Contents

Preface Acknowledgement Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Acid Gas 1.1.1 Hydrogen Sulfide 1.1.2 Carbon Dioxide 1.2 Anthropogenic CO, 1.3 Flue Gas 1.3.1 Sulfur Oxides 1.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides 1.4 Standard Volumes 1.4.1 Gas Volumes 1.4.2 Liquid Volumes 1.5 Sulfur Equivalent 1.6 Sweetening Natural Gas 1.6.1 Combustion Process Gas 1.6.1.1 Post-Combustion 1.6.1.2 Pre-Combustion 1.7 Acid Gas Injection 1.8 Who Uses Acid Gas Injection? 1.8.1 Western Canada 1.8.2 United States 1.8.3 Other Locations 1.8.4 CO, Flooding 1.9 In Summary References Appendix 1A Oxides of Nitrogen Appendix 1B Oxides of Sulfur vii xv xvii
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2 3 4 5 5 7 8 8 8 9
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12 13 14 14 16
16 17 17 18 18 18

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Chapter 2 Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide 2.1 Properties of Carbon Dioxide 2.2 Properties of Hydrogen Sulfide 2.3 Estimation Techniques for Physical Properties 2.3.1 Thermodynamic Properties 2.3.1.1 Ideal Gas 2.3.1.2 Real Gas 2.3.2 Saturated Liquid and Vapor Densities 2.3.2.1 Liquids 2.3.2.2 Corresponding States 2.3.3 Thermodynamic Properties 2.3.4 Transport Properties 2.3.4.1 Low Pressure Gas 2.3.4.2 Gases Under Pressure 2.3.4.3 Liquids 2.3.5 Viscosity Charts 2.4 Properties of Acid Gas Mixtures 2.4.1 Thermodynamic Properties 2.4.1.1 Corresponding States 2.4.2 Transport Properties 2.4.3 Word of Caution 2.5 Effect of Hydrocarbons 2.5.1 Density 2.5.2 Viscosity 2.6 InSummary References Appendix 2A Transport Properties of Pure Hydrogen Sulfide 2A.1 Viscosity 2A. 1.1 Liquid 2.A.1.2 Vapor 2A.2 Thermal Conductivity References Appendix 2B Viscosity of Acid Gas Mixtures 2B.1.1 Correcting for High Pressure 2B.1.2 Carbon Dioxide 28.1.3 Generalization

25 27
31 31 31 33

36 36 37 39 40 40 41 42 43 44 44 45 47 48 50 50 51 51 51 53 53 53 54 55 57 59 59 59 61

CONTENTSix 2B.1.4 Mixtures 2B.1.5 Final Comments References Appendix 2C Equations of Stat? 2C.l.l Soave-Redlich-Kwong Equation of State 2C.1.2 Peng-Robinson Equation of State 2C.1.3 The Patel-Teja Equation of State 62 63 63 64 64 64 65
69 69 70 70 73 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 82 83 85 85

Chapter 3 Non-Aqueous Phase Equilibrium 3.1 Overview 3.2 Pressure-Temperature Diagrams 3.2.1 Pure Components 3.2.2 Mixtures 3.2.3 Binary Critical Points 3.2.4 Effect of Hydrocarbons 3.2.4.1 Methane 3.2.4.2 Ethane and Propane 3.2.4.3 Butane and Heavier 3.2.4.4 In Summary 3.3 Calculation of Phase Equilibrium 3.3.1 Equations of State 3.3.2 K-Factor Charts 3.4 Insummary References Appendix 3A Some Additional Phase Equilibrium Calculations 3A.l.l Hydrogen Sulfide + Hydrocarbons 3A.1.2 Carbon Dioxide + Hydrocarbons 3A.1.3 Multicomponent Mixtures References Appendix 3B Accuracy of Equations of State for VLE in Acid Gas Mixtures References Chapter 4 Fluid Phase Equilibria Involving Water 4.1 Water Content of Hydrocarbon Gas 4.2 Water Content of Acid Gas 4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide 4.2.2 Hydrogen Sulfide

86 86 87 88 92 96 98
99

100 101 102 103

CONTENTS 4.2.3 Practical Representation 4.2.3.1 In Summary 4.3 Estimation Techniques 4.3.1 Simple Methods 4.3.1.1 Ideal Model 4.3.1.2 McKetta-Wehe Chart 4.3.1.3 Maddox Correction 4.3.1.4 Wichert Correction 4.3.1.5 Alami et al. 4.3.2 Advanced Methods 4.3.2.1 AQUAlibrium 4.3.2.2 Other Software 4.4 Acid Gas Solubility 4.4.1 Henrys Law 4.4.2 Solubility in Brine 4.4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide in NaCl 4.4.2.2 Hydrogen Sulfide in NaCl 4.4.2.3 Mixtures of Gases 4.4.2.4 Effect of pH 4.5 InSummary 106 108 108 109 109 109 110 110 111 111 111 112 113 113 115 116 116 119 119 119 120 122 124 127 129
131 131 132 135 135 136 136 136 138 139 140

References Appendix 4A Compilation of the Experimental Data for the Water Content of Acid Gas References Appendix 4B Comments on the Work of Selleck et al. Appendix 4C Density of Brine (NaC1) Solutions

Chapter 5 Hydrates 5.1 Introduction to Hydrates 5.2 Hydrates of Acid Gases 5.3 Estimation of Hydrate Forming Conditions 5.3.1 Shortcut Methods 5.3.2 Rigorous Methods 5.4 Mitigation of Hydrate Formation 5.4.1 Inhibition with Methanol 5.4.2 Water-Reduced Cases 5.4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide 5.4.2.2 Dehydration

CONTENTSxi
5.4.2.3 To Dehydrate or Not to Dehydrate? - That is the Question! 5.4.3 Application of Heat 5.4.3.1 Line Heaters 5.4.3.2 Heat Tracing 5.4.3.3 Final Comment 5.5 Excess Water 5.6 Hydrates and AGI 5.7 Insummary

References
Chapter 6 Compression 6.1 Overview 6.2 Theoretical Considerations 6.3 Compressor Design and Operation 6.4 Design Calculations 6.4.1 Compression Ratio 6.4.2 Ideal Gas 6.4.3 Efficiency 6.4.4 Ratio of the Heat Capacities 6.5 Interstage Coolers 6.5.1 Design 6.5.2 Pressure Drop 6.5.3 Phase Equilibrium 6.6 Compression and Water Knockout 6.6.1 Additional Cooling 6.7 Materials of construction 6.8 Advanced design 6.8.1 Cascade 6.8.2 CO, Slip 6.9 Case studies 6.9.1 Wayne-Rosedale 6.9.2 Acheson 6.9.3 West Pembina 6.10 In Summary References Appendix 6A Additional Calculations

141 142 142 142 142 142 143 143 143

145

145 148 148 149 150 151 157 158 159 160 164 164 167 171 172 172 172 173 174 174 175 175 175 176 177

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183 184 185 187 189 191 192 193 194 194 195 195 195 196 196

Chapter 7 Dehydration of Acid Gas 7.1 Glycol Dehydration 7.1.1 Acid Gas Solubility 7.1.2 Desiccant 7.2 Molecular Sieves 7.2.1 Acid Gas Adsorption 7.3 Refrigeration 7.3.1 Selection of Inhibitor 7.4 Case Studies 7.4.1 CO, Dehydration 7.4.2 Acid Gas Dehydration 7.4.2.1 Wayne-Rosedale 7.4.2.2 Acheson 7.5 Insummary References Chapter 8 Pipeline 8.1 Pressure Drop 8.1.1 Single Phase Flow 8.1.1.1 Friction Factor 8.1.1.2 Additional Comments 8.1.2 Two-Phase Flow 8.1.3 Transitional Flow 8.2 Temperature Loss 8.2.1 Carroll's Method 8.3 Guidelines 8.4 Metering 8.5 Other Considerations 8.6 InSummary References Appendix 8A Sample Pipeline Temperature Loss Calculation 8A.1 AQUAlibrium 3.0 8A.l.l Acid Gas Properties 8A.1.1.1 Conditions 8A.1.1.2 Component Fractions 8A.1.1.3 Phase properties 8A.1.1.4 Warnings

199 199 199 202 204 205 205 206 206 207 208 209 210 210

211 212 212 212 212 212 212

CONTENTSxiii
Chapter 9 Injection Profiles 9.1 Calculation of Injection Profiles 9.1.1 Gases 9.1.1.1 Ideal Gas 9.1.1.2 Real Gas 9.1.2 Liquids 9.1.3 Supercritical Fluids 9.1.4 Friction 9.1.5 AGIProfile 9.2 Effect of Hydrocarbons 9.3 Case Studies 9.3.1 Chevron Injection Wells 9.3.1.1 West Pembina 9.3.1.2 Acheson 9.3.2 Anderson Puskwaskau 9.4 Other Software 9.5 Insummary References Appendix 9A Additional Examples Chapter 10 Selection of Disposal Zone 10.1 Containment 10.1.1 Reservoir Capacity 10.1.2 Caprock 10.1.3 Other Wells 10.2 Injectivity 10.2.1 Liquid Phase 10.2.2 Gas Injection 10.2.3 Fracturing 10.2.4 Horizontal Wells 10.3 Interactions With Acid Gas 10.4 In Summary References Chapter 11 Health, Safety and The Environment 11.1 Hydrogen Sulfide 11.1.1 Physiological Properties 11.1.2 Regulations 11.1.3 Other Considerations 215 215 216 216 217 220 221 221 221 224 228 228 229 230 232 232 232 232 234 239 239 240 240 241 24 1 241 244 245 245 245 246 246
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247 248 248 249

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11.2 Carbon Dioxide 11.2.1 Physiological Properties 11.2.2 Climate Change 11.2.3 Other Considerations 11.3 Emergency Planning 11.3.1 Accidental Releases 11.3.2 Planning Zones 11.3.3 Other Considerations 11.3.3.1 Sour vs. Acid Gas 11.3.3.2 Wind 11.3.3.3 Carbon Dioxide 11.3.3.4 Sensitive Areas 249 249 250 250 250 250 251 255 255 256 256 256 256

References Chapter 12 Capital Costs 12.1 Compression 12.1.1 Reciprocating Compressor 12.1.2 Centrifugal 12.2 Pipeline 12.3 Wells 12.4 In Summary References Chapter 13 Additional Topics 13.1 Rules of Thumb 13.1.1 Physical Properties 13.1.2 Water Content 13.1.3 Hydrates 13.1.4 Compression 13.1.5 Pipelines 13.1.6 Reservoir 13.2 Graphical Summary 13.2.1 Pressure-Temperature 13.2.2 Water Content 13.2.3 Operation 13.2.4 Summary 13.3 The Three Types of Gas 13.3.1 Example Gases Index

257 257 258 259 259 260 261 261 263 263 263 264 264 264 265 266 266 266 268 269 270 270 270
275