Class 3: Inverses and Determinants* Inverses Given a matrix A the generalized right inverse of A is defined by a matrix B such that

AB = I

(3.1)

where I is the n n identity matrix ij . If A is n p then B must be p n . Let the n columns of the matrix B be denoted by b j , j = 1,..., n; these vectors are in V p . Further, let the jth column of I be denoted by i j = ( 0,....1,....0 ) , then
T

( )

Ab j = i j .
For a solution to exist need rank A = rank A i j , j = 1, 2,....n

(3.2)

= rank ( A I ) = n (rank I = n)
But

rank A min ( n, p )
Hence

p n.
Note also that this result implies that the rank A = n (see below). Uniqueness

(3.3)

Will a matrix B that satisfies this restriction be unique? Suppose another right inverse C exists so that AC = I .

A ( B C) = 0
The solution of this homogeneous system is unique if the dimension of the solution space of the homogeneous system is zero (the nullity = 0). Now

rank A + nullity = dim V p = p .

Hence
p =n.

(3.4)

Consequently, a unique right inverse exists for a square n n matrix of rank n. Such a matrix is said to be non-singular and the inverse is written as

REF: 2011 Lecture Notes, Professor P. A. Blythe 23

B = A 1 with AA 1 = I = AA 1 .

(3.5)

Similar results hold for left inverses C such that CA = I . For a non-singular square matrix it is shown below that the left and right inverses are equal. Proof A is an n n non-singular square matrix. The right inverse satisfies
AB = I ,

and the left inverse satisfies

CA = I .

Now

C ( AB ) = (CA ) B = IB = B, and C ( AB ) = CI = C
Hence

B = C, so that AA1 = I = A1 A .
Computation of inverses

(3.6)

Given the equation that the right inverse satisfies then the results for b j can be found by row reducing A I . Example 8 Find the inverse of

1 2 1 2 4 1 3 3 3
Solution Consider the augmented matrix

1 2 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 / 3 A I = 2 4 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1/ 3 3 3 3 0 0 1 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 0

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 1 0 0 3 1 2 / 3 0 1 0 1 0 1/ 3 0 0 1 2 1 0

3 1 2 / 3 A = 1 0 1/ 3 . 2 1 0
1

N.B. If, for a square matrix, A R I an inverse does not exist. (Clearly rank A < n and the matrix is singular.) Inverse of a product For a product AB the inverse is written formally as ( AB ) . Denoting this inverse by C gives ABC = I or A 1 ABC = A 1I
1

BC = A 1 B 1BC = B 1 A 1 or C = B 1 A 1
so that
1

( AB )
Note that it can also be shown that

= B1 A1 .

(3.7)

(A )
Determinants

T 1

= ( A 1 ) .

(3.8)

Associated with each square matrix is a number called the determinant of the matrix, written det A = A . Definitions are:

1 1 matrix A = ( a ) , det A = a = a
a 2 2 matrix A = 11 a21 a12 a11 , det a22 a21

(3.9)

a12 = a11a22 a12 a21 = a11 a22 a12 a21 . (3.10) a22

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A recursive definition is easily introduced by defining the minor matrix M ij associated with the entry aij in the matrix A. M ij is the matrix formed from A by deleting the ith row and jth column. For example if

1 2 3 1 2 A = 4 5 6 , then M 23 = . 7 8 7 8 9
(N.B. The book uses M ij for the det Mij ; this is the minor determinant. Based on the above definition of a minor matrix, the determinant of an n n matrix in terms of the entries in the first row is
n j =1

( )

det A = a1 j ( 1)

1+ j

det ( M1 j ) .

(3.11)

From this result etc., it can be established that the ith row expansion is
n j =1

det A = aij ( 1)
or
n

i+ j

det ( Mij ) ,

(3.12)

det A = aij Aij

j =1

(3.13)

where

Aij = ( 1)

i+ j

det ( Mij )

(3.14)

is called the cofactor of aij . As an example consider

1 2 1 2 1 1 = 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

( 2 )

2 1 1 1

+ 1

2 1 1 1

= 2 + 2 + 3 = 3 .

For a large matrix this is not an efficient way of computing the value.

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Properties From the basic definition it can be established that: Adding a multiple of one row (column) to another row (column) does not change the value of the determinant. Multiplying a row (column) by a scalar changes det A to det A . Interchanging two rows (columns) changes the sign, i.e. det A det A . If any row (column) is zero, det A = 0 . If any row (column)is a linear combination of other rows (columns), det A = 0 . Hence, for an n n matrix A with rank A < n , det A = 0 . I.e. for a singular matrix A, det A = 0 . Note also that

det ( AB ) = ( det A ) ( det B ) .

Computation of determinants A standard and efficient procedure is to reduce the matrix to upper triangular form so that

a11r 0 . det . . 0

a12 r a22 r 0 . . 0

a1nr . . = a11r a22 r ... annr . . . . . . . . . . 0 annr

. . . . . .

. . .

is simply the product of the diagonal elements. (Care, however, must be taken with any factors that have been used to multiply rows.)

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Example 9 Evaluate

2 2

4 2 2 3

2 2 =2

1 0 0

2 2 1

1 5

1 4 =2

1 0 0

2 0 0

1 5

1 4 =2

1 0 0

2 0 0

1 5 5 0

1 4 2 22 / 5

0 2

0 2

0 2

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 3

0 2 1 3

5 2 3 / 2 5

= 2 (1 ( 2 ) 5 ( 22 / 5 ) ) = 88
Inverse revisited Now
n

det A = aij Aij : row expansion

j =1 n

= a ji Aji : column expansion

j =1

where Aij is the cofactor of the element aij (see 3.14). Consider

a
j =1

ij

Akj . When k i ,

this quantity is zero as it represents the expansion of a determinant with two equal rows. Hence
n

a
j =1

ij

Akj = ( det A ) ik .

(3.15)

Let C = Aij be the matrix of cofactors. Consider W = wij = ACT . Hence

( )

( )

wik = aij Akj = ( det A ) ik .

j =1

Consequently, which gives Hence

W = det A I ACT = det A I A 1 ACT = det A A 1I or CT = det A A 1.

CT . A = detA
1

(3.16)

This is not a suitable expression to use for computations. (Row reduce A I .) Note that

C T is also called the adjoint of A.

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Solution of inhomogeneous systems The formula (3.16) can be used to derive an expression for the solution of
Ax = c

(3.17)

when A is an n n nonsingular matrix. From (3.17) and (3.16)

x = A 1c =
Now can write

1 1 n 1 n j +i CT c = A c = c j ( 1) M ji . ji j det A det A j =1 det A j =1

n

(3.18)

c ( 1)
j j =1

j +i

M ji = det Bi

(3.19)

where Bi is the matrix obtained from A by replacing the ith column by c. Hence

xi =

det Bi , det A

(3.20)

which is Cramers rule. Although this rule can be useful in theoretical investigations, it is not in general a good computational procedure.

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