
A. Equipment and materials
· Non-metallic pad (scotchbrite very fine grade).
· Abrasive paper (fine 400 grade).
· Deoxidizing agents (equivalent products):
- Rust removing phosphating agent DERCAM SARL DERCAM
- Chlorinated or ketonic solvent (MEK, baltane).
B. Operating procedure
(1) Surface preparation
· Masking of non-corroded adjacent areas by installation of plastic
screens secured with adhesive tape.
· Mechanical removal of corrosion by rubbing with scotchbrite and
abrasive pads. (Ref. SRM 51-21-58).
(2) Deoxidation
· Remove dust and clean with solvent.
· Brush apply either DERCAM or ARDROX Type 140 (these two
products are ready for use) and rub well into surface using
scotchbrite pad. If part is removable, immerse it in the deoxidizing
solution.
· Allow to act for 30 min. and repeat application.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
Within one hour, the action of the product causes an attenuation of
the corrosion but the attack is not sufficient to reach the uncorroded
metal substrate. Several hours are then necessary to obtain complete
neutralization of corrosion products and superficial phosphating of
metal (white or greyish film).
(3) Checking of corrosion removal and phosphating action
· Using suitable light source, make certain that all areas have been
treated.
(4) Final steps
· Overall rinsing off with demineralized water.
· Drying off with dry oil-free air.
(5) Paint application
As the phosphate film is a treatment for painting, apply suitable
protection scheme to the component.
NOTE: Installation of part (sealed or with PR sealant) or application
of protective finishing shall be performed immediately after corrosion
treatment.
Aluminum alloys (2024 and 7075) are generally used on ATR, with
different heat treatment.
The 7000 series aluminum alloys used on the ATR are heat treated to
produce either T6, T73 or T76 tempers. T73 has excellent stress
corrosion and exfoliation corrosion resistance. T76
temper has strength between T73 and T6, with high exfoliation
corrosion resistance and intermediate stress corrosion resistance.
8. PROTECTION
213
8.1. PAINT SYSTEMS
SURFACES TREATMENTS:
Aluminum alloys = The metal is generally electro chemically
anodized with Chromic Acid Anodizing (CAA) or with Phosphoric Acid
Anodizing (PAA) Clad parts in the
fuselage are treated with alodine 1200 or wash primer (Chemical
Conversion Coating - CCC).
Titanium alloy = This totally corrosion resistant metal is not
protected unless in contact with a different material and in this case,
it is sand blasted and painted. Small parts are
treated by sulfuric acid anodizing or ionic vapor deposit processes.
Steel = Generally, cadmium plating.
FOR CONTACT SURFACES:
· No relative motion:
- Corrosion resistant steel/corrosion resistant steel: passivation,
- Alloy steel/alloy steel: cadmium plating,
- Steel/aluminum: cadmium plating of the steel part,
- Aluminum alloy/carbon fiber:
. glass fiber/kevlar/tedlar layer and primer on the carbon part, .
anodizing + primer on the aluminum alloy part, . wet assembly of
fasteners + interfay sealant.
· Relative motion: chromium plating of the steel part.
Parts not accessible to cadmium plating: phosphating, plus grease or
oil protection.
Stainless steels: no protection, except for contacts with other
materials.
IN ADDITION:
· All bonded parts are treated by phosphoric acid anodizing (instead
of being only pickled as was common practice on last generation
aircraft).
· The wing tanks are treated by chromic acid anodizing and painted
(primer loaded with chromate).
Turbojet
In a turbojet all of the air passing through the engine goes through
the combustion chambers. Generally turbojets are arranged around a
central shaft, running the length of the engine, with the compressor
and turbine connected to the shaft at opposite ends. In the middle of
the engine is a combustion area, typically in the form of a number of
individual "flame tubes" or "cans". The combustion area is either
annular or can-annular (a series of burner cans arranged in a ring),
with annular predominating in larger more modern engines
214
Compressor
The compressor adds energy to the air flow, at the same time
squeezing it into a smaller space (increasing its pressure), slowing it
down, and increasing its temperature
Fuel burning
Temperature
Turbine
After the cans, the gases are allowed to expand through the turbine.
In the first stage the turbine is largely a reaction turbine (similar to a
pelton wheel) and rotates because of the impact of the hot gas
215
stream. Later stages are convergent ducts that accelerate the gas
rearward and gain energy from that process. Pressure drops, and
energy is transferred into the shaft. The turbine's rotational energy is
used to drive the compressor to compress the intake air and some
shaft power is extracted to drive accessories like fuel, oil, and
hydraulic pumps. The pressure drop through the turbine is much
lower than the pressure rise through the compressor because the
flow volume in the turbine is so much higher (since fuel has been
added), which in turn is due to the higher temperature. In a turbojet
almost two thirds of all the power generated by burning fuel is used
by the compressor to compress the air for the engine.
Temperature
After the turbine, the gases are allowed to expand and accelerate
further through the exhaust nozzle. In some turbojets the gases may
actually transition to supersonic flow in the nozzle, in which case the
nozzle will be a converging-diverging nozzle. A subsonic nozzle
converges all the way to the end. Some supersonic military jets have
variable nozzles that can change from subsonic to supersonic flow in
different flight regimes.
216
Silicon nitride turbine wheel for use in small turbogenerators
217
The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed.
This number describes the speed of the turbine at its maximum
efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The specific speed
is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow
conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can
be calculated and an appropriate turbine design selected.
Combustion chamber
Turbofan
218
and a propeller is that the duct slows the air before it arrives at the
fan. As both propeller and fan blades must operate subsonically to be
efficient, ducted fans allow efficient operation at higher vehicle
speeds.
The bypass ratio (the ratio of bypassed air mass to combustor air
mass) is an important parameter for turbofans.
Low-bypass turbofans
219
be lower, the (dry power) fuel flow would also be reduced, resulting
in a better specific fuel consumption (SFC).
The first high-bypass turbofan engine was the General Electric TF39,
built to power the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy military transport aircraft.
The civil General Electric CF6 engine used a related design. Other
high-bypass turbofans are the Pratt & Whitney JT9D, the three-shaft
Rolls-Royce RB211 and the CFM International CFM56.
For reasons of fuel economy, and also of reduced noise, almost all of
today's jet airliners are powered by high-bypass turbofans.
The Soviet Union's engine technology was less advanced than the
West's and its first wide-body aircraft, the Ilyushin Il-86, was
powered by low-bypass engines. The Yakovlev Yak-42, a medium-
range, rear-engined aircraft seating up to 120 passengers was the
first Soviet aircraft to use high-bypass engines.
Technical Discussion
220
Pressure Ratio (discharge pressure/inlet pressure), the higher the
jet velocity and the corresponding specific thrust. Now imagine we
replace this set-up with an equivalent turbofan - same airflow and
same fan pressure ratio. Obviously, the core of the turbofan must
produce sufficient horsepower to drive the fan via the Low Pressure
(LP) Turbine. If we choose a low (HP) Turbine Inlet Temperature for
the gas generator, the core airflow needs to be relatively high to
compensate. The corresponding bypass ratio is therefore relatively
low. If we raise the Turbine Inlet Temperature, the core airflow can
be smaller, thus increasing bypass ratio. Raising turbine inlet
temperature tends to increase thermal efficiency and, therefore,
improve fuel efficiency.
Fn = m * (Vjfe - Va)
where:
With a high specific thrust (e.g. fighter) engine, the jet velocity is
relatively high, so intuitively one can see that increases in flight
velocity have less of an impact upon net thrust than a medium
specific thrust (e.g. trainer) engine, where the jet velocity is lower.
221
Recent developments in blade technology
The turbine blades in a turbofan engine are subject to high heat and
stress, and require special fabrication. New material construction
methods and material science have allowed blades, which were
originally polycrystalline (regular metal), to be made from lined up
metallic crystals and more recently mono-crystalline blades, which
can operate at higher temperatures with less distortion.
Bypass ratio
Today almost all jet engines include some amount of bypass. For
"low speed" operations like airliners modern engines use bypass
ratios up to 17, while for "high speed" operations like fighter aircraft
the ratios are much lower, around
222
SFC is dependent on the engine design, with differences in the SFC
between different engines tending to be quite small. For instance,
typical gasoline engines will have a SFC of about 0.5 lb/(hp·h) (0.3
kg/(kW·h) = 83 g/MJ), regardless of the design of a particular
engine. One exception to the rule is that the SFC within a particular
class of engine will vary based on the compression ratio, an engine
with a higher compression ratio will deliver a better SFC because it
extracts more power from the fuel. Diesel engines have better SFCs
than gasoline largely because they have much higher compression
ratios, the way they burn their fuel is actually less efficient.
Types
223
Rocket Carries own Very few moving very low specific
propellant parts, Mach 0 to impulse- typically
onboard, emits Mach 25+, efficient 100-450 seconds.
jet for at very high speed Typically requires
propulsion (> Mach 10.0 or so), carrying oxidiser
thrust/weight ratio onboard which
over 100, relatively increases risks.
simple, no air inlet,
doesn't require
atmosphere, high
compression ratio,
very high speed
exhaust
Ramjet Intake air is Very few moving Must have a high
compressed parts, Mach 0.8 to initial speed to
entirely by Mach 5+, efficient function, inherently
speed of at high speed (> inefficient at slow
oncoming air Mach 2.0 or so), speeds due to poor
and duct shape lightest of all compression ratio,
(divergent) airbreathing jets difficult to arrange
(thrust/weight ratio shaft power for
up to 30 at optimum accessories,
speed) difficult to engineer
to be efficient over
a wide range of
airspeeds.
Turboprop Strictly not a High efficiency at Limited top speed
(Turboshaft jet at all- a gas lower subsonic (aeroplanes),
similar) turbine engine airspeeds(300 knots somewhat noisy,
is used as plus), high shaft complexity of
powerplant to power to weight propeller drive, very
drive large yaw
(propeller) (aeroplane) if
shaft engine fails
Propfan Turboprop Higher fuel Development of
engine drives efficiency, some propfan engines has
one or more designs are less been very limited,
propellers. noisy than typically more noisy
much like a turbofans, could than turbofans,
turbofan but lead to higher- complexity
without speed commercial
ductwork aircraft, popular in
the 1980s during
fuel shortages,
Pulsejet Air enters a Very simple design, Noisy, inefficient
divergent-duct commonly used on (low compression
224
inlet, the front model aircraft ratio), works best
of the at small scale,
combustion valves need to be
area is shut, replaced very often
fuel injected
into the air
ignites,
exhaust vents
from other end
of engine
Pulse Similar to a Maximum Extremely noisy,
detonation pulsejet, but theoretical engine parts subject to
engine combustion efficiency extreme mechanical
occurs as a fatigue, hard to
detonation start detonation,
instead of a not practical for
deflagration, current use
may or may
not need
valves
Integral Essentially a Mach 0 to Mach Similar efficiency to
rocket ramjet where 4.5+ (can also run rockets at low
ramjet intake air is exoatmospheric), speed or
compressed good efficiency at exoatmospheric,
and burnt with Mach 2 to 4 inlet difficulties, a
the exhaust relatively
from a rocket undeveloped and
unexplored type,
cooling difficulties
Scramjet Intake air is can operate at very still in development
compressed high Mach numbers stages, must have a
but not slowed (Mach 8 to 15)[1] very high initial
to below speed to function
supersonic, (Mach >6), cooling
intake, difficulties, inlet
combustion difficulties, very
and exhaust poor thrust/weight
occur in a ratio (~2), airframe
single difficulties, testing
constricted difficulties
tube
Turborocket An additional Very close to Airspeed limited to
oxidizer such existing designs, same range as
as oxygen is operates in very turbojet engine,
added to the high altitude, wide carrying oxidizer
airstream to range of altitude like LOX can be
225
increase max and airspeed dangerous
altitude
Precooled Intake air is Very high Exists only at the
jets / LACE chilled to very thrust/weight ratios lab protoyping
low are possible (~14) stage. Examples
temperatures together with good include RB545,
at inlet fuel efficiency over SABRE, ATREX
a wide range of
airspeeds, mach 0-
5+
Air intakes
226
leading blade at the outer vertical edge of the intake which was then
angled back inwards towards the fuselage. Typical examples include
the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and F-4 Phantom.
Later this evolved so that the leading edge was at the top horizontal
edge rather than the outer vertical edge, with a pronounced angle
downwards and rearwards. This approach simplified the construction
of the intakes and permitted the use of variable ramps to control the
airflow into the engine. Most designs since the early 1960s now
feature this style of intake, for example the F-14 Tomcat, Panavia
Tornado and the Concorde.
Axial-flow compressor
An axial flow compressor typically has a set of fixed inlet guide vanes
to condition the incoming gas. There are then multiple compressor
stages, each consisting of a set of rotating blades (much like a
propeller) that force the gas to the rear, and then a set of fixed
stator blades that condition the air ready for the next compressor
stage.
227
Axial flow compressors are typically used in the compression stage of
turbine engines. Their disadvantages (low increase in pressure at
each stage) are outweighed by their advantages (multi-stages are
very compact, they do continuous compression, and they are easy to
drive).
Centrifugal compressor
Advantages ------
228
1) Low weight 2) ruggedness and therefore resistance to
FOD 3) SIMPLICITY AND LOW COST 4) High compressor
ratio per stage( with a limited no. of stages)
Turboprop
By adding another turbine stage to the engine, all of the jet exhaust
can be used for rotary force rather than jet thrust. Coupling this
second (or third) turbine stage to a propeller makes for a very
efficient engine due to the inherent efficiency of a propeller at low
speeds. This is called a turboprop, and can be found on many smaller
229
commuter planes, cargo planes, and helicopters (where it is often
known as a turboshaft).
Brayton cycle
230
Model
• A gas
compressor
• A mixing
chamber
• An expander
In the original 19th century Brayton engine ambient air is drawn into
a piston compressor, where it is pressurized; a theoretically
isentropic process. The compressed air then runs through a mixing
chamber where fuel is added, a constant-pressure process. The
heated, pressurized air and fuel mixture is then ignited in an
expansion cylinder and gives up its energy, expanding through a
piston/cylinder; another theoretically isentropic process. Some of the
work extracted by the piston/cylinder is used to drive the
compressor through a crankshaft arrangement.
The term Brayton cycle has more recently been given to the gas
turbine engine. This also has three components:
• A gas
compressor
• A burner (or
combustion
chamber)
• An expansion
turbine
231
turbine is used to drive the compressor.
232
Supersonic Duct
The supersonic duct proplems start when the aircraft begins to fly at
or near the speed of sound. At this speeds sonic shock waves are
developed which , if not controlled , will give high duct loss in
pressure and airflow , and will set up vibrating conditions in the inlet
duct called inlet " buzz " . Buzz is an airflow instability caused by the
shock wave rapidly being alternately swallowed and expelled at the
inlet of the duct. Air enters the compressor section of engine must be
slow to subsonic velocity. At supersonic speeds the inlet does the job
by slowing the air with minimize energy loss and the temperature
rise.
At transonic speeds the inlet duct is designed to keep shock waves
out of the duct. This is done by locating the inlet duct behind a spike
or probe which create the shock wave infront of inlet duct. This
normal shock wave will produce a pressure rise and velocity
decrease to subsonic speeds .
233
consumed and its pressure. Therefore , higher pressure are needed
to increase the efficiency of the combustion cycle . On the jet engines
must rely upon some other means of compression .
Axial compressor
The air in an axial compressor flows in an axial direction through a
series of rotating rotor blades and stationary stator vanes. The flow
path of an axial compressor decreases in cross-section area in the
direction of flow , reducing the volume of the air as compression
234
progresses from stage to stage of compressor blades .
The air being delivered to the face of compressor by the air inlet
duct, the incoming air passes through the inlet guide vanes . Air upon
entering the first set of ratating blades and flowing in axial direction,
is deflected in the direction of rotation . The air is arrested and turn
as it is passed on to a set of stator vanes , following which it is again
picked up by another set of rotating blades , and so on , through the
compressor . The pressure of the air increases each time that it
passes through a set of rotors and stators .
The aerodynamic principles are applied to the compressor blade
design in order to increase efficiency . The blades are treated as
lifting surfaces like aircraft wings or propeller blades . The cascade
effect is a primary consideration in determining the airfoil section ,
angle of attack , and the spacing between blades to be used for
compressor blade disign . The blade must be designed to withstand
the high centrifugal forces as well as the aerodynamic loads to which
they are subjected . The clearance between the rotating blades and
their outer case is also very important . The rotor assembly turns at
extreamely high speed , and must be rigid , well aligned and well
balance .
Compressor Surge and Compressor Stall
This characteristic has been called both " Surge " and " Stall " in the
past , but is more properly called SURGE when it is response of the
entire engine. The word stall applies to the action occuring at each
individual compressor blade. Compressor surge , also called
Compressor stall , is a phenomenon which is difficult to understand
because it is usually caused by complex combination of factors . The
basic cause of compressor surge is fairly simple , each blade in an
axial flow compressor is a miniature airplane wing which , when
subjected to a higher angle of attack , will stall just as an airplane
stalls. Surge may define as results from an unstable air condition
within the compressor. Pilot or engine operator has no instrument to
tell him that one or more blades are stalling. He must wait until the
engine surges to know that. The unstable condition of air is often
caused from air piling up in the rear stages of the compressor. Surge
may become sufficiently pronounce to cause lound bangs and engine
vibration. In most case , this condition is of short duration , and will
either correct itself or can be corrected by retarding the throttle or
power lever to Idle and advanncing it again , slowly. Among other
things , to minimize the tendency of a compressor to surge , the
235
compressor can be "unload" during certain operating conditions by
reducing the pressure ratio across the compressor for any giving
airflow. One method of doing this is by bleeding air from the middle
or toward the rear of the compressor. In dual axial compressor
engines , air is often bled from between the low and the high
pressure compressor. Air bleed ports are located in the compressor
section. These ports are fitted with automatic , overboard bleed
valves which usually operate in a specified range of engine RPM.
Some large engine have been provided with variable-angle stators
( variable stators) in a few of the forward compressor stages. The
angle of these vanes change automatically to prevent the choking of
the downstream compressor stages as engine operating conditions
vary.
DIFFUSER SECTION
236
Fuel is introduced into the air stream at the front of the burners in
spray form , suitable for rapid mixing with air for combustion. The
fuel is carried from outside the engine , by manifold system , to
nozzles mounted in the burner cans .
There are three basic types of burner systems in use today. They are
can type , annular type and can-annular type. Fuel is introduced at
the front end of the burner. Air flows in around the fuel nozzle and
through the first row of combustion air holes in the liner. The air
entering the forward section of the liner tends to recirculate and
move up stream against the fuel spray. During combustion , this
action permits rapid mixing and prevents flame blowout which acts
as a continuous pilot for the rest of the burner.
237
There are usually has only two igniter plugs in an engine. The igniter
plug is usually locate in the up stream region of the burner. About 25
percent of the air actually takes part in the combustion process. The
gases that result from the combustion have temperatures of 3500
degree F. Before entering the turbine , the gases must be cooled to
approximately half this value , up to the designed of turbine
materials involved. Cooling is done by diluting the hot gases with
secondary air that enters through a set of relative large holes located
toward the rear of the liner.
TURBINE SECTION
The turbine extract kinetic energy from the expanding gases as the
gases come from the burner , converting this energy into shaft
horsepower to drive the compressor and the engine accessory.
Nearly three fourths of all energy available from the product of
combustion is needed to drive the compressors.
238
The turbine wheel is one of the most highly stressed parts in the
engine. Not only must it operateat temperature 1700 degree F, but it
must do so under severe centrifugal loads imposed by high rotational
speeds of over 40000 rpm for small engines to 8000 rpm for a larger
engines.The engine speed and turbine inlet temperature must be
accurately controlled to keep the turbine within safe operating limits.
The turbine assembly is made of two main parts , the disk and the
blades. The disk or wheel is statically and dynamically balanced and
unit specially alloyed steel usually containing large percentages of
chromium , nickle , and cobalt. The blades are attached to the disk by
means of a " fir tree " design to allow for different rates of expansion
between the disk and the blade while still holding the blade firmly
against centrifugal loads. The blade is kept from moving axially
either by rivets , special locking tabs or devices , or another turbine
stage.
The blade is shrouded at the tip. The shrouded blades form a band
around the perimeter of the turbine which serves to reduce blade
vibrations. The shrouds improve the airflow characteristics and
increase the efficiency of the turbine. The shrouds also serve to cut
down gas leakage around the tips of the turbine blades.
A larger total thrust can be obtained from the engine if the gases are
discharged from the aircraft at a higher velocity than is permissible
at the turbine outlet. An exhaust duct is therefore added , both to
collect and straighten the gas flow as it comes from the turbine and
to increase the velocity of the gases before they are discharged from
the exhaust nozzle at the rear of the duct.
239
Increasing the velocity of the gases increases their momentum and
increase the thrust produced.The duct is essentially a simple ,
stainless steel , conical or cylinder pipe .
The tail cone helps smooth the flow. A conventional convergent type
of exhaust duct is capable of keeping the flow through the duct
constant at velocity not to exceed Mach 1.0 at the exhaust nozzle.
AFTER BURNING
Since Fuel flow adds some mass to the air flowing through the engine
240
, this must be added to the basic of thrust equation . Some formular
do not consider the fuel flow effect when computing thrust because
the weight of air leakage is approximately equal to the weight of fuel
added . The following formular is applied when a nozzle of engine is "
choked " , the pressure is such that the gases are treveling through it
at the speed of sound and can not be further accelerated . Any
increase in internal engine pressure will pass out through the nozzle
still in the form of pressure . Even this pressure energy cannot turn
into velocity energy but it is not lost .
241
the picture below should be made to manuals published by the
engine manufacturer.
242
This graphic demonstrates the Displays how man hours are
how the temperature fluxuates expected out of an engine today.
during take-off, flight, and
landing. Hot times are
experienced during take-off and
landing.
Fan
Fan containment
1. Absorbent.
2. Compact.
3. Preferably a layered structure.
4. Temperature range: 400 - 500°
F
Compressor
243
Combustor
Combustor liner
1. Stresses due to thermal
gradient heat.
2. Transient stresses due to
takeoff and cool down situations.
3. Resist oxidation.
Turbine
Mixer
Nozzle
1.10. TURBOJET
244
The turbojet is the engine in most common use today in high-speed,
high-altitude aircraft, not in Army aircraft. With this engine, air is
drawn in by a compressor which raises internal pressures many
times over atmospheric pressure. The compressed air then passes
into a combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel to be ignited
and burned. Burning the fuel-air mixture expands the gas, which is
accelerated out the rear as a high-velocity jet-stream. In the turbine
section of the engine, the hot expanded gas rotates a turbine wheel
which furnishes power to keep the compressor going. The gas
turbine engine operates on the principle of intake, compression,
power, and exhaust, but unlike the reciprocating engine, these
events are continuous. Approximately two-thirds of the total energy
developed within the combustion chamber is absorbed by the turbine
wheel to sustain operation of the compressor. The remaining energy
is discharged from the rear of the engine as a high velocity jet, the
reaction to which is thrust or forward movement of the engine. The
turbojet is shown schematically in figure 1.3.
245
CH-37 cargo helicopter. Figure 1.7 shows the smaller frontal
area of the turbine engines that power the CH-47 Chinook
helicopter. Because of this, the engine nacelles are more
streamlined in design, causing less drag.
• Cold weather starting. The turbine engine does not require any
oil dilution or preheating of the engine before starting. Also,
once started, the reciprocating engine takes a long time to
warm up to operating temperatures, whereas the turbine
engine starts readily and is up to operating temperature
immediately.
• Low oil consumption. The turbine engine, in general, has a
lower rate of oil consumption than the reciprocating engine.
The turbine engine does not require the oil reservoir capacity
to be as large as the reciprocating engine's; because of this, a
weight and economy factor is an additional advantage.
Just like everything else, along with the advantages or the good, we
have to take the disadvantages or the bad. This also holds true with
the turbine engine. The disadvantages of the turbine engine are
discussed in the following subparagraphs.
246
engine of approximately the same horsepower which has a fuel
consumption rate of 1 gallon per minute.
• Cost. The initial cost of a turbine engine is very high when
compared to the cost of a reciprocating engine. For example
the T53-L-13B engine costs about $63,000, and the cost of a
reciprocating engine of approximately the same horsepower is
$20,000.
*ram air pressure - free stream air pressure provided by the forward
motion of the engine.
247
centrifugal-flow compressor is a combination of the other two and
operates with characteristics of both.
As the impeller (rotor) revolves at high speed, air is drawn into the
blades near the center. Centrifugal force accelerates this air and
causes it to move outward from the axis of rotation toward the rim of
the rotor where it is forced through the diffuser section at high
velocity and high kinetic energy. The pressure rise is produced by
reducing the velocity of the air in the diffuser, thereby converting
velocity energy to pressure energy. The centrifugal compressor is
capable of a relatively high compression ratio per stage. This
compressor is not used on larger engines because of size and weight.
Because of the high tip speed problem in this design, the centrifugal
compressor finds its greatest use on the smaller engines where
simplicity, flexibility of operation, and ruggedness are the principal
requirements rather than small frontal area and ability to handle
high airflows and pressures with low loss of efficiency.
248
Figure 1.13. Axial-flow Compressor.
249
• Axial-centrifugal-flow compressor. The axial-centrifugal-flow
compressor, also called the dual compressor, is a combination
of the two types, using the same operating characteristics.
Figure 1.15 shows the compressor used in the T53 turbine
engine. Most of the gas turbine engines used in Army aircraft
are of the dual compressor design. Usually it consists of a five-
or seven-stage axial-flow compressor and one centrifugal-flow
compressor. The dual compressors are mounted on the same
shaft and turn in the same direction and at the same speed.
The centrifugal compressor is mounted aft of the axial
compressor. The axial compressor contains numerous air-foil-
shaped blades and vanes that accomplish the task of moving
the air mass into the combustor at an elevated pressure.
As the air is drawn into the engine, its direction of flow is changed by
the inlet guide vanes. The angle of entry is established to ensure that
the air flow onto the rotating compressor blades is within the stall-
free (angle of attack) range. Air pressure or velocity is not changed
as a result of this action. As the air passes from the trailing edge of
the inlet guide vanes, its direction of flow is changed due to the
rotational effect of the compressor. This change of airflow direction
is similar to the action that takes place when a car is driven during a
rain or snow storm. The rain or snow falling in a vertical direction
strikes the windshield at an angle due to the horizontal velocity of
the car.
Passing through the stationary stator vanes the air velocity is again
decreased resulting in an increase in pressure. The combined action
of the rotor blades and stator vanes results in an increase in air
-pressure; combined they constitute one stage of compression. This
action continues through all stages of the axial compressor. To retain
this pressure buildup, the airflow is delivered, stage by stage, into a
continually narrowing airflow path. After passing from the last set of
stator vanes the air mass passes through exit guide vanes. These
vanes direct the air onto the centrifugal impeller.
250
The centrifugal impeller increases the velocity of the
air mass as it moves it in a radial direction.
251
Axial-flow compressors are constructed of many different materials,
depending upon the load and temperature under which the unit must
operate. The rotor blades are generally cast of stainless-steel alloy.
Some manufacturers use mdybdenum coated titanium blades to
dampen vibrations on some stages of rotor blades. The clearance
between the rotor blades and the outer case is most important. Some
companies coat the inner surface of the compressor case with a soft
material that can be worn away by the blades as they expand
because of the heat generated from compressing the air. This type of
compressor uses the "wear-fit" method to form its own clearance
between the compressor case and the rotor blade tip.
Today, three basic combustion chambers are in use. They are the
annular combustion chamber, the can type, and the combination of
the two called the can-annular. Variations of these basic systems are
used in a number of engines. The three systems are discussed
individually in the following subparagraphs. The most commonly
used gas turbine engine in Army aircraft is the annular reverse-Row
type. The combustion section contains the combustion chambers,
igniter plugs, and fuel nozzles or vaporizing tubes. It is designed to
burn a fuel-air mixture and deliver the combusted gases to the
turbine at a temperature which will not exceed the allowable limit at
the turbine inlet.
252
Fuel is introduced at the front end of the burner in a highly atomized
spray from the fuel nozzles. Combustion air flows in around the fuel
nozzle and mixes with the fuel to form a correct fuel-air mixture. This
is called primary air and represents approximately 25 percent of total
air taken into the engine. The fuel-air mixture which is to be burned
is a ratio of 15 parts of air to 1 part of fuel by weight. The remaining
75 percent of the air is used to form an air blanket around the
burning gases and to lower the temperature. This temperature may
reach as high as 3500° F. By using 75 percent of the air for cooling,
the temperature operating range can be brought down to about half,
so the turbine section will not be destroyed by excessive heat. The
air used for burning is called primary air- and that for cooling is
secondary air. The secondary air is controlled and directed by holes
and louvers in the combustion chamber liner.
Igniter plugs function only during starting, being cut out of the
circuit as soon as combustion is self-supporting. On engine
shutdown, or, if the engine fails to start, the combustion chamber
drain valve, a pressure-actuated valve, automatically drains any
remaining unburned fuel from the combustion chamber. All
combustion chambers contain the same basic elements: a casing or
outer shell, a perforated inner liner or flame tube, fuel nozzles, and
some means of initial ignition. The combustion chamber must be of
light construction and is designed to burn fuel completely in a high
velocity airstream. The combustion chamber liner is an extremely
critical engine part because of the high temperatures of the flame.
The liner is usually constructed of welded high-nickel steel. The most
severe operating periods in combustion chambers are encountered in
the engine idling and maximum rpm ranges. Sustained operation
under these conditions must be avoided to prevent combustion
chamber liner failure.
253
1. ANNULAR TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER LINER
2. COMBUSTION CHAMBER HOUSING ASSEMBLY
Figure 1.18. Annular-type Combustion Chamber.
254
Figure 1.19. Can-type Combustion Chamber (Cutaway).
Through these openings flows the air that is used in combustion and
cooling. This air also prevents carbon deposits from forming on the
inside of the liner. This is important, because carbon deposits can
block critical air passages and disrupt airflow along the liner walls
causing high metal temperatures and short burner life.
255
Figure 1.20. Can-Annular Combustion Chamber.
256
Figure 1.21. Axial-flow Turbine Rotor.
257
Figure 1.23. Impulse-Reaction Turbine Blade.
258
Figure 1.25. Multiple-rotor,Multiple-stage Turbine.
The turbine rotor is one of the most highly stressed parts in the
engine. It operates at a temperature of approximately 1,700° F.
Because of the high rotational speeds, over 40,000 rpm for the
smaller engines, the turbine rotor is under severe centrifugal loads.
Consequently, the turbine disk is made of specially alloyed steel,
259
usually containing large percentages of chromium, nickel, and cobalt.
The turbine rotor assembly is made of two main parts, the disk and
blades.
Nozzle vanes may be either cast or forged. Some vanes are made
hollow to allow cooling air to flow through them. All nozzle
assemblies are made of very high-strength steel that withstands the
direct impact of the hot gases flowing from the combustion chamber.
The turbine blades are attached to the disk by using the "fir tree"
design, shown in figure 1.27, to allow for expansion between the disk
and the blade while holding the blade firmly to the disk against
centrifugal loads. The blade is kept from moving axially either by
rivets or special locking devices. Turbine rotors are of the open-tip
type as shown in figure 1.27, or the shroud type as shown in figure
1.28.
The shroud acts to prevent gas losses over the blade tip and
excessive blade vibrations. Distortion under severe loads tends to
twist the blade toward low pitch, and the shroud helps to reduce this
tendency. The shrouded blade has an aerodynamic advantage in that
thinner blades can be used with the support of the shroud.
Shrouding, however, requires that the turbine run cooler or at
reduced rpm because of the extra mass at the tip.
Blades are forged or cast from alloy steel and machined and carefully
inspected before being certified for use. Manufacturers stamp a
"moment weight" number on the blade to retain rotor balance when
replacement is necessary. Turbine blade maintenance and
replacement are covered in a separate lesson.
260
On most gas turbine engines, fuel is introduced into the combustion
chamber through a fuel nozzle that creates a highly atomized and
accurately shaped spray of fuel suitable for rapid mixing and
combustion. Most engines use either the simplex or the duplex
nozzle. The exception to this is the Lycoming T53-L-11 engine which
uses vaporizer tubes in place of fuel nozzles. Each type of nozzle is
discussed in the following subparagraphs.
What is pitch?
261
each rotation or the amount of "bite" that the blade has on the air.
Essentially these concepts all describe the same thing. To use our
automobile analogy, pitch is like the gear ratio of the gearbox. The
important thing to note with pitch, is that it is available in a wide
variety of degrees, or 'amounts', much like different gear ratios. To
demonstrate, consider the following examples:
262
Variable Pitch Propeller
• Two-position propeller.
• In flight adjustable propeller.
263
• Automatic propeller.
• Constant speed propeller.
The in flight adjustable propeller allows the pilot to directly vary the
pitch of the propeller to the desired setting. Combined with the
throttle control, this control allows a wide variety of power settings
to be achieved. A range of airspeeds can be maintained while
keeping the engine speed within limits. While rare in larger aircraft,
the in flight adjustable propeller is the most common type of variable
pitch propeller that is encountered in sport aviation.
With constant speed control, the pitch of the variable pitch propeller
is changed automatically by a governor. After the pilot sets the
desired engine/propeller speed with the propeller speed control, the
governor acts to keep the propeller speed at the same value. If the
governor detects the propeller speed increasing, it increases the
pitch a little to bring the speed back within limits. If the governor
detects the propeller speed decreasing, it decreases the pitch a little
to bring the speed again back within limits. This operation may be
compared to an automatic gearbox in an automobile, where the
gears are changed automatically to keep the engine operating at a
reasonable speed.
264
no control required from the pilot. Once a propeller/engine speed is
selected, the pilot is able to control the power purely with the
throttle (actually controlling manifold pressure, which then
determines power output) and the controller will act to keep the
propeller/engine speed at the selected setting.
While allowing the pilot to ignore the propeller for most of the time,
the pilot must still choose the most appropriate engine/propeller
speed for the different phases of flight.
Climb and high speed cruise. A medium speed setting is used when
high power is needed on a continuous basis, such as during an
extended climb, or high speed cruise.
As well as the ability to vary the pitch of the propeller to optimise the
aircraft performance, some variable pitch propellers have some other
special modes of operation that can be very useful in certain
circumstances:
Reverse. A reversing pitch propeller can alter the pitch of the blades
to a negative angle. That is, the blade pitch is changed so that they
have their leading edge pointing slightly opposite to the direction of
flight. This mode allows reverse thrust to be developed by the
propeller. In larger commuter and transport aircraft this feature is
265
often used to slow the aircraft rapidly after landing, but in
sport aircraft it is more usually used to enhance
manoeuvring on the ground. A popular application is in
seaplanes, where the ability to manoeuvre backwards, and
sometimes to reduce the thrust to nothing, is especially
useful.
As you see in the lower figure the component of the lift acting in the
rotational plane has now been added to the drag to produce the
'propeller torque force' vector. The remaining forward acting portion
of lift is then the thrust. That is why propeller efficiency is usually no
greater than 80 – 85%, not all the lift can be used as thrust and the
propeller torque force consumes quite a bit of the shaft horse power.
The propeller torque and the engine torque will be in balance when
the engine is operating at constant rpm in flight.
There are other forces acting on the blades during flight, turning
moments that tend to twist the blades and centrifugal force for
example. The air inflow at the face of the propeller disc also affects
propeller dynamics.
266
attack, will vary along the length of the blade. Propellers
operate most efficiently when the aoa at each blade station
is consistent (and, for propeller efficiency, that giving the
best lift drag ratio) over most of the blade, so a twist is
built into the blades to achieve a more or less uniform aoa.
The blade angle is the angle the chord line of the aerofoil
makes with the propeller's rotational plane and is
expressed in degrees. Because of the twist the blade angle will vary
throughout its length so normally the standard blade angle is
measured at the blade station 75% of the distance from the hub
centre to the blade tip. The angle between the aerofoil chord line and
the helical flight path (the relative airflow) at the blade station is, of
course, the angle of attack and the angle between the helical flight
path and the rotational plane is the angle of advance or helix angle.
The aoa and helix angle vary with rotational and forward velocity.
The basic dimensions of propellers for light aircraft are usually stated
in the form of number of blades, diameter and pitch with the latter
values given in inches. e.g. 3 blade 64" × 38". The pitch referred to is
the geometric pitch which is calculated, for any blade station but
usually the 75% radius position, thus:
The velocity that the propeller imparts to the air flowing through its
disc is the slipstream and slip used to be described as the difference
between the velocity of the air behind the propeller ( i.e. accelerated
by the propeller) and that of the aircraft. Nowadays slip has several
interpretations, most being aerodynamically unsatisfactory, but you
might consider it to be the difference, expressed as a percentage,
between the ideal pitch and the advance per revolution when the the
267
propeller is working at maximum efficiency in conversion of engine
power to thrust power. Slip in itself is not a measure of propeller
efficiency; as stated previously propeller efficiency is the ratio of the
thrust power (thrust × aircraft velocity) output to the engine power
input.
268
Blade Shank (Root) is the section of the blade nearest the hub.
Blade Tip is the outer end of the blade fartest from the hub.
Plane of Rotation is an imaginary plane perpendicular to the shaft.
It is the plane that contains the circle in which the blades rotate.
269
Blade Element are the airfoil sections joined side by side to form
the blade airfoil. These elements are placed at different angles in
rotation of the plane of rotation.
The reason for placing the blade element sections at different
angles is because the various sections of the blade travel at different
speeds. The inner part of the blade section travels slower than the
outer part near the tip of the blade. If all the elements along a blade
is at the same blade angle, the relative wind will not strike the
elements at the same angle of attack. This is because of the different
in velocity of the blade element due to distance from the center of
rotation.
The blade has a small twist (due to different angle in each
section) in it for a very important reason. When the propeller is
spinning round, each section of the blade travel at different speed,
The twist in the peopeller blade means that each section advance
forward at the same rate so stopping the propeller from bending.
Thrust is produced by the propeller attached to the engine
driveshaft. While the propeller is rotating in flight, each section of
the blade has a motion that combines the forward motion of the
aircraft with circular movement of the propeller. The slower the
speed, the steeper the angle of attack must be to generate lift.
Therefore, the shape of the propeller's airfoil (cross section) must
chang from the center to the tips. The changing shape of the airfoil
(cross section) across the blade results in the twisting shape of the
propeller.
270
Relative Wind is the air that strikes and pass over the airfoil as
the airfoil is driven through the air.
Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord of the element and
the relative wind. The best efficiency of the propeller is obtained at
an angle of attack around 2 to 4 degrees.
Blade Path is the path of the direction of the blade element
moves.
271
Effective Pitch is the actual distance a propeller advances in one
revolution in the air. The effective pitch is always shorter than
geometric pitch due to the air is a fluid and always slip.
Forces and stresses acting on a propeller in flight
The forces acting on a propeller in flight are :
1. Thrust is the air force on the propeller which is parallel to the
directionof advance and induce bending stress in the propeller.
2. Centrifugal force is caused by rotation of the propeller and
tends to throw the blade out from the center.
3. Torsion or Twisting forces in the blade itself, caused by the
resultant of air forces which tend to twist the blades toward a lower
blade angle.
272
1. Bending stresses are induced by the trust forces. These
stresses tend to bend the blade forward as the airplane is moved
through the air by the propeller.
2. Tensile stresses are caused by centrifugal force.
3. Torsion stresses are produced in rotating propeller blades by
two twisting moments. one of these stresses is caused by the air
reaction on the blades and is called the aerodynamic twisting
moment. The another stress is caused by centrifugal force and is
called the centrifugal twisting moment.
Control and Operation (page 1)
Propeller Control
basic requirement: For flight operation, an engine is demanded to
deliver power within a relatively narrow band of operating rotation
speeds. During flight, the speed-sensitive governor of the propeller
automatically controls the blade angle as required to maintain a
constant r.p.m. of the engine.
Three factors tend to vary the r.p.m. of the engine during
operation. These factors are power, airspeed, and air density. If the
r.p.m. is to maintain constant, the blade angle must vary directly
with power, directly with airspeed, and inversely with air density.
The speed-sensitive governor provides the means by which the
propeller can adjust itself automatically to varying power and flight
conditions while converting the power to thrust.
Fundamental Forces : Three fundamental forces are used to
control blade angle . These forces are:
1. Centrifugal twisting moment, centrifugal force acting on a
rotating blade which tends at all times to move the blade into low
pitch.
2. Oil at engine pressure on the outboard piston side, which
supplements the centrifugal twisting moment toward low pitch.
3. Propeller Governor oil on the inboard piston side, which
balances the first two forces and move the blades toward high pitch
Counterweight assembly (this is only for counterweight
propeller) which attached to the blades , the centrifugal forces of the
counterweight will move the blades to high pitch setting
Constant Speed, Counterweight Propellers
The Counterweight type propeller may be used to operate either as a
controllable or constant speed propeller. The hydraulic
counterweight propeller consists of a hub assembly, blade assembly,
cylinder assembly, and counterweight assembly.
The counterweight assembly on the propeller is attached to
the blades and moves with them. The centrifugal forces obtained
from rotating counterweights move the blades to high angle setting.
The centrifugal force of the counterweight assembly is depended on
the rotational speed of the propellers r.p.m. The propeller blades
have a definite range of angular motion by an adjusting for high and
low angle on the counterweight brackets.
Controllable : the operator will select either low blade angle or
273
high blade angle by two-way valve which permits engine oil to flow
into or drain from the propeller.
274
The governor operates by means of flyweights which control the
position of a pilot valve. When the propeller r.p.m. is below that for
which the governor is set through the speeder spring by pilot , the
governor flyweight move inward due to less centrifugal force act on
flyweight than compression of speeder spring. If the propeller r.p.m.
is higher than setting , the flyweight will move outward due to
flyweight has more centrifugal force than compression of speeder
spring . During the flyweight moving inward or outward , the pilot
valve will move and directs engine oil pressure to the propeller
cylinder through the engine propeller shaft.
275
The on-speed condition exists when the propeller operation
speed are constant . In this condition, the force of the flyweight (5)
at the governor just balances the speeder spring (3) force on the
pilot valve (10) and shutoff completely the line (13) connecting to
the propeller , thus preventing the flow of oil to or from the
propeller.
The pressure oil from the pump is relieved through the relief valve
(6). Because the propeller counterweight (15) force toward high
pitch is balanced by the oil force from cylinder (14) is prevented from
moving, and the propeller does not chang pitch
Under-Speed Condition
The under-speed condition is the result of change in engine r.p.m.
or propeller r.p.m.which the r.p.m. is tend to lower than setting or
governor control movement toward a high r.p.m. Since the force of
the flyweight (5) is less than the speeder spring (3) force , the pilot
valve (10) is forced down. Oil from the booster pump flows through
the line (13) to the propeller. This forces the cylinder (14) move
outward , and the blades (16) turn to lower pitch, less power is
required to turn the propeller which inturn increase the engine r.p.m.
As the speed is increased, the flyweight force is increased also and
becomes equal to the speeder spring force. The pilot valve is move
up, and the governor resumes its on-speed condition which keep the
engine r.p.m. constant.
276
Over-Speed Condition
The over-speed condition which occurs when the aircraft altitude
change or engine power is increased or engine r.p.m. is tend to
increase and the governor control is moved towards a lower r.p.m. In
this condition, the force of the flyweight (5) overcomes the speeder
spring (3) force and raise the pilot valve (10) open the propeller line
(13) to drain the oil from the cylinder (14). The counterweight (15)
force in the propeller to turn the blades towards a higher pitch. With
a higher pitch, more power is required to turn the propeller which
inturn slow down the engine r.p.m. As the speed is reduced, the
flyweight force is reduced also and becomes equal to the speeder
spring force. The pilot valve is lowered, and the governor resumes its
on-speed condition which keep the engine r.p.m. constant.
277
Flight Operation
This is just only guide line for understanding . The engine or aircraft
manufacturers' operating manual should be consulted for each
particular aircrat.
Takeoff : Placing the governor control in the full forward position
. This position is setting the propeller blades to low pitch angle
Engine r.p.m. will increase until it reaches the takeoff r.p.m. for
which the governor has been set. From this setting , the r.p.m. will
be held constant by the governor, which means that full power is
available during takeoff and climb.
Cruising : Once the crusing r.p.m. has been set , it will be held
constant by the governor. All changes in attitude of the aircraft,
altitude, and the engine power can be made without affecting the
r.p.m. as long as the blades do not contact the pitch limit stop.
Power Descent : As the airspeed increase during descent, the
governor will move the propeller blades to a higher pitch inorder to
hold the r.p.m. at the desired value.
Approach and Landing : Set the governor to its maximum cruising
r.p.m. position during approach. During landing, the governor control
should be set in the high r.p.m. position and this move the blades to
full low pitch angle.
Control and Operation (page 3)
Hydromatic Propellers
278
Basic Operation Principles : The pitch changing mechanism of
hydromatic propeller is a mechanical-hydraulic system in which
hydraulic forces acting upon a piston are transformed into
mechanical forces acting upon the blades.
279
Principle Operation of Double Acting :
Overspeed Condition : When the engine speed increases above
the r.p.m. for which the governor is set . Oil supply is boosted in
pressure by thr engine driven propeller governor , is directed against
the inboard side of the propeller piston. The piston and the attached
rollers move outboard. As the piston moves outboard , cam and
rollers move the propeller blades toward a higher angle , which
inturn, decreases the engine r.p.m.
Underspeed Condition : When the engine speed drops below the
r.p.m. for which the governor is set. Force at flyweight is decrease
and permit speeder spring to lower pilot valve, thereby open the oil
passage allow the oil from inboard side of piston to drain through the
governor. As the oil from inboard side is drained , engine oil from
engine flows through the propeller shaft into the outboard piston
end. With the aid of blade centrifugal twisting moment, The engine
oil from outboard moves the piston inboard. The piston motion is
transmitted through the cam and rollers . Thus, the blades move to
lower angle
The Feathering System
Feathering : For some basic model consists of a feathering pump,
reservoir, a feathering time-delay switch, and a propeller feathering
light. The propeller is feathered by moving the control in the cockpit
against the low speed stop. This causes the pilot vave lift rod in the
governor to hold the pilot valve in the decrease r.p.m. position
regardless of the action of the governor flyweights. This causes the
propeller blades to rotate through high pitch to the feathering
position.
280
Some model is initiated by depressing the feathering button. This
action, auxiliary pump, feather solinoid, which positions the
feathering valve to tranfer oil to feathering the propeller. When the
propeller has been fully feathered, oil pressure will buildup and
operate a pressure cutout switch which will cause the auxiliary pump
stop. Feathering may be also be accomplished by pulling the engine
emergency shutdown handle or switch to the shutdown position.
Unfeathering : Some model is accomblished by holding the feathering
buttn switch in the out position for about 2 second . This creates an
artificial underspeed condition at the governor and causes high-
pressure oil from the feathering pump to be directed to the rear of
the propeller piston. As soon as the piston has moved inward a short
distance, the blades will have sufficient angle to start rotation of the
engine. When this occurs , the un-feathering switch can be released
and the governor will resume control of the propeller.
281
To move an airplane through the air, thrust is generated by some kind of propulsion
system. Beginning with the Wright brothers' first flight, many airplanes have used
internal combustion engines to turn propellers to generate thrust. Today, most general
aviation or private airplanes are powered by internal combustion (IC) engines, much
like the engine in your family automobile. When discussing engines, we must consider
both the mechanical operation of the machine and the thermodynamic processes that
enable the machine to produce useful work. On this page we consider the
thermodynamics of a four-stroke IC engine.
Vibrational force
283
o Engine-induced vibration is from power pulse from
engine
o This vibration tends to bend the blades back and forth.
The blades can withstand this, unless something happens
to increase the force acting on it.
o Recognized causes are:
1. Rough running engine
2. Over speed
3. Over boost or excessive M.P.
4. Surface damage
5. Unacceptable straightening
6. Continued operation at an unfavorable RPM
• A Prop is like tuning fork. It has natural vibration frequencies,
which are determined by shape and thickness of blade.
o If engine vibrations coincide with prop frequency, a
situation called resonance peak occurs.
o Resonance peak can be so excessive that if continued,
prop will fail.
o Resonance peak can cause tip to vibrate over a gap of
several inches.
o Designers fine tune and match prop to engine and
airframe
o Red band on tachometer indicates RPM range of
unfavorable resonance. Don't operate in red band. May be
deceptively smooth or quiet. Tachometer inaccuracy can
lead to problems here.
o Engineers attempt to design prop so that these resonance
peaks occur outside of the engine operating range. This is
why it is critical that only approved prop, engine and
airframe combinations be used
Fluidity Obviously, jet fuel must be able to flow freely from fuel
tanks in the wings to the engine through an aircraft's fuel system.
Fluidity is a general term that deals with the ability of a substance to
flow, but it is not a defined physical property. Viscosity and freezing
point are the physical properties used to quantitatively characterize
the fluidity of jet fuel.
Jet fuel is exposed to very low temperatures both at altitude –
especially on polar routes in wintertime – and on the ground at
284
locations subject to cold weather extremes. The fuel must retain its
fluidity at these low temperatures or fuel flow to the engines will be
reduced or even stop.
Fuel viscosity influences the pressure drop in the fuel system lines.
Higher viscosities result in higher line pressure drops, requiring the
fuel pump to work harder to maintain a constant fuel flow rate. Fuel
viscosity also influences the performance of the fuel system control
unit.
The U.S. Air Force is evaluating the use of additives that may prevent
the formation of large wax crystals that are responsible for reduced
285
fuel flow.
Four-stroke cycle
286
3. power (combustion) stroke
4. exhaust stroke
The cycle begins at top dead centre (TDC), when the piston is
furthest away from the crankshaft. On the first stroke (intake) of the
piston, a mixture of fuel and air is drawn into the cylinder through
the intake (inlet) port. The intake (inlet) valve (or valves) then
close(s) and the following stroke (compression) compresses the
fuel-air mixture.
Valve timing
287
After ignition of the fuel/air charge, as the piston approaches bottom
dead center, combustion slows. Just before the charge is finished
burning, the exhaust valve is opened at approximately twenty
degrees of crankshaft rotation before bottom dead centre (BDC). This
allows the still expanding gas inside the cylinder to push out through
the exhaust port, starting exhaust flow and giving the exhaust flow
momentum. Though a small amount of force is lost through the
exhaust port that could be driving the piston, the force that the
piston must exert on the gas to exhaust them from the cylinder is
reduced, resulting in increased efficiency.
288
engine speeds due to fewer moving parts in the valve train. In other
engine designs, the cam shaft is placed in the crankcase and its
motion transmitted by a push rod, rocker arms, and valve stems.
The valve clearance refers to the small gap between the valve lifter
and the valve stem (or the rocker arm and the valve stem) that acts
as an expansion joint in the valve train. Less expensive engines have
the valve clearance set by grinding the end of the valve stem during
engine assembly and is not adjustable afterwards. More expensive
engines have an adjustable valve clearance although the clearance
must be inspected periodically and adjusted if required. Incorrect
valve clearance will adversely affect running of the engine and may
result in burned valves and engine damage.
If the valve clearance is too wide the engine will be noisy and can
also cause undue wear to the camshaft and valve lifter contact areas.
The pushrods can also bend. If the clearance becomes wide enough
valve timing will be changed and the result will be poor engine
performance. If the valve clearance is too narrow it can cause
problems.
A narrow valve clearance will not allow for heat expansion and will
result in the failure of the valve to close on its seat. This results in
the failure of the combustion chamber to seal and thus poor
compression and power. The valve will also become hot and it can
melt.
Some valve clearances are adjusted when the engine is cold, others
when the engine is hot, according to manufacturer specifications.
Some engines have different clearances on the exhaust and intake
valves. Since the exhaust valves become hotter they will expand
more so the exhaust valves will normally have the larger of the two
clearances.
289
valve stem. With the valve cover removed a feeler gauge in
accordance with the specification must pass through the clearance
space. If the feeler gauge will not fit in, then the clearance is too
small. If the blade of the feeler gauge fits in too loose then the
clearance is too big. The feeler gauge should fit in and out with a
slight drag.
Most modern engines have hydraulic valve lifters that do not need
any valve clearance to be set.
Labyrinth seal
290
Jump to: navigation, search
For more uses of the word labyrinth, see Labyrinth
(disambiguation)
Labyrinth seals are also found on pistons, which use them to store oil
and seal against combustion explosions, as well as on other non-
rotating shafts. In these applications, it is the long and difficult path
and the formation of controlled fluid vortices plus some limited
contact-sealing action that creates the seal.
291
http://www.tpub.com/air/2-11.htm
292