Course: Digital Communication (EC61)

6
Th
Semester Telecommunication
Chapter 6
Spread Spectrum
Initially developed for military applications during II world war,
that is less sensitive to intentional interference or jamming by
third parties.
Spread spectrum technology has blossomed into one of the
fundamental building blocks in current and next-generation
wireless systems
DEFINITION
A transmission technique wherein PN code independent of
information bits is used as modulation waveform to spread
the signal energy over bandwidth much greater than signal
bandwidth .
At the receiver despread is done using synchronised version
of same P N code.
Problem of radio transmission
Narrow band can be wiped out due to interference
To disrupt the communication, the adversary needs to do
two things,
(a)to detect that a transmission is taking place and
(b) to transmit a jamming signal which is designed to
confuse the receiver.
.
.
Solution
A spread spectrum system is therefore designed to
make these tasks as difficult as possible.
Firstly, the transmitted signal should be difficult to detect
by an adversary/jammer, i.e., the signal should have a
low probability of intercept (LPI). \
Secondly, the signal should be difficult to disturb with a
jamming signal, i.e., the transmitted signal should
possess an anti-jamming (AJ) property
Remedy
spread the narrow band signal into a broad band to
protect against interference
Bandwidth occupancy of signal is excess of minimum
bandwidth needed to send the information.
Because of much larger bandwidth the power spectral density
is lower, in the channel the signal just looks like noise.
The Spreading is done by combining the data signal with a
code which is independent of the transmitted data message.
At the receiver, despreading is accomplished by the
correlation of the received spread signal with a synchronised
replica of the spreading signal used to spread the information.
Principle of Spread Spectrum
BENEFITS
Low power spectral density.
As the signal is spread over a large frequency-band,
the Power Spectral Density required is very small,
measured in watts per hertz, than narrow band
transmitters.
Spread-spectrum and narrowband signals can occupy
the same band, with little or no interference. This
capability is the main reason for all the interest in
spread spectrum today.
Multiple Access
number of independent users possible
Interference limited operation. In all situations the
whole frequency-spectrum is used.
Privacy due to unknown random codes. The
applied codes are - in principle - unknown to a hostile
user. This means that it is hardly possible to detect
the message of an other user.
Reduction of multi-path effects.
Random access possibilities. Users can start their
transmission at any arbitrary time.
Good anti-jam performance.
Benefits towards interference or jammers
Main feature of SS is Anti-Jam characteristics.
-Many orthogonal signal coordinates or dimensions are
available .
-At any point of time only small subset is used.
-It is difficult to jammer to track the subset in use.
Jammer has two choice
-To Jam All signal coordinates with equal power
little power in all coordinates
-To Jam a few signal coordinates with increased power .
poor choice of coordinates
Before spreading
after spreading
Before spreading
Jammer choice 1
Jammer choice 2
G
ss
(f)
G (f)
G (f)
Gss(f)
Gss(f)
Direct sequence and frequency hopping
commonly used methods for the spread spectrum technology
1. Direct sequence spread spectrum
Narrowband information is spread out into a much larger
bandwidth by using a pseudo-random chip sequence.
2. Frequency Hop Spread spectrum
The data modulated carrier is made to hop in pseudo
random manner rapidly from one frequency to the next .
it is nearly impossible for someone to jam the signal
CodingTechniques
Pseudo Noise Sequence
Are class of sequences of is and 0s which are periodic
and possess autocorrelation property.
Are of much greater length since it is intended for
bandwidth spreading.

Protection against interference: Coding enables a

bandwidth trade for processing gain against interfering
signals.
Provision for privacy: Coding enables protection of
signals
Noise-effect reduction: codes can reduce the effects
of noise and interference.
Maximal length codes are commonly used PN codes
-generated by a given shift register of given length in
conjunction with the appropriate logic, which feeds back a
logical combination of the state of two or more of its stages to
its input.
-In binary shift register, the maximum length sequence is
N = 2
m
-1
chips, where m is the number of stages of flip-flops in the shift
register. N is the period .
X1 X2 X3 X4
+
Modulo -2
adder
output
Linear Feedback Shift Register with modulo two adder
At each clock pulse
contents of register shifts one bit right.
Contents of required stages are modulo 2 added and fed back
to input.
X1 X2 X3 X4
+
Modulo -2
adder
output
Let initial status of shift register be 1000
1
0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
We can see for shift Register
of length m .At each clock the
change in state of flip-flop is
shown.
Feed back function is modulo
two of X3 and X4.
After 15 clock pulses the
sequence repeats.
Output sequence is
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
Properties of PN Sequence
Randomness of PN sequence is tested by following
properties
Balance property
Run length property
Autocorrelation property
Balance property
In each Period of the sequence , number of
binary ones differ from binary zeros
by at most one digit .
Consider output of shift register
Seven zeros and eight ones -meets balance
condition.
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
Run length property
Among the runs of ones and zeros in each period,
it is desirable that about one half the runs of
each type are of length 1, one- fourth are of length
2 and one-eighth are of length 3 and so-on.
Consider output of shift register
Number of runs =8
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
3 1 2 2 1 1 1 4
Auto correlation property
Auto correlation function of a maximal length
sequence is periodic and binary valued.
Autocorrelation sequence of binary sequence in
polar format is given by

N
1 n
k - n
c
n
c
N
1
(k)
c
R
Where N is length or period of the sequence and
k is the lag of the autocorrelation
Where l is any integer.

'

N l k
N
1
N l k if 1
(k)
c
R
Or we can state Autocorrelation function
as
{ No. of agreements No. of disagreements
in comparison of one full period }
N
1
(k)
c
R
Consider output of shift register for l=1
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
d a a d d a d a d a d d a a a
8) 7
15
1
(k)
c
R (
=
15
1
(k)
c
R
Yields PN autocorrelation as
NT
c
1.0
R
c
( )
-Tc +Tc
PN autocorrelation function.
Range of PN Sequence Lengths
524287 19
131071 17
8191 13
4095 12
2047 11
1023 10
511 9
255 8
127 7
PN Sequence
Length, N
Length 0f Shift
Register, m
A notion of spread spectrum
- SS provides protection against external jamming .
-Made Possible by spreading BW.
-Transmitted signal propagate like background noise
through the channel.
- Mathematically this attribute can be explained
b(t) is data sequence is used to modulate a wide band
PN sequence c(t)
b(t)
c(t)
m(t)
T
b
T
c
NT
c
m(t) = c(t) . b(t)
Multiplication of two unrelated signal in time
domain yields convolution of spectrum in
frequency domain.
b(t) a narrow band signal multiplies c(t) a
wide band PN code to give m(t) whose
spectrum is nearly equal to that of PN code.
When b(t) multiplies c(t ) each information bit
is chopped into small intervals called chips.
m(t) = c(t) . b(t)
Received signal r(t) = m(t) + i(t)
= c(t) . b(t) + i(t)
r(t) is applied to demodulator to recover b(t)
Receiver is synchronised with transmitter and
replica of PN code is available.
Demodulated signal z(t) = c(t) . r(t)
=c(t) [c(t) . b(t) + i(t)]
= c
2
(t)b(t) + c(t)i(t)
c
2
(t) =1 for all t
z(t) = b(t) + c(t) . i(t)
Data sequence can be recovered if effect if
interference is cancelled.
Interference signal i(t) is multiplied by c(t) which
is now wideband.
Using Low-pass filter b(t ) can be recovered
interference spread
signal
Narrow band
interference
Transmitted
signal
interference spread
signal
signal
spread
interference
power
Received signal after
demodulation
X1 X2 X3
output
1 1 0
Balance property
.
Run length property
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum
For direct-sequence systems the encoding signal is
used to modulate a carrier, usually by phase-shift
keying (PSK; for example, bi-phase or quad-phase) at
the code rate.
b(t)
A data signal at the point of transmission is
combined with a higher data-rate bit sequence
(also known as a chipping code) that divides the
data according to a spreading ratio.
The redundant chipping code helps the signal
resist interference
Also enables the original data to be recovered if
data bits are damaged during transmission.
37
To generate a spread spectrum signal one requires:
1. A modulated signal somewhere in the RF spectrum
2. A PN sequence to spread it
Transmitter
b(t)
C(t)
data
BPSK
Local carrier
Received
signal
C(t)
Coherent
detector
Local carrier
Receiver
Two stage of Modulation:
1. Data sequence and PN sequence are multiplied in
first stage
2. Phase Shift Keying in second stage of modulation.
Phase modulation (t) of x(t) has one of two values.
Truth Table for phase modulation
0
-
0
+
Polarity
of PN
sequence
C(t)
- +
Polarity of data
sequence b(t)
Receiver has two stage of demodulation.
At first stage of demodulation received signal y(t)
and locally generated replica of PN sequence are
applied to multiplier.
In the second stage, there is coherent detector ,
output of which provides an estimate of the
original data sequence.
Model for analysis
In this mathematical model for DSSS system, we have
BPSK modulator in first stage followed by spreading
Operation. These two are linear operations.
In this model channel is also included , but its noise
is ignored. Jammer is the only interference
assumed to limit the performance.
X(t) is the transmitted signal= s(t)c(t)
Output of the channel is given by
y(t) = x(t) + j(t)
= c(t)s(t) + j(t)
Where s(t) is the binary PSK signal, and
c(t) is the PN sequence.
At receiver,
Received sequence y(t) is multiplied by replica of PN
sequence to get u(t)
u(t) = c(t) . y(t)
= c
2
(t)s(t) +c(t) j(t)
= s(t) + c(t)j(t)
By design PN sequence c(t) has c
2
(t) = 1
From coherent detection it is possible to detect
estimate of binary sequence b(t)
Signal Space Dimensionality and
Processing Gain
Fundamental issue in SS systems is how much
protection spreading can provide against interference.
SS technique distribute low dimensional signal into
large dimensional signal space (hide the signal).
Jammer has only one option; to jam the entire space
with fixed total power or to jam portion of signal space
with large power.
We now develop signal space representations of
transmitted signal and interference.
Consider set of orthonormal basis functions;
Signal Space Dimensionality

'

otherwise 0
T 1) (k t kT t) f cos(2
T
2
(t)
c c
c
c k

'

otherwise 0
c
T 1) (k t
c
kT t)
c
f sin(2
c
T
2
(t)
~
k
1 N .., .......... 0,1,...... k
b(t)
c(t)
m(t)
T
b
T
c
NT
c
T
c
is chip duration,
N is number of chips per bit.
Transmitted signal x(t) for the interval of an
information bit is
b
1 N
0 k
k k
b
c
b
b
T t 0 (t) c
N
E
t) f cos(2 c(t)
T
2E
s(t) c(t) x(t)
t
t

For Signal:
E
b
is signal energy per bit.
PN Code sequence { c
0
, c
1
, c
N-1
} with
c
k
= + 1
Transmitted signal x(t) is therefore N dimensional and
requires N orthonormal functions to represent it.
For Jammer:
j(t) represent jammer. As said jammer tries to places
all its available energy in exactly same N dimension
signal space.
But jammer has no knowledge of signal phase. Hence tries
To place equal energy in two phase coordinates that is
cosine and sine
As per that jammer can be represented as
where
b
1 N
0 k
k
1 N
0 k
k k k
T t 0 (t) j (t) j j(t)
~ ~
+

b
T
0
k k
1 ........N 0,1,...... k dt (t) j(t) j

b
T
0
k
1 ........N 0,1,...... k dt (t) j(t)
~
~
k
j
Thus j(t) is 2N dimensional; twice the dimension as that
of x(t).
Average interference power of j(t)

1 N
0 k
b
1 N
0 k
b
T
0
2
b
~
k
j
k
j
T
1
T
1
dt (t) j
T
1
J
b
2 2

1 N
0 k
1 N
0 k
~
k
j
k
j
2 2
as jammer places equal energy in two
phase coordinates , hence
Therefore

1 N
0 k
b
k
j
T
2
J
2
To evaluate system performance we calculate
SNR at input and output of DS/BPSK receiver.
The coherent receiver input is u(t) =s(t) + c(t)j(t)
and using this u(t), output at coherent receiver
cj s
T
0
c
b
v v
t)dt f cos(2 u(t)
T
2
v
b
+

Where v
s
is despread component of BPSK
And v
cj
of spread interference.

b
T
0
c
b
s
t)dt f cos(2 s(t)
T
2
v

b
T
0
c
b
cj
t)dt f cos(2 j(t) c(t)
T
2
v
b c
b
b
T t 0 t) f cos(2
T
2E
s(t) t
Consider despread BPSK signal s(t)
Where + sign is for symbol 1
- sign for symbol 0.
If carrier frequency is integer multiple of 1 / Tb
b s
E v t
Consider spread interference component vcj
here c(t) is considered in sequence form { c0, c1, cN-1}

1 N
0 k
k k
b
c
T
0
k
1 N
0 k
k
b
c
cj
j c
T
T
dt (t) j(t) c
T
T
v
b
With Ck treated as independent identical random
variables with both symbols having equal probabilities
2
1
1) P(C 1) P(C
k k

[ ]
0
j
2
1
j
2
1
1) P(C j 1) P(C j j j C E
k k
k k k k k k k

Expected value of RV v
cj
[ ]
2
JT
j
N
1
j V Var
c
1 N
0 k
2
k j c

And Variance
Spread factor N = Tb/Tc
Output signal to noise ratio is
c
b
0
JT
2E
(SNR)
The average signal power at receiver input is Eb/Tb
hence input SNR
J
/T E
(SNR)
b b
I

I
c
b
0
(SNR)
T
2T
(SNR)
dB (PG), log 10 3 (SNR) log 10 (SNR) log 10
10 I 10 0 10
+ +
Expressing SNR in decibels
c
b
T
T
PG
Where
1. First term is required SNR
2 .3db term on right side accounts for gain in SNR
due to coherent detection.
3. Last term accounts for gain in SNR by use of
spread spectrum.
PG is called Processing Gain
T
b
W
b
W
ss
T
c
Wb
Wss Rc
Rb
W
b
W
c
Tb/Tc
1. Bit rate of binary data entering the transmitter input
is
2. The bandwidth of PN sequence c(t) , of main lobe
is W
c
b
b
T
1
R
c
c
T
1
W
b
c
R
W
PG
Probability of error
To calculate probability of error, we consider output
component v of coherent detector as sample value
Of random variable V
E
b
is signal energy per bit and V
cj
is noise component
Decision rule
If detector output exceeds a threshold of zero volts;
received bit is symbol1 else decision is favored for
zero.
cj b
V E V + t
Average probability of error P
e
is nothing but conditional
Probability which depends on random variable Vcj.
As a result receiver makes decision in favor of symbol 1
When symbol 0 transmitted and vice versa
RV Vcj is sum of N such random variables. Hence for
Large N it can assume Gaussian distribution .
As mean and variance has already been discussed ,
zero mean and variance JTc/2
66
Probability of error can be calculated from simple
formula for DS/BPSK system
Antijam Characteristics
Consider error probability of BPSK

,
_

0
b
e
N
E
erfc
2
1
P

,
_

c
b
e
JT
E
erfc
2
1
P
Comparing both probabilities;
Since bit energy E
b
=PT
b
, P= average signal power.
We can express bit energy to noise density ratio as
2
JT
2
N
c 0

,
_

,
_

J
P
T
T
N
E
c
b
0
b
0 b
N / E
PG
P
J

or
The ratio J/P is termed jamming margin
Jamming Margin is expressed in decibels as
min
0
10 dB dB
N
Eb
10log gain) ng ocessi r (P gin) mar ing (jamm

,
_

Where is minimum bit energy to noise ratio
needed to support a prescribed average probability
of error.
0
N
Eb
Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum
In DS SS system, PN code is used to modulate BPSK
Signal. Performance of this system is evaluated by
Processing gain, which is function of PN sequence length
If PG is made larger, Chip duration reduces further which
Permits more chips transmission /bit and hence
Bandwidth increases.
Further there is practical limitation on devices to generate
Larger length PN sequence with large PG which may not be
Sufficient to combat jammer.
Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum -
Second efficient technique is Frequency hop, where
jammer is forced to cover a wider range of spectrum by
randomly hopping data modulated carrier into different
frequencies.
Generally employs M-ary Frequency shift keying-
FH/MFSK , where k = log
2
M information bits are used to
determine which one of M frequencies is to be
transmitted.
MFSK
modulator
user data
PN code
sequence
Mixer
narrowband
signal
spread
transmit
signal
transmitter
received
signal
receiver
MFSK Detector
data
frequency
synthesizer
mixer
frequency
synthesizer
narrowband
signal
PN code
Generator
PN code
generator
1. Incoming data is subjected to MFSK modulator.
2. Modulated wave and output from digital frequency
synthesizer are applied to mixer which has multiplier
and filter.
3.Filter selects required sum frequency component
k-bit PN sequence drive frequency synthesiser which
hops the carrier over 2
k
values.
4. As a result for range of 2
k
hops FH/MFSK demands
more BW may be in the order of GHz.
5. But coherent detection is possible for single hops ,
as frequency synthesiser is unable to maintain phase
coherence .
Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum- Transmitter
1. Incoming FH/MSK wave is received and de-hopped by
Mixer .Local PN used is in synchronism with the one
at transmitter.
2. Output is then band-pass filtered processed by
Non-coherent MFSK detector which employs matched
filters.
3. Estimate of original symbol transmitted is obtained by
selecting largest filter output.
Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum- Receiver
Two versions
Fast Hopping:
several frequencies hops per symbol
Slow Hopping:
several symbols transmitted per frequency hop
Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference
limited to short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect
For slow hop, bit rate R
b
of data sequence, symbol rate
R
s
of MFSK and chip rate R
c
are related as
K = log
2
M
An individual FH/MFSK tone of shortest duration is chip
The chip rate R
c
is given by
R
h
= hop rate
R
s
= symbol rate
) R , max(R R
s h c

h
b
s c
R
K
R
R R
Assuming jammer has average power J over entire
frequency hopped spectrum of W Hz. It is equivalent to
PSD of AWGN N
0
/2.
s c 0
R / W
P/J
N
E

c
0
2W
J
2
N

c
0
W
J
N
Symbol Energy to noise ratio
Jamming Margin = 2
k
=10log
10
2
k
=3k
in decibels
s
c
R
W
PG
Hopping for 8FSK
Hopping with diversity
Chip duration=bit
duration.
Chip duration =hop
duration
Shortest uninterrupted
waveform in the system
is that of data symbol
Shortest uninterrupted
waveform in the system
is that of hop
Several modulation
symbols per hop
Several frequency hops
Per modulation
Slow Frequency
Hopping
Fast Frequency
Hopping
Fast hop
slow hop
1 0
bits
bits
10 01 11 01 11 10
time
time
Fast hop
slow hop
Illustration :
Let us see variation of slow FH/MFSK signal with time
for one complete PN sequence. The period of PN is 15.
Parameters of FH/MFSK are
Number of bits per MFSK symbol K =2
Number of MFSK tones =M = 2
K
=4
Length of PN segment per hop k =3
Total number of hops 2
k
=8
Let Binary sequence : 01111110001001111010
PN sequence generated is 001110011001001
Given MFSK tones = 4 = 00,01,10,11
Data symbols (tw0 bits) =01,11,11,10,00,10,01,11,10,10
Length of PN per hop =3 = 001,110,011,001,001
Binary sequence : 01111110001001111010
PN sequence generated is 001110011001001
Input binary
sequence
PN
sequence
001 110 011 001
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
b
a
n
d
R
b
R
h
R
s
Slow
Frequency
hopping
Fast
frequency
hopping
Comparison
Direct sequence spread spectrum
and Frequency hop spread spectrum
FH signals lower their average power spectral density by
hopping over many channel
A DS spectrum exhibits discrete spectral lines that are
related to the length of the sequence used for the spreading.
When it comes to the relative merits of (DS)
versus frequency hop (FH) spread spectrum
modulation schemes, Choices depend on the
particular implementation scenario
DS signal can achieve higher data rates by increasing
the modulation complexity or increasing the clock rates.
FH has few options for data rate increases.
DS, being more power-efficient require less transmit
power.
FH system requires a significant boost in transmit
power,
FH can be handled with a simple analog
limiter/discriminator receiver while DS requires complex
base-band processing.
Spread Spectrum technology which was initially
developed for ,military applications has now gained
importance in commercial applications like wireless LANs
and mobile communications .
Because of its features which provide multiple access,
ranging, and interference rejection, it is extremely
important to understand this technique for communication
engineers.
Commercial Applications
An example of commercial spread spectrum systems are
systems that are designed to be used in so-called
unlicensensed bands, such as the Industry, Scientific, Medical
(ISM) band around 2.4 GHz.
Typical applications are here cordless telephones, wireless
LANs, and cable replacement systems as Bluetooth.
Since the band is unlicensed, there is no central control over the
radio resources,
interference is from other communication systems and other
electrical and electronic equipment (e.g.,microwave ovens,
radars, etc.). Here the jamming is not intentional, but the
interference
Applications
Code-division multiple access systems (CDMA systems) use
spread spectrum techniques to provide communication to
several concurrent users.
CDMA is used in one second generation (IS-95) and several
third generation wireless cellular systems
(e.g., cdma2000 and WCDMA). One advantage of using
jamming-resistant signals in these applications is that the radio
resource management is significantly reduced.
Spread Spectrum
technology which was initially developed for ,military
applications has now gained importance in commercial
applications like wireless LANs and mobile
communications .
Because of its features which provide multiple access,
ranging, and interference rejection, it is extremely
important to understand this technique for communication
engineers.
Applications
Code-division multiple access systems
(CDMA systems) use spread spectrum techniques to
provide communication to several concurrent users.
CDMA is used in one second generation (IS-95) and
several third generation wireless cellular systems
(e.g., cdma2000 and WCDMA).
One advantage of using jamming-resistant signals in
these applications is that the radio resource management
is significantly reduced.
Features
This spread spectrum multiple access technique
allow multiple signals (user) occupying the same RF
bandwidth to be transmitted simultaneously without
Interfering with one another.
Each user is assigned a code of its own, which
performs either direct sequence or Frequency hop
spread spectrum modulation.
Each code is orthogonal to all others.
Operation is asynchronous. all users need not
transmit simultaneously.
94
Advantage over TDMA
Flexibility
CDMA does not require external synchronization
network
Performance degradation is gradual in case of
increase in number of user that add to system.
Jamming Resistance
CDMA offers an external interference rejection
capability like multipath rejection or resistance to
jamming.
Privacy
All users can share full spectrum simultaneously
because each user has different code .
1
1
1 2
2
2
3
3
3
slot1 slot2 slot3
band1
band2
band3
Example of FH/CDMA
Multipath suppression
In radio communication, say wireless or mobile, signal
can travel from transmitter to receiver over multiple
reflective paths. i.e., one direct path and many indirect
paths or reflective paths.
Reflective paths are due to variety of scatters like
buildings, moving vehicles and other obstacles.
Contributions from these indirect paths exhibit different
levels of attenuation and delays relative to direct path .
Interference due to these contributions are either
constructive or destructive and this interference is
called Multipath Propagation
The fluctuations that are caused in signal strength is
called as Fading.
Amount of fading depends of whether mobile user is
moving and scatters are stationary or vice-versa.
To overcome this effect , spread spectrum modulations
are employed.
Direct sequence SS can be used to mitigate frequency
selective ISI distortion because it is very effective
in interference rejection.
At receiver matched filters or correlators are used.
The reflected signals are treated as uncorrelated signals
as they have different delays.
Frequency hop SS can also be used to improve
system performance due to multipath. It is used
to mitigate fading provided hopping rate of
transmitted signal is much faster than reflective
ones.
With this is all multipath energy will fall in
frequency Slots that are orthogonal to desired
signal, suppressing multipath signals.
Jammers
The goals of jammers are to deny reliable
communications with minimum cost.
As constraint in digital communication is managing
scarce resources
Like power and bandwidth, jammer has to create his
adversary with minimum cost, with one choice.
To jam complete spectrum with equal power or part
of spectrum with large power.
Goals of communicators is to see hat jam resistant
systems are designed.
Jammers encountered in practice are
Barrage noise jammers : here jammers occupy full
spread spectrum bandwidth but it is relatively low
level noise jammers like Gaussian noise.
W
ss
W
ss
W
ss
Example
frequency
hopped
system
V/s
jammer
Partial band noise jammers
Here jammer strategy is to trade bandwidth
occupancy for greater PSD . The total power is
evenly spread only over some frequency band
which is subset of spread bandwidth.
Stepped tone noise jammers
Strategy is to jam only part of signal band , but
jammer steps through different region of band at
random times.
Partial band tone jammers
Jammer uses group of tones instead of
continuous band of frequencies in partial band
Stepped tone jammers
Since jammer concentrate their resources on part of
signal band which results in error in detection, to
overcome this error correcting codes are used prior
to spreading.
Example1
A pseudo random sequence is generated using a
feed back shift register of length m=4. The chip
rate is 10
7
chips per second. Find the following
a) PN sequence length
b) Chip duration of PN sequemnce
c) PN sequence period
Solution
a) Length of PN sequence N = 2
m
-1
= 2
4
-1 =15
b) Chip duration Tc = 1/chip rate =1/10
7
= 0.1sec
c) PN sequence period T = NT
c
= 15 x 0.1sec = 1.5sec
Example2
A direct sequence spread binary phase shift
keying system uses a feedback shift register of
length 19 for the generation of PN sequence.
Calculate the processing gain of the system.
Solution
Given length of shift register = m =19
Therefore length of PN sequence N = 2
m
-1
= 2
19
-1
Processing gain PG = Tb/Tc =N
in db =10log
10
N = 10log
10
2
19
= 57db
Example3
A Spread spectrum communication system has the
following parameters. Information bit duration Tb = 1.024
msecs and PN chip duration of 1secs. The average
probability of error of system is not to exceed 10
-5
.
calculate a) Length of shift register b) Processing gain
c) jamming margin
Solution
Processing gain PG =N= Tb/Tc =1024 corresponding
length of shift register m = 10
For coherent BPSK Probability of error
Referring to error function table
E
b
/N
0
=10.8 yields average P
e
approximately
equal to 10
-5
0
b
e
N
E
erfc
2
1
P
Therefore jamming margin
30.10 10.33
= 19.8 db
min
0
10 dB dB
N
Eb
10log gain) ng ocessi r (P gin) mar ing (jamm

,
_

min
0
10 dB 10 dB
N
Eb
10log PG 10log gin) mar ing (jamm

,
_

8 . 10 1024
10 10
10log 10log