World Security

CHALLENGES FOR A NEW CENTURY

THIRD EDITION

A Project of the Fiue College Program in Peace and World Security Studies

Michael T. Klare
HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE

Yogesh Chandrani
HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE

1998

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TaHe 11.1 ,/ A Guide to Peacekeeping Operations Listed Opqatio?q

Title Location Duration

Jun. 1948-present
Jan. 7949-present
1,02

Maximum Strength 572 Military Observers

IJNTSO

IIN Truce Supervision

Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon India, Pakistan
Suez Canal, Sinai Peninsula

T'NMOGIP

Military Observers

UNETI
ONUC
UNFICY? Nov. 1955-Jun.7967

3,378 Troops 1.9,828 Troops

5,41 L

I.]NEFtr
TJNDOF

Military Observers

TINIFIL
TTNGOMAP

Organization UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan First UN Emergency Force UN Operation in the Congo UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus Second UN Emergency Force UN Disengagement Observer Force UN Interim Force in Lebanon UN Good Offices Mission in
Congo Cyprus Suez Canal, Sinai Peninsula Syrian Golan Heights Southern Lebanon Afghanistan, Pakistan Jun. 1950-Jun.1964 Mar. 1954-present Oct.1,973-Jul. 1979 Jun. 1974-present Mar. 1978-present

May 1988-Mar.'1.990
Aug. 1988-Feb.1991
Jan. 1989-Jun.7991

5,973 Troops 1,450 Military Observers 7,000 Military Observers 50 Military Observers

{,NIMOG
Iran, Iraq
Angola

['NA\IEMI IFITAG
Namibia, Angola

Afghanistan and Pakistan UN Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group First UN Angola Verification Mission UN Transition Assistance Group

Apr. 1989-Mar.1990

III\tovH{
UN Observer Mission to Verify the
Nicaragua Electoral Process in Nicaragua UN Observer Group in Central America

Aug. 1989-Feb.1990 Nov. 1989-Jul.1992

399 Military Observers 70 Military Observers 4,493 Troops, 1,500 Civilian Police, and 2,000 Civilian Election Observers Civilian Election
Observers

ONI'CA

Costa Rica, El Salvador,

1,098 Military Observers

I]NIKOM
UN Iraq-Kuwait Observer Mission

Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua

Iraq-Kuwait

Apr. 1991-present

1,440 Military Observers and Troops

Of'irldm
T'NAVEMtr
Second

Tfu
Angola Jun. 1991-Feb.1,995

ONIISAL
MINT]RSO

UN Angola Verification Mission UN Observer Mission in El Salvador UN Mission for the Referendum
in'Western Sahara

El Salvador
'Western Sahara

Jul. 1991-May 1995

Sept. 1991-present

IINAMIC
IINPROFOR

UN Advance Mission in Cambodia

UN Protection Force

Cambodia

Oct. 1991-present Mar. 1.992-Dec. 1'995

350 Military Observers 90 Police Observers 135 Civilian and Military Staff 375 Military Liaison Officers and Civilian Staf{ 380 Military Liaison Officers and Civilian Staff 30,500 Troops and

Civilian Personnel UN Transition Authority in Cambodia

Mar.'1.992-Dec. 1'993 15,900 Troops, 3,600 Police Monitors,

IINTAC

Former Yugoslavia-Croatia' Bosnia-Herzegovinia, Macedonia Cambodia

and2,400 Civilian Administrators

T'NOSOMI,tr IJN Operation in

ONT]MOZ

Somalia

Somalia

tutg.'J.992-Mar. 1'995

UN Operation in Mozambique

Mozambique

Dec. 1"992-Dec. t994

28,000 Troops and 2,800 Civilian Staff 7,000 Military and

Civilian Personnel

UNOMIR
T]NOMIG

UN Observer Mission
Uganda-Rwanda

Uganda-Rwanda border Georgia

Jun. 1993-present

81

Aug. 1993-present

IJNOMIL

Liberia

Military Observers and 24 Civilian Staff 135 Military Observers 374 Mrlitary Observers

I]NIMIH
T]NAMIR

UN Observer Mission in Georgia UN Observer Mission in Liberia UN Mission in Haiti

Haiti (IN
Assistance Mission for Rwanda

Sept. 1993-present Sept. 1993-present

L,267 Military and Civilian

Observers

Rwanda

Oct. 1993-March 1'996

2,548 Troops with 5,000 additional authorized

Table 11.1

/
A Guide to Peacekeeping Operations Listed (continued) Title Location Duration

Operation

Maximum Strength

L}iASOG

IIN Aouzou Strip Observer Group

UN Mission in El Salvador IIN Mission Verification
Libya/Chad El Salvador Guatemala

.\{I\TJSAL
.\TTNIJGUA

L\.\\EM III
IIN Angola Verification Mission
Angola Feb. 1995-fune 1,997

in Guatemala

May 1994-May t994 May 1995-present Jan.1997-May 1997

N/A N/A N/A

335 Military Observers,

247 CivrlianPolice
Officers,

246 Staff Of6cers,

L\-\TOT
UN Observer Mission in Tajikistan
Tajikistan
Macedonia
Bosnia

Dec. 1994-present

87

4,103 Troops Military and Civilian

Personnel

L\PRIDEP
Preventive Deployment Force

tN
for Macedonia UN Mission in Bosnia and Herzgovina UN Transitional Adminisrration
Croatia

Mar. 1995-present
Dec. 1995-present Jan. 1,996-present

1,050 Troops

-l\-\ttsH
L\_T,{ES

for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, and

5,587 Military and

Civilian Personnel Croatia

i_}\{oP L\S.\IIH
Haiti

Vestern Sirmium tN Mission of Observers in Prevlaka UN Support Mission in Haiti

N/A
1,587 Personnel

Jan. 1996-present Jun. 1.996-Jul. 1997

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228 wonrr

sECURrry: cHALLENGES FoR A NEw cENTURy

22. United Nations Security Council, "Letter Dated 29 November 1992 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council" (November 30,1992) (5t24868), p.2. 23. "The UN war on Aidid put UNOSOM in the worst of all possible worlds, which past peacekeepers had scrupulously avoided . . . [and] made it one of the players in the conflict." Richard Conroy, "Peacekeeping and Peace Enforcement in Somalia" (Paper presented at the 'Washington, D.C., March 30-April 2, Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association,
1994),p. 12.

24. For further discussion, see Walter Clarke and Jeffrey Herbst, "Somaiia and the Future o{ Humanitarian Intervention," Foreign Affairs, Yol.75, No. 2 (March/April 1.996), pp.
70-85; E. Agnelli and C. Murphg "Lessons of Somalia for Future Multilateral Humanitarian Assistance Operations," Global Gouernance,Yol. 1, No. 3 (SeptemberlDecember 1995), pp. 339-56.

both UNPROFOR's effectiveness and the UN's credibility. Susan R. Lamb, "The UN Protection Force in Former Yugoslavia," in Ramesh Thakur and Carlyle A. Thayer, eds., A Crisis of Expectations: UN Peacekeeping in the 1990s (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), p. 74. 30. The small contingent of troops (seven hundred), including three hundred U.S. soldiers, that had been deployed to Macedonia in December 1,992to forestall the expansion of conflict to that province remained as a sign of the UN's commitment to ensuring that tensions there not escalate into armed conflict. 31. Weiss and Chopra, United Nations Peacekeeping, p. 31.. 32. Ibid., p. 32. The discussion onpp.32-35 regarding legal issues provides an excellent summary o{ the literature. For discussion of the bases for humanitarian intervention, see Jarat Chopra and Thomas G. Weiss, "Sovereignty Is No Longer Sacrosanct: Codifying Humanitarian Intervention," Ethics and International Affairs,Vol. 6 (1992), pp. 9 5-1.1.7; and James A. R. Nafziger, "Self-Determination and Humanitarian Intervention in a Community of Power," Denuer Journal of International Lau,, and Policy,Yol.20, No. 1 (Fa1l 1,991,), pp.940. 33. Weiss and Chopra, United Nations Peacekeeping, p. 40. 34. Address by the Secretary-General, "From Peace-Keeping to Peace-Building," p. 11. Boutros-Gha1i discusses various proposals {or reform in peacekeeping financing arrangements. 35. For a discussion, see Robert C. Johansen, "Reconciling National and International Interests in UN Peacekeeping," in Ramesh Thakur and Carlyle A. Thayer, eds., A Crisis of
Exp e ctations, pp. 281,-302. 35. For a discussion of the problem of U.S. support for the UN, see Margaret P. Karns and Karen A. Mingst, "The Past As Prologue: The United States and the Future of the UN System," in Gene M. Lyons, Chadwick R. Alger, and John E. Trent, eds., The United Nations and the Policies of Member Statas (Tokyo: UN University Press, 1995).

the six areas, This "mismatch of commitments and resources" undermined

Operation Restore Hope: Reflections on Peacemaking and Peacekeeping (Washington: U.S. Institute for Peace, 1995), p. 150. 26. For one perspective, see Alain Destexhe, "The Third Genocide," Foreign Pollcy, No. 97 (Ifinter 1,994/9 5),, pp. 3-17. 27. Thts, the UN involvement in Yugoslavia came to represent "a microcosm of all the problems that this body faces today: what to do about peacekeeping; when and if to turn to enforcementl where decisions should be taken; how human rights abuses should be dealt with; and who will pay." Rosalyn Higgins, "The New United Nations and Former Yugoslavia," International Affairs,Yol. 69, No. 3 (1.993), p. 455. 28. For an early assessment of these problems, see ibid. 29 . The problem of matching capabilities and resources to mandates was particularly evident in the repeated Security Council resolutions authorizing UNPROFOR to deter attacks against six tN "safe areas" in Bosnia. Sfhere the UN force commander called for 34,000 troops, the Security Council authorized 7,000 and only 3,500 were actually deployed to two of

25. Then UN Undersecretary-General for Peacekeeping Kofi Annan (now Secretary"I don't think the member states have the stomach for this type of operation." Quoted in John L. Hirsch and Robert B. Oakley Somalia and
General Annan) commented presciently:

Vol.33, No. 3 (1996), pp.5,7.

37. Quoted in "Kofi Annan: The International Civil Servant," United Nations Chronicle,