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JULIA A.

KING

A Comparative Midden Analysis of a Household and Inn in St. Marys City, Maryland
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the nature of functional variation as reflected on an intra-site level. Although a site generally has one function, most sites contain material evidence of numerous activities occurring at different times and places among different groups of people. Distributions and associations of archaeological materials are analyzed using data derived from the St. Johns site, an early 17th century tobacco plantation which later served as an inn, adjacent to St. MarysCity. Variation between the Household and the Inn phases of occupation is described, and variation in the locations of activities at the site is demonstrated. However, differences between the Household and Inn occupations appear more subtle and may be due to a number of factors as well as functional variation. The analysis demonstrates the need for more studies of a similar type in order to address differences in function and differences among site occupants.

Introduction An important research issue in historical archaeology concerns functional variation among sites and how it is reflected materially at the site level. Archaeologists have assumed-and, in many cases, demonstrated-that material assemblages and their patterning reflect a sites function (cf., Binford and Binford 1966). Using information derived from documentary sources, many historical archaeologists have attempted to define the relationships between material patterning and a sites known function. Distinct material patterns have been identified and linked to site function for households, taverns, fort sites and so on (cf., South 1977). The material assemblages and the patterns they form identify these sites and, ultimately, others not so well documented.

Although a site may have had only one functional identification, most sites contain material evidence of numerous activities, occumng at different times and places among different groups of people. These activities are sometimes inferred from the types of artifacts recovered, generally using implicit assumptions about the form of an artifact and its function. Minimal attention is paid to context except on a chronological level. The result is frequently a mere laundry list of the types of activities for which archaeological evidence is present. Little research has been done to investigate specifically how these activities were organized spatially, although this information is a valuable source of information on the relationships among site occupants. Prehistorians have long been concerned with intrasite spatial analysis for elucidating prehistoric behavior; historical archaeologists have not been as quick to follow suit, probably because of the detailed kinds of information already available on the site level and the existence of an often rich documentary record (Noble 1983: 1). This is not to deny the existence of an awareness of intrasite spatial analyses; many creative and insightful studies have emerged in historical archaeology (cf., Keeler 1978; Neiman 1980; Noble 1983; Miller 1986). Clearly, more studies are needed if historical archaeologists intend to build a comparative data base. Such information is present in the archaeological record and its recovery should become a major research goal. This paper will present the results of a comparative study of the spatial organization of the St. Johns site, a tobacco plantation household which later became an ordinary, or public inn, in St. Marys City, Maryland. Constructed in 1638, shortly after the founding of Maryland, St. Johns functioned as a tobacco plantation until the late 1660s. From about 1668 until the 1690s, it was leased to a series of innkeepers. The architecture at the site remained essentially the same throughout this period, while the site function changed. This situation provides a good opportunity to compare the spatial arrangement and use of a household and an ordinary in the 17th century Chesapeake.

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HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 22

Household and Inn Spatial Organization: Previous Research


Historians and archaeologists alike have been actively interested in the layout and organization of the 17th century Tidewater household. Historians have used probate inventories to infer the structure and organization of these households. They have found that Chesapeake dwellings contained an average of only three rooms, less space than even the poorest homes of English farm laborers (Main 1982). Although each room had a primary function, mainly dairying, cooking, sleeping or eating, rooms did not serve specialized functions and often many activities took place in the same areas (Main 1982; Walsh 1983). A preliminary archaeological study of the Chesapeake homelot used the St. Johns site as its focus (Keeler 1978). Changes in the organization of the 17th century homelot were correlated with the evolution of Tidewater frontier society. As Chesapeake society stabilized and matured, homelots grew from simple and impermanent dwellings surrounded by wattle fences and a few outbuildings, through stages of greater elaboration and increasingly formalized spatial division. A more detailed analysis of the nearby van Sweringen homelot indicated that, during the late 17th century, midden deposits were consistently associated with the hall and the kitchen, and yet there were no significant differences in these middens compositions, suggesting that the same domestic activities took place in both locations. The yard associated with the parlor showed no evidence of daily domestic activities (King and Miller 1987). No similar study of the spatial organization of a colonial Chesapeake inn has yet been conducted. Those studies that have been produced are at the site level, and usually involve the comparison of sites from various regions. These studies have attempted, however, to describe the material patterning associated with a colonial inn. Bragdon (198 1) undertook a comparative analysis of colonial tavern and domestic sites in New England. She found that the tavern site assemblages contained larger proportions of ceramic fragments, and that higher numbers of these ceramics derived

from drinking vessel forms. Tavern site artifact collections also contained larger percentages of wine glasses and pipe stem fragments than contemporary domestic sites. In a comparative study of four colonial tavern sites in urban and rural contexts, Rockman and Rothschild (1984) found that the artifact assemblages of urban taverns were more specialized than those from rural areas. Urban taverns were the setting for drinking and other socializing activities, while a rural tavern assemblage suggested food preparation and consumption as well. They link this to the accommodation functions served by rural taverns. Rockman and Rothschild (1984: 113) note that historical and archaeological research indicate that a number of different activities occurred in colonial taverns, both urban and rural. This statement is not only true of taverns, but colonial households as well. In this analysis, the actual locations and spatial relationships of middens from a domestic household and an inn of the 17th century will be presented and compared. In order to analyze and compare the intrasite spatial patterning of archaeological materials between a household and an inn, artifact assemblages and spatial data from documented sites of known function were required. Further, it was essential that these samples be excavated using comparable methods of data recovery to facilitate analysis. The St. Johns site, located in St. Marys City, met both of these requirements. In addition, St. Johns retained the same basic structure throughout its occupation with the same buildings and rooms being used. This control over the architecture at the site provides an excellent opportunity to compare the spatial arrangement and use between a 17th century household and ordinary.

The St. Johns Site


The St. Johns site is situated on the northern edge of St. Marys City (Figure l), the first settlement and capital of Maryland. St. Johns was first occupied in 1638, four years after the colonys founding. John Lewger, Secretary of the colony,

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARY'S CITY. MARYLAND

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Figure 1. Location of the St. John's site, St. Mary's City, Maryland

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Figure 2 The St Johns dwelling foundation after excavation (Photograph courtesy Historic St Mary s City)

received 200 acres of the St. Marys Townlands and immediately began development of his tobacco plantation. He constructed a substantial one and one-half story framed house on a stone foundation (Figures 2 and 3). The dwelling measured 52-by-20-feet with a central chimney dividing the structure into two large rooms: a hall and a parlor. The hall functioned as the main living room, a place where meals were prepared and taken, and where most domestic activity took place. The parlor was probably used for more formal activil.ies and sleeping. At the time of its construction, the parlor was one of the largest rooms in ea-rly Maryland, and the colonial Legislature met there repeatedly in the 1640s. The houses second story loft was divided into chambers and the garret was

used for grain and corn storage (Stone 1982: 90-9 1, 94). Soon after Lewger completed construction on St. Johns, a small post-supported dairy, IO-by-IOfeet, was added to the dwellings north side. Lewger also built a 20-by- 1 S-foot unheated frame outbuilding at the northeast corner of the dwelling. This building likely served as a separate store room (Stone 1982: 309). Lewger returned permanently to England in 1648, and his son, John, Jr., sold the property to Henry Fox in 1650. Fox attempted to establish St. Johns as a base for his planting and mercantile enterprises but, having little success, sold the house and plantation in 1654 to Simon Overzee. a wealthy merchant from Virginia (Stone 1982:

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARYS CITY, MARYLAND

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King 1976). During the second half of the 17th century, St. Marys City became more urbanized, I I C. 1678 Flreplace and much more the focus of political and economic Pen j i 0 20 affairs in the colony. The inn at St. Johns proi vided services to visitors at least until 1690, and . .... .... .. ... ... .... .. ... ..... i probably 1695. i KITCHEN, . , In the 167Os, the main building was extensively renovated. The fireplace and chimney were relocated against the north wall of the house to create i Nur se r Y a more formal entranceway and a more modern staircase, and the clapboard roof was replaced with pantile, a Dutch roofing tile. A new porch was added to the front door giving the dwelling a Renaissance look (Stone 1982: 315-17). From 1638 until c. 1666, St. Johns served as the domestic household for a series of elite occupants, their families and their servants. Although three different families occupied the dwelling during this time, these families possessed striking social and cultural similarities. Overzee and Calvert were among the richest men in the colony, and though Lewger lost more financially than he gained, he was of an intellectual and social standing that kept him quite intimate with Lord Baltimore and the Calvert family. All three men were Figure 3. Plan view of the St. Johns site. North is at top of married, a noticeably unusual situation on a fronpage. tier dominated by young, unmarried adult males. All three men had married women born in England and together oversaw large households made up of relatives and servants. And, all three men used St. 301). Fox or Overzee added a chimney to the Johns primarily as a tobacco plantation, and the outbuilding, which now functioned as a kitchen dwelling and its various service buildings formed and/or quarter. Shortly after Overzees death in the center of farm operations. From ca. 1666 until ca. 1690 and possibly c. 1660, St. Johns was acquired by Charles Calvert, 1695, the site functioned primarily as an inn and as the new governor of the colony. Calvert probably a residence for the innkeeper, his family and his built the 20-by-30-foot post-in-the-ground servants quarter located in the eastern front yard servants. These inns provided a service to visitors (Figure 3) (Stone 1982: 305). Calverts wife died to the colonys capital. Visitors dined, drank and in 1663, and the Governor only remained at St. slept at the inn during their stay in St. Marys City, Johns for three more years. In 1666, he married and stabled their horses in inn facilities. Some the widow of a wealthy Maryland planter, and differences in material are evident from a cursory moved to her home on the Patuxent River (Stone review of the probate inventories of eight tavern keepers in St. Marys City between 1668 and 1982: 300). After Calvert left St. Johns in 1666, he leased 1700. Innkeepers had an average of nine beds the dwelling to a series of innkeepers who, by law, apiece; the typical planter during this period had an provided food, accommodations and stabling to average half this number (Main 1982: 252). More visitors to the colonys capital (Stone 1982: 311; detailed study of these inventories will need to be
I
Flreplace

. . i . .

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undertaken in order to illuminate other differences in material goods not always apparent in the archaeological record. During both phases of occupation (Household and Inn), large numbers of people were at St. Johns. However, the nature of habitations were different in their function and relationships between occupants are expected to vary. By isolating the two types of occupations and analyzing the distributions and compositions of archaeological materials from each, it should be possible to identify how material culture, space use and activities varied between a tobacco plantation and a public inn in the same physical space. Although the assemblages discussed here have been created by a variety of occupations, any noise should be secondary to strength of function.

Methods
The St. Johns site was excavated between 1972 and 1976 and again in 1982 by the St. Marys City Commission under the direction of Garry Wheeler Stone. The site had been subjected to postoccupational plowing, and this plow zone covers the site evenly to an average depth of about eight inches. This disturbance affected all of the surface middens at the site. Despite its disturbed nature, the plow zone is extremely important for studying the spatial organization of these colonial sites. During the 17th and 18th centuries in both England and the Chesapeake, most household refuse was tossed directly into surface middens which formed outside doors and along or in pathways. This practice was referred to by contemporary writers (e.g., Markham 1614) and has been found to be the case at most sites in Maryland and Virginia. Numerous studies have demonstrated the value of these plowed midden contexts for analysis (cf., Lewarch and OBrien 1981; Riordan this volume), and plow zone studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of early St. Marys City (Keeler 1978; Miller 1983, 1986; King and Miller 1987). Approximately 29 percent of the plow zone within the study area at St. Johns was sampled

(Figure 4). It was removed in 5-by-5- and 10-by10-foot units and screened through 3I8-inch mesh. Soil samples for chemical analysis were also taken. All artifactual and faunal materials were washed, catalogued and are presently curated at Historic St. Marys City. For the first phase of analysis, computergenerated artifact density maps were made using the SYMAP graphics program (Dougenik and Sheehan 1979). Artifact densities were calculated by square foot of excavated plow zone. Areas of midden deposition were identified from the resulting maps using overlapping clusters of temporally diagnostic artifacts. Once midden areas were identified for each occupation, plow zone materials from squares located within the middens were combined and quantified using standard statistical methods (SPSS, Inc. 1983). Because of the unfortunate problem of overlapping Household and Inn occupation middens, only materials dating securely to each of the two occupations were used in this analysis. Certain classes of artifacts, including bone and most bottle and table glass from the plow zone, could not be satisfactorily dated to either occupation and were therefore not included in the analysis. This admittedly limits the scope of the study. Nonetheless, information on the locations and organization of activities is still available from the remaining artifacts in these plow-disturbed contexts.

Spatial Distribution of Midden Deposits Phase

By

Numerous midden deposits were identified for both the Household and Inn occupations at the St. Johns site, and most of these deposits are located adjacent to doorways and fence gates. Household phase deposits were identified using those materials dating prior to c. 1666, including Dutch coarse earthenwares, Surrey-like wares, Merida Micaceous pottery, early tin-glazed earthenwares, terra cotta pipe fragments, and white clay pipe bowls and stems with the largest, and presumably the earliest, bore diameters (Figures 5-10). A sum-

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARY'S CITY, MARYLAND

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L i m i t of Study A r e a 3
~

/!-!-lJ-L

'P
N

I,
0
(81

1 0 (

u
FEET

20

KEY

0
0

Excavation Unit
Post Hole/Mold

Brick/ Stone

Figure 4. Study area and location of excavation units used in the analysis.

mary map of these concentrations is presented in Figure 11. The western half of the back yard, behind the hall and within the fenced area, contains concentrations of early white clay and terra cotta clay

tobacco pipe fragments. Early period ceramics are also present in this area in small amounts. A second Household period midden occurs west of the dwelling, and contains overlapping clusters of early white clay pipes, terra cotta clay pipes and

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S T JOHN'S

". ,
rtti

0 - .15
0.16

.21

rill

.25

0 0 - .03 m.05 0 . 0 4 m.06

.20

.26 - .47

.I3

Figure 5. The distribution of pre-1665 ceramics at the St John's site.

Figure 6. The distribution of pre-1665 tin-glazed earthenwares.

early ceramics. A third midden associated with the dwelling is found in the yard adjacent to the front door, and contains early pipes, terra cotta pipes and early tin-glazed pottery. There is also a large midden behind the kitchen, and another in the far end of the front yard, about 50 feet south of the dwelling. Only this last concentration appears unassociated with any structure, since the quarter was not constructed until c. 1660. Except for the midden deposit immediately outside the front door, the front yard remained fairly clean during the Household period. As these maps of early artifacts indicate, not all artifact types neatly overlap in each case. Variability in domestic behavior-types of activities, locations of activities and participants-affects the distributions and associations of archaeological materials. The SYMAP projection capability and the disturbed nature of the plow zone must also be considered as factors affecting the final density

projection map. A one-to-one correlation cannot and should not be expected among artifact types. However, detailed visual inspection of these maps reveals areas in which trash is consistently concentrated. Inn phase midden deposits were identified by the distributions of later materials, including pipe stems with bore diameters of 3.0, 2.8 and 2.6 mm (Figures 12-14) and ceramics, including locally made Morgan Jones wares, North Devon Graveltempered pottery and Staffordshire slipwares (Figures 15-17). These distributions are summarized in Figures 18 and 19. At the main house, Inn phase middens overlap the Household middens in the west back yard behind the hall and along the west side of the dwelling. Little trash was tossed out the front door. The midden to the rear of the kitchen continued to receive materials, and another widespread midden was identified behind the ca. 1660 quarter.

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARY' S CITY, MARYLAND
ST JOHN'S
ST JOHN'S

25

0.24

0.03 .65

- .w

Figure 7. The distribution of terra cotta clay pipe fragments.

Figure 8. The distribution of white clay tobacco pipes with bore diameters of 3 . U . 2 mm.

The midden at the far southern end of the site continued in use until ca. 1680. Neither North Devon nor Staffordshire slipped wares occur in this area, and there are few 2.4 and 2.6 mm pipes, suggesting this area was probably not used as a dump area in the last decades of the 17th century. Several new locations of refuse disposal appeared during the Inn occupation. A small midden, evidenced by overlapping concentrations of 3.O, 2.8 and 2.6 mm pipes and Morgan Jones ceramics, occurs in the front yard about 25 feet south of the dwelling. A large, circular feature with an irregular bottom in this area suggests the archaeological remains of a large shade tree (cf., Figure 3). Such trees, providing shade in the hot Tidewater summers, would have been the locations for many activities moved outdoors during this season. Although the feature is shallow, its depth is similar to holes created today when large trees are blown over during the short but intense Chesapeake summer storms.

Two midden deposits appear about 1680 in association with the parlor. One occurs in the eastern back yard and the other was created off the east gable end of the parlor. These Inn phase density maps suggest that from about 1666, when the St. John's dwelling was first leased as an inn, midden deposition continued in many of the areas used during the Household phase, with the additions of the midden behind the quarter and in the mid-front yard (Figure 18). After ca. 1680, dumping was restricted primarily to areas behind and adjacent to the various structures: the front yard was essentially clean (Figure 19). In summary, refuse from domestic activity during the Household occupation was recovered in association with the dwelling hall, the kitchen, and at the southwest end of the front yard. The yards around the parlor show comparatively little domestic activity, which suggests this room was not used on a daily basis for food preparation and

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HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 22


ST JOHN'S

0.05

.c6

.08 - .09

Figure 9. The distribution of white clay tobacco pipes with bore diameters of 3.6 mm.

Figure 10. The distribution of white clay tobacco pipes with bore diameters of 3.4 mm.

consumption activities. Domestic activities involving ceramics-all phases of food processing, preparation and consumption-seem not to have been regularly conducted here. Only a small cluster of early pipe stem fragments outside the door on the east end of the dwelling provides any archaeological evidence for activities in this room. The location of midden deposits during the Inn phase followed the pattern of Household deposition fairly closely. The two major differences occur only after the site had been functioning as an inn for at least 15 years, and these changes may be more related to changing concepts of formal front yards and service back yards related to Georgian ideas (cf., Glassie 1975). The front yard of St. John's became increasingly cleaner and deposits became completely restricted to areas behind and adjacent to the various structures. About this time, the St. John's dwelling underwent extensive reno-

vations. The fiiplace was moved to accommodate a formal entranceway, and a pantile roof was added. A Renaissance-style porch was also added to the front of the dwelling, providing an air of sophistication to this former farmhouse (Stone 1982). During the late 17th century, St. Mary's City became more urbanized (Miller 1986) and a likely location for the introduction of Georgian ideas. Comparative evidence from other households and inns in both urban and rural settings occupied during this period is necessary, although the available data suggest the front yard/back yard division is a major change occurring elsewhere in the colonial English landscape (Keeler 1978;Deetz 1977; Glassie 1975). The similar locations of middens in the Household and Inn occupations suggest that rooms and buildings at the site were used in similar manners. What types and in what frequencies are materials associated within each midden? In order to study

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARY'S CITY, MARYLAND
ST JOHN'S S T JOHN'S

27

0
20

00
0.31

- .JO m.41 - .51

.40

.52 - .60

Figure 11. Midden areas during the Household phase, c. 1638 to c. 1666.

Figure 12. The distribution of white clay tobacco pipes with bore diameters of 3.0 mm.

The Household assemblage contains only 15 percent ceramics, with the remaining 85 percent consisting of tobacco pipe fragments (Table 1). Approximately 17 percent of this artifact assemblage consists of pipes made from local terra cotta clay. These pipes were manufactured primarily by Indians during the period from c. 1635 to 1665, although colonial-made examples also occur (Henry 1979; Miller 1983). Sixty-eight percent of Household and Inn Midden Composition the collection consists of white clay pipes, manuOnce midden areas for each type of occupation factured in England and the Netherlands and imhad been identified, squares within each midden ported to the colonies. Ceramics account for 30 percent of the Inn were selected for further analysis, and the diagnostic materials combined and quantified for compar- phase assemblage (Table l), but white clay toison. Because of the problem of overlapping mid- bacco pipes still comprise more than two-thirds of dens, only measurable clay tobacco pipe stems and the collection; few terra cotta pipes were manufacdiagnostic ceramics were used that definitely dated tured during this period. Both assemblages contain to either the Household or Inn phase of occupation. very high percentages of tobacco pipe fragments, These overall artifact assemblages from each oc- but the Inn sample contains twice the proportion of ceramics found in the Household assemblage. The cupation will first be compared.

the use of space in more detail, it is necessary to turn to an analysis of the composition of the various middens associated with each type of occupation. The next section of this paper presents the results of a detailed midden analysis from the two occupations.

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ST JOHN'S

/\I

3
u .35 .62
.77

.89

0 . 7 2 - .28

E4

.35

.57

Figure 13. The distribution of white clay tobacco pipes with bore diameters of 2.8 mm.

Figure 14. The distribution of white clay tobacco pipes with bore diameters of 2.6 mm.

increase in ceramics is expected for an inn, based on Bragdon's (1981) observations, but it is also likely that this difference reflects the relative availability of ceramics and their use in the first and second halves of the 17th century. Ceramics performed a more limited role in domestic service in colonial America during the first half of the century than in the second half. This trend has also been documented for New England sites (Deetz 1977: 52). Again, comparative data would be of value. Pipes fulfilled an obvious single function. Ceramics, however, were produced in a variety of forms and served a number of roles in daily domestic activities. Therefore, ceramics were further categorized by vessel shape based on a formal analysis previously conducted by Henry M. Miller. Fragments of identifiable forms from each occupation are presented in Table 2. Of the total Household ceramic assemblage,

more than half (56 percent) of the collection consists of milk pan fragments-large earthenware pans primarily used in the dairy and kitchen. Bowls, which were also used in food processing and preparation (Beaudry et al. 1983: 33) comprise almost 14 percent of the Household ceramic assemblage. Such an assemblage, with ceramics occupying a prominent role in food processing, particularly of dairy products, was not uncommon in the 17th century English colonies (Deetz 1977: 53). Ceramics were also used for food and beverage consumption in the Household phase. Drinking and dining vessel fragments account for slightly more than one-fifth of the assemblage (Table 2). Pewter plates and hollowwares were probably also used, although pewter items rarely made it into an archaeological context (Smart 1984). Ceramic storage vessels, mostly earthenware pots and jars, account for only 2.5 percent of the assemblage, suggesting that food was also stored in other types

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARY'S CITY, MARYLAND
S T JOHN'S
ST JOHN'S

29

00 0 . 0 8

.a7

.09

.I3 .IO

.I2
.26

Figure 15. The distribution of Morgan Jones ceramics.

Figure 16. The distribution of North Devon Graveltempered ceramics.

of containers, probably barrels. Ceramic cooking vessels, primarily pipkins and patty pans, are also present in the assemblage, although iron and copper vessels probably made up the bulk of cooking equipment. Galley pots, small tin-glazed earthenware jars used as medicinal and condiment containers (Beaudry et al. 1983: 37) are present in small quantities. The Inn ceramic assemblage contains the same types of vessels as the Household collection, but with significant differences in the proportions (Table 2). Milk pan fragments decrease both in sheer numbers and proportionately more than 40 percent. Not surprisingly, this decrease in milk pan fragments is paralleled by a similar reduction in bowl fragments. Dining vessels, including plate, dish and porringer fragments, also decrease significantly in proportion by 12 percent and comprise only a small part of the Inn period ceramic assemblage. On the other hand, ceramic drinking vessels increase nearly 10

times in proportion, as do food and beverage storage vessels. Ceramic cooking vessel ratios are similar in both assemblages. The comparison of the Household and Inn artifact samples reveals both similarities and differences in the functional compositionof these two collections. Clay tobacco pipes form the overwhelming majority of the assemblages from both occupations, although ceramics show a significant increase. The same kinds of activities clearly took place during each occupation, but the use of ceramics occurred in different frequencies. Dairying, food processing and food storage were undeniably important for the operation of 17th century households. The 17th century Tidewater plantation was foremost a productive unit. Tobacco was the main product of most 17th century plantations; household subsistence and supplies were a less visible but certainly no less important product. In fact, household production and maintenance is probably the most visible activity in the archaeological record.

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ST JOHN'S

00 0 . 0 8

.07

.12 .15

.ll

.14

.36

Figure 18. Midden areas during the Inn phase, c. 1667 to Figure 17. The distribution of Staffordshire slipwares.
C. 1680.

Unlike the plantation, the 17th century inn performed a service function. Still, household maintenance for the innkeeper, his family and servants was an important consideration. Evidence for domestic activities similar to those of a tobacco plantation are expected. However, most of the inn food supply was secured from the innkeeper's plantation or as surplus from other plantations (Henry Miller, personal communication 1987). Consequently, a larger number of storage containers would be expected and this is the case. Storage vessels increase from 2.5 during the Household phase to 25 percent during the Inn occupation. The overwhelmingly large proportion of ceramic drinking vessel fragments is predicted for an inn assemblage (Bragdon 1981; Rockman and Rothschild 1984). However, studies of probate inventories and other archaeological sites both in the Chesapeake and in New England indicate that drinking vessels increase through time, suggesting that temporal factors in the availability of ceramic

forms are also involved (Brown 1972; Deetz 1977: 5 8 ; Miller 1983). Beverage consumption was a very traditional activity associated with inns, and ceramics were, at least in the short run, less expensive than pewter. Information on the rate of increase through time of drinking vessel frequencies at households and inns will be necessary. While the near absence of dining equipment during the Inn period may be a result of using wooden ware or pewter dishes, part of the low frequency could also be related to the methodological problem of identifying tin-glazed earthenwares from the ca. 1660 to 1690 period. Several tinglazed earthenware plate fragments were identified in features formed during the Inn occupation, but could not be used in this analysis of surface midden composition. Significant patterning is evident in a comparison of the ceramic assemblages, although isolating the causes accurately will require data from other sites. Most studies would stop at this point; a considerable

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TABLE 2. Functional classification of ceramics by phase,


St. Johns.
Household Phase Dairying Storage Cooking Drinking Dining Medicinal Unidentified Food bessing
Total

Inn Phase
n 59 131 22 249 12

n 185 6 12 15 41 4

w
70.3 2.3 4.6 5.7 15.6 1.5

w
12.3 27.2 4.6 51.8 2.5 8

1.7 263 48 1

0
rill

20

Dairying: milk pans, bowls Storage: pots, jars, bottles Cooking: patty pans, pipkins Drinking: all beverage containers Dining: plates, dishes, porringers, miscellaneous tablewares Medicinal: galley pots

Figure 19. Midden areas during the Inn phase, c. 1680 to c. 1695.

TABLE 1. Total diagnostic artifact assemblages by phase, St. Johns.


Household Phase Ceramics White Clay Pipes Terra Cotta Clay pipes Total n 265 1059 262 1586 Inn Phase n 462 1117 1579
46 29.3 70.7

w
16.7 66.8 16.5

amount of information has been generated. Yet, another dimension of material patterning is the spatial locations of these activities within the site. This paper will now turn to a comparison of the types and locations of activities as indicated by the artifacts during the Household and Inn phases.

lntrasite Variation: The St. Johns Household


Five Household phase middens from St. Johns were identified and used in this analysis (Figure

11). These include the middens in the backyard behind and west of the dwelling; adjacent to the kitchen and at the end of the front yard. The counts and frequencies of early ceramics and white and terra cotta clay tobacco pipes are presented in Table 3. Tobacco pipes account for the majority of artifacts in all of these samples. The middens located west of the dwelling and at the far south end of the front yard, however, contain the largest proportions of pottery, accounting for a quarter of each assemblage. The ceramic assemblages of the Household middens associated with the dwelling exhibit significant differences in their composition. The back yard midden represents a mixture of materials: dairy equipment, storage vessels, cooking pots and food and beverage consumption forms, suggesting this area received refuse derived from a variety of activities. The midden adjacent to the front door also contains a mixture of utilitarian and tableware forms, although with a significantly higher percentage of dining vessel sherds. In the assemblage from the west yard midden, however, more than three quarters of the ceramics are dining and drinking forms, strongly suggesting this area was a

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TABLE 3. Total Diagnostic Artifact Assemblages by Midden, Household Occupation, St. Johns.
Front Door

Back Yard 96 8.3 71.9 19.8

West Yard

south Front Yard


~ ~~~~

Kitchen n 16 31 52
99

Ceramics White Clay Pipes Terra Cotta Clay Pipes Total

n 16 138 38 192

n 73 491 113 677

10.8 72.5 16.7

96

n 30 61 25
1 I6

25.9 52.6 21.6

n 130 338 34
502

25.9 67.3 6.8

96 16.2 31.3 52.5

locus for refuse disposal from a food consumption context. Unfortunately, only 16 ceramic fragments from the kitchen yard midden could be securely dated to the Household phase of occupation at St. Johns (Table 4). This is partially due both to the buildings earliest use as a storage facility and to the large amounts of unidentified coarse earthenwares associated with this building. Despite the small sample size, the identified vessel forms are those expected in a utilitarian context. Food storage vessel fragments are present along with milk pan sherds and pipkin and patty pan fragments, the latter two types used for cooking. The large midden in the far south front yard contained the largest number of pottery sherds, and almost 90 percent of these fragments are from dairying equipment: milk pans and bowls. Processing of milk and other dairy products clearly took place in the area of this dump. Another early service building may have been located in this vicinity, but was not detected as a result of the limits of excavation. Three types of midden deposition were identified for the St. Johns Household: one predominantly deriving from a food and beverage consumption context, another from dairying and food processing, and a third type representing a general mix of utilitarian and food consumption activities. When this evidence is combined with midden location and the architectural and fence line information, a picture of the layout and organization of an elite 17th century household begins to emerge (Figure 20).

Most service activities were restricted to the hall, kitchen and rear yard of the St. Johns homelot. The hall also functioned as a kitchen, and an associated dairy with a subterranean cobble floor had been added to the back side of the St. Johns dwelling very early. The storage building, later converted to a kitchen was also located in the back yard. A small stockpen with a flimsy wooden animal shelter stood in this back yard, approximately 40 feet behind the dwelling (Figure 3). Finally, domestic refuse from these activities was tossed into the back yard and in the yard west of the building. In contrast, the front yard was cleaner. Some midden build-up occurred beside the front door, but the yard remained fairly clean for at least fifty feet from the main house. This two-part spatial division at St. Johns-a service back yard and a more formal front yard-was a part of English cultural tradition that carried over into the Chesapeake and has been identified at other sites (Keeler 1978: 135). The midden at the far end of the front yard poses a problem, particularly considering the utilitarian nature of the middens composition. Further complicating the origin of this midden are several crossmends of milk pan fragments with sherds recovered from the cellar under the main house. No crossmends occur with other middens. The evidence suggests a milkhouse was located here, and that some products were stored in the stonelined cellar under St. Johns. Milkhouses are frequently mentioned in the documentary record, and probate inventories generally list dairy equip-

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARYS CITY, MARYLAND

33

TABLE 4. Functional classification of ceramics by Midden, Household Occupation, St. Johns.


Front Door Dairying Storage Cooking Drinking Dining Medicinal Total n 8
1 1
% -

Back

West

Y a r d
50.0

Y a r d
% -

South Front Yard


% -

Kitchen n 4
1 % -

n 49 3 4 3 12 2 73

6.3 6.3 37.5

67.1 4.1 5.5 4.1 16.4 2.7

n 9
1

30.0 3.3 30.0 36.7

n 115 1

% -

9 11

1 1 12

88.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 9.2

5 2 2

25.0 6.3 31.3 12.5


12.5

16

30

130

16

Dairying: milk pans, bowls Storage: pots, jars, bottles Cooking: patty pans, pipkins Drinking: all beverage containers Dining: plates, dishes, porringers, miscellaneous tablewares Medicinal: galley pots

ment in these structures, including large numbers of earthen pans (Main 1982: 83, 227). The evidence suggests an important service building in the front yard, but at least 50 feet away from the main dwelling. Analysis of the Household middens provides additional insight into the use of buildings and rooms within buildings. These inferences are based on the assumption that trash generated from domestic activities was tossed into surface middens in close proximity to the original point of use; this assumption is supported by both historical and archaeological data. The hall formed the focus for most daily domestic activities: food preparation, cooking or warming of meals, eating and drinking. Sleeping probably occurred here as well (Main 1982: 293; Stone 1982). Architectural evidence suggests that food and dairy product storage occurred in the dairy: a fact supported by the milk pan fragments recovered in the back yard. Ceramic storage vessels, however, are not common and suggest food was stored in other sorts of containers. The historical and archaeological data indicate the kitchen building initially served as a storage facility (Stone 1982); after the fireplace and chimney had been added, artifacts indicate a food

preparatiodcooking function with some evidence for food consumption and leisure time activities. It is possible that servants also lived in the kitchen, since kitchen buildings are often noted as having lofts or beds, or both (Main 1982: 162). The lack of almost any refuse associated with the parlor indicates little or none of the activities of general food preparation and consumption occurred in this room. In most 17th century Chesapeake dwellings, parlors were formal rooms used primarily for entertaining guests and for sleeping (Main 1982: 293). St. Johns also served as a meeting place on a number of occasions for the Assembly and other governmental activities, particularly during John Lewgers and Charles Calverts tenures. Only a small number of early period pipe stem fragments are associated with the parlor. Clearly, the archaeological evidence suggests this room was used little for domestic activities, except possibly sleeping. The combination of documentary, archaeological and architectural information has produced a portrait of the layout and use of a 17th century elite household. How does the distribution of activities from this wealthy household compare to that of a 17th century inn? What functional similarities and differences exist? Analysis of the artifact assem-

34

HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 22

..

. .

Figure 20. Artist's conception of St. John's, c. 1640 (Courtesy Historic St. Mary's City).

blages has already demonstrated that the same types of artifacts occur during both occupations, but they occur in different frequencies. Part of this is undoubtedly due to temporal variability. Spatial variability among middens may, however, provide insight into functional variability. The next section of this paper will investigate the composition and organization of the Inn phase middens, and compare those findings with the St. John's Household.

lntrasite Variation: The St. John's Inn


During the occupation of the St. John's site as an inn, eight midden deposits were identified

(Figures 17 and 18). These middens were not, however, all in use at once. During the first part of the Inn phase, from ca. 1666 until about 1680, trash continued to be deposited in the midden areas established during the Household phase. Refuse accumulated west of the dwelling and in the back yard behind the hall. The large middens behind the kitchen and in the far front yard also continued t receive materials. Only the area around the front door appears to have received less trash. Several other midden deposits appear during this first half of the Inn occupation. By ca. 1660, the quarter had been constructed, and trash was being deposited on both its back and front sides. In

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARYS CITY, MARYLAND

35

TABLE 5. Total Diagnostic Artifact Assemblages by Midden, Inn Occupation, St. Johns.
Back West Yard Yard n % n - - - - % 180 29.1 51 32.5 85 62.5 70.9 438 618 I38

south
Parlor Kitchen n % n - - - - % 27.2 13 43 24.5 72.8 40 75.5 115 158 53 Quarter n -% 63 38.9 99 61.1 162 Front Yard - n- % 94 26.4 262 73.6 356

ceramics WhiteClay Pipes

Shade Tree n % 18 18.8 78 81.2 96

Total

addition, a small cluster of materials was created in the front yard about 25 feet south of the dwelling. This midden apparently formed under a large tree standing in this spot. The large back yard midden associated with the dwelling hall again represents a mix of domestic refuse (Tables 5 and 6). Thirty percent of the ceramic fragments are from food storage vessels. It is quite likely at this time that the nursery addition, constructed by Charles Calvert during the last part of the Household occupation (cf., Figure 3), now served the function of a buttery or pantry. This frame addition to the dwelling was located on the northwest corner of the dwelling and would have served as a good storage facility. These vessels may have contained foodstuffs not produced on the St. Johns homelot, but acquired to serve in the inn. The back yard contains one of the largest proportions of dairying vessel sherds and a number of ceramic cooking pan fragments were also recovered in this yard. Clearly, the hall and back yard continued to serve utilitarian functions during the use of the building as an inn. Socializing and dining also took place in the hall. Nearly half of the assemblage consists of drinking vessel fragments. Further, although few plate and dish fragments were identified from this period, more than half of those sherds occur in the back yard midden. This evidence indicates the hall continued to serve as a multipurpose room during the Inn occupation. The midden west of the dwelling also contains a mixture of vessel forms, but more than threequarters of the identified forms derive from drinking containers. Small percentages of dairy, storage

and cooking vessels are also included in this assemblage. Unexpectedly, this comparison has revealed little functional variation in artifact distribution and content at the main dwelling for both phases. These two Inn phase middens suggest a strong continuity in function of the hall and back yard space from the Household occupation. Although more storage and drinking vessels and less dining equipment occur in the Inn period, overall distributions strongly support a similar use for the hall and back yard space as in the Household phase. Middens from this early phase of Inn occupation were also found associated with the kitchen and with the servants quarter in the front yard. Again, small sample size was a problem with the kitchen midden assemblage. Only 13 vessel fragments could be positively assigned to the Inn period. Many of the associated ceramics not used in the analysis undoubtedly occur during the late period, but these coarse earthenwares are poorly known at this time. However, of those that could be identified, more than half derived from milk pans and storage pots, utilitarian items expected in a service structure such as the kitchen. The remaining identifiable sherds derive from mugs and jugs. Except for the increase in sherds from drinking vessels and storage pots, a trend evident across the site, the small kitchen yard samples from both periods are similar. The two midden assemblages associated with the quarter have been combined since they are the products of the same space. Since it is known from the documentary record that this building served as

36

HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 22

TABLE 6. Functional Classification of Ceramics by Midden, Inn Occupation, St. Johns.


Back Yard Dairying Storage Cooking Drinking Dining Unidentified Food Processing Total 27 53 13 81 6 15.0 29.4 7.2 45.0 3.3 4 4 4 39 West Yard 7.9 7.9 7.9 76.5 Parlor
1

Kitchen 4 3 6 30.8 23.1 46.2 -

Quarter 12 38 2 25 3 2 % 14.6 46.4 2.4 30.4 3.6 2.4

South Front Yard n 11 27 2 47 2 5 % 11.7 28.7 2.1


50.0

Shade Tree n 2
1

n % % n _ - %- - n - _ _n- - -% - - n4 36 I
1

%
11.1

2.2 9.1 2.2 2.2

80.0

15

5.6 83.3

2.1 5.3 94 18

180

51

43

13

82

Dairying: milk pans, bowls Storage: pots, jars, bottles Cooking: patty pans, pipkins Drinking: all beverage containers Dining: plates, dishes, pomngers, miscellaneous tablewares

a quarter, the assemblage should reflect domestic activities for servants, and this is the case. The quarter middens contain a mix of ceramic vessel sherd types. The distribution of ceramic vessel forms is similar to that found for the hall. Both middens contain similar frequencies of dairying and dining vessel sherds, and both contain large proportions of storage and dining vessel fragments. Cooking pan fragments are also present in both assemblages. The overall similarity of these distributions indicates a variety of domestic activities also occurring in the quarter. Further, artifacts such as personal items and table glass (Figure 21) were virtually absent from the yards around the quarter, indicating a dwelling for persons with less access to certain goods than in the St. Johns dwelling. Two additional Inn phase middens were identified that are not directly associated with any dwelling. These include the persistence of the midden in the southwest end of the front yard and the small midden in the mid-front yard. The midden at the far end of the yard was also present during the Household phase and contained mostly refuse from dairying activities. During the Household phase the midden was the repose for tobacco pipes and a large number of milk pan and bowl fragments. By the Inn period, this midden contains

ST JOHNS

20
Ktl

.15

.26 - .65

.20 - .25

Figure 21 The distribution of table glass.

__

a larger variety of vessel forms, including storage, cooking and beverage containers as well as dairy pans and bowls. The distribution of vessel types

A COMPARATIVE MIDDEN ANALYSIS OF A HOUSEHOLD AND INN IN ST. MARYS CITY, MARYLAND

37

also strongly resembles the distribution of vessel forms in the back yard, with similar proportions of dairy, storage, cooking and drinking vessel fragments. This midden may simply represent trash carried from the dwelling across the front yard to the fence line, or it may also be refuse derived from the quarter. However, this area also contained concentrations of table glass (Figure 21) and the very few porcelain fragments recovered at St. Johns were found here. Although most of the table glass fragments are not dated, those few datable pieces generally appear to be from the second half of the 17th century, suggesting the majority of table glass dates to this period (Henry Miller, personal communication 1987). The possibility also exists that another building was constructed here, across the courtyard from the quarter. As noted earlier, midden evidence suggests the presence of a milkhouse or similar service structure at this location during the Household occupation. A single large structural post hole and mold were found in this area during the excavation of the front yard (cf. Figure 3). Artifacts recovered from the post hole fill were similar in both number and types to those found in the post holes of the nearby quarter, indicating the solitary hole has a likely date of construction of ca. 1660. No other post holes and molds were found in association, but that could be due to the limited excavation in this area (cf. Figure 4). Post molds are usually found spaced 10 feet apart, and, unfortunately, no excavation occurred at a distance of 10 feet or in 10 foot intervals from this post. The evidence warrants further excavation before the presence or absence of a structure can be determined, but the midden materials strongly suggest yet another building serving as a living space for some St. Johns residents. The small midden in the mid-front yard contains a high proportion of pipes and nearly all the recovered ceramic fragments are from mugs, jugs, or cups. This midden was located under a large shade tree, and the spot would have provided inn patrons a pleasant setting in which to drink and socialize on warm days. Patrons at other establishments in St. Marys City are documented as having socialized out-of-doors (King and Miller 1987).

Around 1680, several changes occur in midden location. Two new midden deposits, both adjacent to the parlor, appear in the archaeological record. The middens in the far front yard disappear, as does the small midden in the mid-front yard. The front yard becomes entirely clean, and midden deposits are now restricted to the sides and rear of structures. Because of the short life span of the two parlor middens (c. 1680 to 1690-1695), the artifact sample is small, and the two assemblages have been combined for analysis (Tables 5 and 6). These middens contain 80 percent drinking vessels and a comparatively large proportion of dining vessels. A small frequency of storage vessels are present in this sample, and other categories are represented, but only in trace amounts. Overall, the parlor during this last phase of the Inn period appears to have been used more frequently for drinking, eating and socializing. However, the daily domestic activities associated with the processing of food and the preparation of meals apparently still did not occur in this room.

Conclusion
The organization of the Household phase homelot includes at least three specialized areas integral to farm and plantation maintenance. Evidence for the processing of raw materials produced directly on the farm are reflected in the differential uses of the yard. The Inn period assemblages contain evidence for the continuation of similar kinds of activities, but with less emphasis on the processing of food as a raw material and more on the curation of foodstuffs. At least three and possibly four structures were standing on the lot during this period. Rooms within the St. Johns dwelling served fairly similar functions throughout both the Household and Inn phases of occupation. Changes between the two phases at the site are reflected not in the use of the main dwelling, but in the increasing development of the yards through the construction of additional buildings and the increasing division of the yard using fences. The kitchen building, like

38

HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, VOLUME 22

the dwelling, served a similar function during the REFERENCES Household and Inn periods, both as a utilitarian ARCHIVES OF MARYLAND 1883 Archives of Maryland, edited by William Hand. structure and as a living space. he quarter proMaryland Historical Society, Baltimore. vided yet another living space for, in this case, servants. A possible third structure across the front BEAUDRY, MARY C., JANET LONG,HENRY M . MILLER, AND CARRY WHEELER STONE D . NEIMAN yard from the quarter may also have served as FRASER 1983 A Vessel Typology for Early Chesapeake Ceramics: living space, although this suggestion awaits furThe Potomac Typological System. Historical Archaether excavation. ology 17(1): 18-43, These changes were undoubtedly stimulated by LEWISR. AND SALLY R. BINFORD a number of factors. The maturation of a frontier BINFORD, 1966 A Preliminary Analysis of Functional Variability in society, the increasing urbanization of St. Marys the Mousterian of Levallois Facies. American AnthroCity, the introduction of Georgian ideas, as well as pologist 68:238-95, the change in site function from a plantation BROWN,MARLEY R . , 111 household to a colonial inn, contributed to the 1972 Ceramics from Plymouth, 1621-1800: The Documentary Record. In Ceramics in America. edited by Ian patterns ultimately discerned in the archaeological Quimby , pp. 4 1-74. Winterthur Conference Report, record. This analysis has presented the archaeologWinterthur Museum, Wilmington, Delaware. ical evidence from a single site adjacent to St. J. Marys City. Comparative evidence is, obviously, BRAGWN,KATHLEEN 1981 Occupational Differences Reflected in Material Culnecessary. Spatial patterns evident at other Chesature. Northeast Historical Archaeology 10:27-39. peake sites throughout the colonial period: poor, ~ D E E T Z JAMES , J. F. middling and other elite tobacco plantations, inns 1977 In Small Things Forgotten. Natural History Press, both in St. Marys City and in the rural environGarden City. ment, for example, can only be elucidated through DOUGENIK, JAMES A. AND DAVID E. SHEEHAN detailed study. 1979 SYMAP Users Reference Manual. Laboratory for The compilation of this sort of information Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis, Harvard should provide a rich data base, not just on the University, Cambridge. distributions and associations of architecture and GLASSIE, HENRY archaeological materials and their inferred func1975 Folk Housing in Middle Virginia. University of Tentions, but on the nature of social relations among nessee Press, Knoxville. the various inhabitants (e.g., planters, servants, HENRY, SUSANL . slaves; men, women, children, etc.) of these single 1979 Terra Cotta Pipes in 17th Century Maryland and sites. At this level, the contribution to the study of Virginia: A Preliminary Study. Historical Archaeology 13: 14-37. all groups comprising 17th century Tidewater society through historical archaeology would be of KEELER, ROBERT W. 1978 The Homelot on the Seventeenth Century Chesapeake tremendous value.
Tidewater Frontier. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the other contributors to this volume for their insightful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. St. Marys College of Maryland provided access to their VAXNMS computer facility and assistance with the generation of the maps. I am particularly grateful to Henry Miller for the generous assistance he has provided throughout this research.

KING,JULIA A. AND HENRY M . MILLER 1987 The View from the Midden: An Analysis of Midden Distribution and Variability at the van Sweringen Site, St. Marys City, Maryland. Historical Archaeology 2 I (2):37-59. KING,DORIS 1976 The Colonial Tavern as Cradle of the American Revolution. Paper presented to the annual meeting of the Organization of American Historians, St. Louis. LEWARCH, D . E. A N D M. J. OBRIEN 1981 Effect of Short-Term Tillage on Aggregate Prove-

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nience Surface Pattern. In Plowzone Archaeology: Contributions to Theory and Technique, edited by David S. Lewarch and Michael J. OBrien, pp 750. Vanderbilt University Publications in Anthropology 27, Nashville.

39

City, Maryland. Historical Archaeology (this volume).

ROCKMAN,D I A N A DIZ. AND NAN A . ROTHSCHILD


1984 City Tavern, Country Tavern: An Analysis of Four Colonial Sites. Historical Archaeology 18(2):112-21.

MAIN,GLORIA 1982 Tobacco Colony. Princeton University Press, Princeton. MARKHAM, GERVASE 1614 Cheape and Good Husbandry. The English Experience, No. 139. De C a p Press, New York. (Reprinted 1969.) MILLER, HENRY M. 1983 A Search for the Citty of Saint Maries: A Report on the 1981 Excavations in St. Marys City, Maryland. St. Maries City Archaeology Series No. 1. 1986 Discovering Marylands First City. St. Marys City Archaeology Series No. 2. NEIMAN FRASER , D. 1980 The Manner House Before Strarford. Robert E. Lee Memorial Association, Stratford. NOBLE, VERGIL E., JR. 1983 Functional Classification and Intra-Site Analysis in Historical Archaeology: A Case Study From Fort Ouiatenon. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University. RIORDAN, TIMOTHY B. 1988 The Interpretation of 17th Century Sites through Plow Zone Surface Collections: Examples from St. Marys

SMART, ANN M. 1984 The Role of Pewter as Missing Artifact. Paper presented to the annual meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Williamsburg. SOUTH,STANLEY 1977 Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.

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1983 SPSSx Users Guide. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

STONE,C A R R Y W. 1982 Society, Housing and Architecture in Early Maryland: John Lewgers St. Johns. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of American Civilization, University of Pennsylvania. WALSH, LORENA S. 1983 Urban Amenities and Rural Sufficiency: Living Standards and Consumer Behavior in the Colonial Chesapeake, 1643-1777. Journal of Economic History 43(1); 109-117.

JULIA A . KING JEFFERSON PATTERSON PARK


AND MUSEUM ST. LEONARD, MARYLAND 20685

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