ME/CEE 2342:

Fluid Mechanics Section 7 Differential Analysis [Chapters 9 & 10 in the text book]
Paul S. Krueger Associate Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Southern Methodist University Dallas, TX 75275 pkrueger@lyle.smu.edu (214) 768-1296 Office: 301G Embrey
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 Conservation of Mass
Recall, for a fixed CV conservation of mass requires

A CV is just a region in space, so Gauss divergence theorem requires

Then COM becomes

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This results holds for any CV, which means the integrand must be zero at each point in the flow. Equating the integrand with zero gives COM in differential form:
+ (u ) = 0 t

This equation Holds at every point in the flow Holds for any flow/fluid (compressible, incompressible, Newtonian/non-Newtonian, etc.) It is also called the continuity equation.

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 Constant Density Flow (Incompressible)

Thus,

u = 0

Rectangular Coordinates: u v w + + =0 x y z Cylindrical-Polar Coordinates:

1 (ru r ) 1 u u z + + =0 r r r z
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Meaning of u = 0 In general But the product rule gives Thus, COM can be written as

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D/Dt is the rate of change of of a fluid particle. Thus,

COM requires the mass of fluid particles remain constant:

Then, constant and Mpart requires

u = 0
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Volume of fluid particles remains constant!

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Example: Stagnation Point Flow

U0 x, w = 0 u= L For incompressible flow, what must v be so that continuity is satisfied with v = 0 at y = 0?

Continuity:

Integrate:

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Using the boundary condition at y = 0:

Streamlines (from previous lecture results):

Streamlines and Vector Field
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

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Example: Circular Flow For a purely circular, 2D, incompressible flow, what form must u have to satisfy continuity? Circular: 2D: Incompressible:

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 Stream Function () The previous examples show that the continuity equation places restrictions on the velocity field (not any vector field is valid, only one that satisfies continuity). In particular, for incompressible flow we have u = 0 or, in rectangular coordinates: If the flow is 2D (w = 0) this reduces to:

Under these conditions (2D, incompressible flow) we can relate the velocity field to a single function in a way that guarantees continuity is satisfied.
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Define: u v y x where (x, y) is the stream function in rectangular coordinates. Example: Find the stream function for the following 2D, incompressible flow: u = A v 2 Bx Start with the definition of (u component):

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Now use the definition of based on the v component:

C is arbitrary and doesnt affect the velocity field since it is a constant (derivative of a constant is zero). For convenience, we take it to be zero.

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Advantages of : Once is known, we can determine u by taking some derivatives. This is nice because sometimes it is easier to solve for than u directly. Lines of constant are streamlines. Proof:

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Example: The we found for u = A was

v 2 Bx

To plot streamlines, we just plot lines of constant :

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 The change in between two streamlines is equal to the volume flow rate (per unit width into the page) between those streamlines. Proof: see textbook.
A consequence of this is that flow speed increases as streamlines get closer together.

Cylindrical Coordinates:

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 Momentum Equation (N2)

For simplicity, lets consider 2D motion and draw the FBD of a fluid particle moving in the flow:

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yy, xx, xy, yx are stress components. normal stress shear stress The meaning of the notation is ( or )(face)(direction) Examples:

By convention, positive stress is in the positive coordinate direction if the outward normal of the face is in the positive coordinate direction (and vise versa).
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Newtons 2nd Law for the fluid particle:

But,

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Also, we can write ax in terms of the velocity field as shown in Ch. 4:

Thus,

u u u xx yx = x + y + g x t + u x + v y

Similarly, the y-component of N2 gives v v v xy yy = x + y + g y t + u x + v y These equations express N2 for the motion of any fluid and must be obeyed at every point in the flow. (See the textbook for the equations in 3D).
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 Viscous Flow To use these equations, we need a way to relate the stress terms to the velocity field. Such a relationship is known as a constitutive law. For incompressible, Newtonian fluids, the constitutive law in 2D is.

Strain Rate:

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Substituting the constitutive law into the momentum equation and simplifying (using the continuity equation) gives 2u 2u u u u p t + u x + v y = x + x 2 + y 2 + g x

2v 2v v v v p t + u x + v y = y + x 2 + y 2 + g y
In vector notation (short hand valid in 3D as well) Du = p + 2u + g Dt These equations, combined with the continuity equation, are called the Navier-Stokes equations. The are the governing equations for incompressible, Newtonian fluid flow.
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The Navier-Stokes equations tell us how an incompressible, Newtonian fluid should behave at each point in the flow. For example, if we know the velocity field, we can use them to find the pressure field. Example: 2D velocity field u=A

v 2 Bx

Find the pressure field for this flow. We first note that this velocity field satisfies continuity (we examined it in the section on ). So, to find p we only need to enforce the momentum equation: x

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Of course, we can do more than just find p given u. In general, the Navier-Stokes equations allow us to solve for the flow field given the boundary conditions (input). In a few cases we can do this analytically.
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 Examples of Exact Solutions to the Navier-Stokes (N-S) Equations

1) Couette Flow

The flow is incompressible, Newtonian, steady, and 2D. Assuming p/x = 0 (no pressure driving the flow), find the velocity field and pressure field.
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Governing Equations:

Restrictions:

Boundary Conditions:

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Solution: Continuity:

Momentum:

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Apply Boundary Conditions:

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2) Poiseuille Flow

The flow is incompressible, Newtonian, steady, and 2D. Find the p = p1 p2 required to drive a flow of a given flow rate (per unit width):

q = udy
0
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Governing Equations: Same as Couette Flow Restrictions:

Boundary Conditions:

Solution: Continuity:

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Momentum:

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Note: So, the right-hand side is constant with respect to y and we can integrate in y directly:

Apply Boundary Conditions:

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Now that we have u(y) we can compute q:

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 Approximate Solutions of the N-S Equations (Ch. 10)

Inviscid Flow For Re >> 1, there are often large regions of the flow were viscous stresses are negligible (xy, yx 0). Then the normal stresses are just due to pressure: So N2 becomes u p u u u = + g x + + v t x x y
xx = yy = p

v p v v u = + g y + + v t y x y Or, in vector notation

u + (u )u = p + g t
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 Bernoulli Equation Revisited For steady, inviscid flow, N2 reduces to

Vector Identity:

For g in the z direction, So,

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Then for = constant (incompressible flow), can be factored out to give

p 1 2 + V + gz 2 = u ( u )
The right-hand side of this equation drops out under two special circumstances: Along a streamline: u ( u) is perpendicular to streamlines, so along a streamline the quantity in parenthesis is constant, giving Bernoullis equation as weve seen before. Irrotational Flow: Irrotational flow is defined by

u = 0
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where

= u = vorticity
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So for irrotational flow

Now, let dx be an infinitesimal vector in any direction:

Dot product with the previous equation:

And integrate between to arbitrary points x1 and x2:

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Thus, Bernoullis equation holds between any two points if the flow is irrotational! Meaning of Irrotational For 2D flow

+ vy u = ux + u u = ur r

and
v u z x y = u = (ru ) ur 1 r r

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1) Rigid Body Motion

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2) Potential Vortex

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In general, z is twice the average/net rotation rate of a fluid element about its own axis. Rotational vs. Irrotational a) Couette Flow (Linear Velocity Profile)

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b) Uniform Flow

c) Flow over an airfoil (combined)

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Note: We can apply Bernoullis equation between any two points outside of the boundary layer. In particular, a Pitot tube and static port on an airplane need not be connected by a streamline.

Static Port

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 Potential Flow Analysis The concept of irrotational flow may be useful in describing most of the flow field in important situations (like aerodynamics), but how do we find (solve for) the velocity field in these applications? For incompressible, irrotational flow we have Irrotational requirement: Conservation of Mass: Momentum: A simple technique for finding a velocity field u that satisfies the first two conditions is called potential flow analysis.
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If we restrict ourselves to 2D, the potential flow analysis proceeds using either of two functions: Velocity Potential () Stream Function ()

u =
Rect.: u = , v = x y
Cyl.:

, v= Rect.: u = x y 1 , u = Cyl.: ur = r r

1 u r = , u = r r

describes a velocity field that is irrotational (for any ). describes a 2D velocity field that satisfies u = 0 (for any ).

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For both u = 0 and u = 0 to be satisfied, and must obey

2 2 + 2 =0 2 x y 2 2 + 2 =0 2 x y
Solution Strategy:

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Example: Potential Vortex

u = , ur = 0 2r
a) Find and for this flow. Plot lines of constant and . b) Find p(r) if p = p at r . a) Note:

Velocity Potential:

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Integrating gives:

Stream function:

Plots:

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b) Bernoulli:

is called circulation and measures the vortex strength

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In the previous example, lines of constant crossed streamlines at right angles. This is true in general: Lines of = const are perpendicular to lines of = const. Note: flow does not cross streamlines. Thus, any streamline in an inviscid flow can be treated as a solid boundary and the flow next to that streamline as flow over a solid object.

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Example: Stagnation Point Flow

= Axy
where A is a constant a) Plot the streamlines for this flow b) Use this result to approximate the pressure distribution on a plate caused by an impinging jet a) Streamlines

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Since y = 0 (x axis) is a streamline, we can treat this as a solid surface. That is, streamlines for y > 0 are equivalent to inviscid flow impinging on a solid surface at y = 0:

b) Taking y = 0 as a solid surface (flat plate) we can find the pressure distribution along this surface using Bernoullis equation. First, lets find the velocity field.

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Then, ignoring the gravity term Bernoullis equation gives

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 Composite Solutions For irrotational, incompressible, 2D flow, and are solutions of 2 2 2 2 + 2 =0 + 2 = 0; 2 2 x y x y This is a linear partial differential equation. Thus, if 1 and 2 are solutions, so is 3 = 1 + 2. Similarly for . If we have several basic potential flow solutions, we can build up more complex solutions by adding together simpler ones until we get streamlines that match the boundary we are interested in.

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Some potential flow solutions:

[ref.: Munson et al., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley]

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Example: Flow over a cylinder Lets begin by considering Uniform Flow + Source + Sink:

In the limit of the source and sink coming closer together we get something called a doublet. So, lets start with Uniform Flow + Doublet:

= uniform + doublet
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K sin = Ur sin r
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K is an unknown constant. We set K in order to get the flow we want. Specifically, note that the streamline for = 0 is given by

Thus,

So
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cyl

a 2 = Ur sin 1 r
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Velocity:

Pressure: The flow is irrotational, so lets use Bernoullis equation to find the pressure on the cylinder surface (r = a).

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Or, in dimensionless form

Force on a cylinder:

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 The Boundary Layer Approximation Far away from boundaries of immersed objects, the flow is irrotational. But what happens near boundaries.

Increasing

Re

[ref.: Munson et al., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley]

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Physically a boundary layer (BL) is the region where the flow adjusts from the high-speed outer flow to zero velocity at the boundary (i.e., it exists to satisfy the no-slip condition). Flow within the BL tells us about the wall shear stress (friction and drag) and flow separation (wakes). Boundary Layer Thickness

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 The Boundary Layer (BL) Equations For incompressible flow, the N-S equations govern the flow everywhere, including in the BL. Because the BL is thin, however, we can simplify the equations in this region.

Specifically, we assume Then

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Under these restrictions and assuming steady flow, the N-S equations reduce to u v + =0 x y

u p 2u u u x + v y = x + y 2 p =0 y

Notes: These equations hold only if Rex = Ux/ >> 1. They are valid only within the BL (y < ) From the last equation, the pressure within the BL is determined by the (irrotational) flow outside the BL:

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 Flat Plate Boundary Layer (Special Case)

The velocity outside the BL is approximately constant so that p = constant (by Bernoulli). Because p/y = 0, this also holds inside the BL. Thus, for a flat plate the BL equations become

u v + =0 x y u u 2u u +v = 2 x y y
Boundary Conditions:
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Solution: Because the plate extends to infinity in the +x direction, we expect that the flow will evolve in a similar way downstream. Specifically, we expect that rescaling y coordinate by the boundary layer thickness will give a universal shape for the velocity profile:

It can be shown that the appropriate choice for (x) consistent with the equations is

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Introducing amounts to a coordinate transformation that simplifies the problem. The coordinate is called a similarity coordinate. Using u = Uf () and integrating the continuity equation gives

Substituting for u and v in the momentum equation and simplifying gives

Boundary Conditions:

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The solution is obtained numerically (using a computer) and is plotted in Fig. 10-99 and is given in Table 10-3:

[ref.: Munson et al., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley]

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From the solution (Table 10-3) we find that:

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Knowing the velocity profile we can find the shear stress and friction drag on a flat plate:

For a thin boundary layer Then, using the Blasius solution,

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From Table 10-3

Substituting into the formula for FDl, integrating, and dividing by U2bl/2 gives

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 Control Volume Analysis of Boundary Layers To get the main ideas, lets focus on a flat plate BL:

The top streamline must be deflected up because of the boundary layer flow. To see this, consider conservation of mass for the CV:

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Now define * = streamline displacement

Or
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u = 1 U 0
*

dy
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* is called the displacement thickness because it indicates how much the streamlines are displaced by the velocity deficit in the boundary layer. Schematically

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CV FBD:

Net force: N2:

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But from COM:

where
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u = U 0

u 1 dy U
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 is called the momentum thickness. It indicates the rate at which momentum is removed from the boundary layer by friction drag. Schematically,

Also note that

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Summary:

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We can use the control volume results to obtain reasonable estimates of wall shear stress by assuming a BL profile. Example: (Assumed) Linear Profile

Governing Equations:

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Compute for the assumed profile

Substitute into the governing equations and integrate

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This result can be used to estimate friction drag on a flat plate. From our CV analysis we found

Or in dimensionless form,

This approach (assuming a profile and computing results from the CV analysis) can be extended to turbulent BLs, but in that case empirical expressions for w are used (see Ex 10-14 in the text book).
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 Turbulent Boundary Layers As with pipe flow, boundary layers will become turbulent for Re sufficiently high. For a flat plate boundary layer, the appropriate Reynolds number is a function of x: Rex = Ux/. Thus, for x sufficiently large, the BL will become unstable and transition to turbulence:

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Many factors affect the value of Rex where the flow becomes fully turbulent. For engineering purposes, we will use

Many of the characteristics of turbulent boundary layers are similar to those of turbulent pipe flow: The mean velocity profile is more uniform (flat) than for laminar flow The mean velocity profile has a steeper gradient near the wall A turbulent boundary layer gives a higher shear stress (friction drag/loss) compared to laminar flow Drag (loss) is very sensitive to surface roughness for turbulent boundary layers When a boundary layer becomes turbulent it gets thicker
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Comparison of Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers for a Flat Plate:

CDf

Lower than turb. independent of ~ (Rex)1/2

Higher than laminar sensitive to ~(Rex)1/n

/x

~(Rex)1/2 ~(Rex)1/n smaller for lam. flow bigger for turb. flow

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Example: Water Ski

Estimate the drag force (FD) for U = 20 mph and the power required to pull it through the water. a) To find FD we will treat the ski as a flat plate. But first we need to know if the flow is laminar or turbulent. Find xcr:

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Since the flow is laminar only over a small portion of the ski, we will use results for turbulent boundary layers to find CDf. Can use either Fig. 11-21 or Table 10-4. Lets use Fig. 11-21:

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For our problem the Reynolds number is Then from Fig. 11-31

b) The power required to pull the ski is

P = FDU

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 Boundary Layer Separation For a flat plate, p/x = 0 and the flow is a balance between flow inertia and viscous resistance. The shear stress takes momentum out of the flow and the BL responds by getting thicker. If the surface is curved, the pressure gradient in the flow direction is not zero. This leads to an interplay between the pressure gradient, viscous friction, and inertia, which can result in more complex behavior.

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Example: Flow over a cylinder

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Whats happening? Front of cylinder: p/s < 0 (favorable pressure gradient). The flow is accelerated and BL growth is slowed. Back of cylinder: p/s > 0 (adverse pressure gradient). Flow is slowed by viscous friction (w) and the pressure gradient, leading to accelerated BL growth. Eventually a point is reached where u/y|wall = 0 (w = 0). Beyond this point reverse flow appears near the surface and the boundary layer is said to have separated, creating a wake.

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