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Journal of Offender Rehabilitation

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A Communication Rehabilitation Regimen for Incarcerated Youth

Elaine Trayneus-Yurek & George A. Giacobbe PhD
a b a b

University of Richmond, USA

Virginia Commonwealth University, VA, USA Published online: 22 Sep 2008.

To cite this article: Elaine Trayneus-Yurek & George A. Giacobbe PhD (1998) A Communication Rehabilitation Regimen for Incarcerated Youth, Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 26:3-4, 157-167, DOI: 10.1300/J076v26n03_09 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J076v26n03_09

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Journal of Oflender Rehabilltallon, Vu/.26 ( Y 4 ) . 1998.Pp. 157.167.

0 1998 by The Haworth Press, Inc. Allrighls reserved

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A Communication Rehabilitation Regimen for Incarcerated Youth: Positive Peer Culture

ELAINE TRAYNELIS-YUREK
University01 Richmond

GEORGE A. GIACOBBE
Virginia Commonwsailh Universily

ABSTRACT There is wide belief in a link between language disorders and emotionaVbehavioral disorders. In this study, 130 males, ages 14 to 18, who had bccn incarcerated in a residential treatment center between 4-15 months, wcrc providcd treatment via Positive Peer Culture (PPC) and preand post-tested on the Jesness Behavior Checklist. Analysis of scores on the Coinmunication vs. Inarticulateness scale indicated that thc youths perception of their communication abilities had changed. Variables analyzed were length of stay, age upon leaving the program, number of school problems and I.Q. scores. Results suggest that PPC may facilitate communication ability for incarcerated youth. [Article copies nvai/ab/eforafeefmrn 77ie Haworrh Docirrnenl Delivery Setvice: 1-800-342-9678.E-niail address: gelinfo@ hawor~Ii.cotn]

A relationship between communication problems and emotionalhehavioral disturbance appears, over the past years, to be well documented in the literature. The frcqucncy of spcech disordcrs in childrcn diagnoscd with psychiatric disturbance has been noted by Wylie, Franchack and Williams, 1965; Chess and Rosenberg, 1974; Grinnell, Scott-Hartnet and Glasier,

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JOURNAL OF OFFENDER REHABILITATION

1983; Gualtieri, Koriath, Van Bourgondien and Saleeby, 1983; and Cantwcll and Baker, 1991. Some types of language problems that may be experienced when a speech disorder is present have been dcscribed by researchers as an inability to select appropriate words and screen out irrelevant words. This results in a deficit in connecting differcnt excerpts of verbal output into a logical sequence (Chapman, 1966). Other language problems include receptive language impairment which impacts ones ability to understand the language of admonitions and instructions (Diamond, Balvin and Diamond, 1963), and expressive language problems which may prevent feelings of anger and resentment from being expressed thus engendering acting out behavior as a natural alternative (Gardner, 1994). Expressivc language problems may also cause a lack of flexibility in explaining, revising and clarifying intent (Levine, 1987). According to Mycrs and Mutch (1992), language disorders include linguistic and mctalinguistic competencc. Linguistic competence is ones knowledge of and ability to use semantics, morphology and syntax properly. Metalinguistic compctence is ones ability to think about ones language and language ability and to plan and monitor ones own verbal behavior. One must adjust verbal behavior as the situation demands which entails a certain amount of self-control. Alexander, Benson, and Stass (1989) conclude that self-analysis and self-reflection are constituents of metalinguistic competence and that these abilities are mediated in thc prefrontal lobes of the brain. It also has been noted that subjects with a history of language delay may use accompanying gestures or motor actions, such as temper outbursts, to convey meaning. Or conversely, a history of language delay may promote isolation and withdrawal since the subject does not have language abilities commensurate with his own age (Westman, 1990). The works of Golstein and Gallagher (1992), DAmico and DAmico (1993), and Craig (1993) strongly suggest that language impairment may notably impact patterns of social interaction (Brinton and Fujiki, 1993). Other research findings report that children are aware of their coinmunication abilities or lack of abilities (Rice, Sell, and Hadley, 1991). Language appears central to promoting and establishing social contacts. 11 is thc primary means of organizing behavior and is pivotal in the acquisition of cognitive and academic skill (Flavell, 1985; Kamhi and Catts, 1989; Allen and Rapin, 1989). Both receptive and expressive language disorders may affect comprehension. Verbal language ability fosters problem solving thought. Youth with emotional behavioral disturbance frequently manifest problems in the areas of social interactions, problem solving, and effective

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Eluitre Ttuytielis-Yurek arid George A . Giacobbe

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communicating. Tannehill ( I 987) reports that some possible benefit from employing Positive Peer Culture (PPC) as a rehabilitation procedure for delinquent youth is that they becomc active learners in the development of self-awareness, intcrpersonal communication skills and decision-making skills. PPC seeks to use the positive influence of peers to rehabilitate delinquent youth. Accordingly, the present study sought to ascertain whethcr delinqucnt youth viewed their communication skill as inadequate and whether change ensued in their perceptions during and aftcr application of PPC. METHODS
Pnrticipnnts

Subjects in this study were 130 malcs between the ages of 14 and 18 who had been placed in a residential treatment facility which utilizes Positive Peer Culture as the primary treatment model. Placements were madc through thc courts, the department of social serviccs, the referral and diagnostic center, and school systems. All subjects are identified as emotionally/behaviorally disturbed and exhibited problems in school and/or community. Rehabilitation time was four to 15 months, with the average length of stay 10 months. The range of prior school problems was from no problems to from one to 13 years of problems. Data on school problems was missing for four subjects. Intelligence scores as reported from school files and psychologists assessments indicated a range from lcss than 75 to above 119 (as shown later in Table 5); the average IQ is approximately 100.
Modality

PPC was the treatment strategy utilized (Vorrath & Brendtro, 1985). The basic concepts of PPC are these: Adolescents are commonly more responsive to the values of peers than to those of adults. Most negative behaviors emerge from individuals who feel badly about themselves and who feel weak and unsuccessful. Adolescents are strong resources of idealism and caring and can be assisted to rcsponsibly take charge of their own lives. The most powerfd experience that can change a persons self-conccpt and life is helping and being of service to another person.

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Group meetings are the formal problem solving format for this rehabilitative technique. Staff members help to facilitate the group process Focus of program identification and problem solving. Subjects are cotnpellcd to examine, identify, and react to their feelings, emotions and problems as a necessary part of the rehabilitation process. At the residcntial facility, all activities, with the exception of school work, centered on the PPC group. Each group met formally at least four times a week. At these meetings each young man stated the problems he had encountered since the previous session while other group members responded with their thoughts and perccptions. Paramount to the successful functioning of the group is the expressive and receptive language of the coirununication process.

Procedure
Subjects were pre- and post-tested on the Jesncss (1971) Behavior Check List at admission and at termination of the PPC treatment program. The Check List is an 80 item instrument; each item is a five point Likert type scale measuring bipolar responses. Scale values for these items are then computed to produce 14 composite attitude scores (Buros, 1978). Subjects are asked to rate themselves, with a self evaluation form, on each item. Pre- and post-Check List scores were compared by means of t-test for repeated measures. In particular, The Communication Scale of the Jesness Behavior Check List was analyzed to ascertain the subjects perceptions of their communication skills. The title of thc scale is: Effective communication vs. inarticulateness, and it is described as follows: Individuals scoring low tend to avoid direct communication, do not express themselves clearly, and/or do not attend to expression and the tendency to listen attentively to others (Jesness, 1971). Data on this scale were analyzed in conjunction with the variables of length of stay in the program, age of the subject when leaving the agency, number of school problems upon admission, and IQ range.
RESULTS

According to the data presented in Table I , PPC appears to enhance communication skills as perceived by the 130 subjects of this study. Significant differences were obscrved on the Jesness scale Coinmunication vs. Inarticulateness for all subjects and for subjects inflcctcd in various ways. The means for groups in treatment for less than six months and for more than 14 months were equivalent at the beginning, but the group in

Elairie Payitelis-Yurek and George A. Giacobbe

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Table 1: PrePost Scores and Mean Differences on Jesness Scale 11, wlfhAssociated t Values, Arrayed by Length of Stay In Resldentlal Treatment and Age
N

Pre54.5 52.5 52.4 50.2 53.9

Post71.3 64.5 71.9 70.4 65.4

difference
16.8 12.0 19.5 20.2 11.5

Mean

P
,001 .05 .05

All residenls

130
8

13.0
2.6

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Stay = Less than 6 months

Stay = More than 74 rnonlhs 8 Age = 74 years Age = 78 years

5 16

3.3

3.0
3.0

.05
.01

treatment for a longer period showed larger and more positive changes (on avcrage). Similarly, the mean pre-score for 14 year olds was slightly lower than that of 18 year olds at the beginning. But on the average, the younger group made the largest gain. Howevcr, t-test results seem to suggest that the older the subject is and the longer the subject is in treatment, the greater the change on this scale of the Jesness Behavior Check List. Changes in scores on Scale 11 in relation to length of stay in the trcatment facility are rcported in Table 2. It is seen that thc greatest mean changes (at 22.0 or higher) are associatcd with stays of 13 or 14 months, although the lattcr fails of significance and even though very nearly as large a mean difference is found among subjects with 10 months in trcatment. It remains to hturc research to discern whether the relationship bctween attitude change, as measured by scores on Scale 1, is related to lcngth of treatmcnt in true rectilinear fashion or curvilinearly. In general, as is to be expected as a function of randomization in relation to number of subjects, data reported in Table 2 seem to suggcst that time in treatment categories with smaller numbcrs of subjects fail to show significant differences. Groups of 18 to 23 subjects, who were in treatment from seven to thirteen months indicated the most significance in attitude change at thc .05 and .01 level. Data relating pre-post score differences to age at discharge from thc facility are reported in Table 3. Mean differences for subjects who werc older than 14 at discharge are seen to be significant, but the small size of the discrepant age category may be at play. Data relating pre-post score differences to duration of school (learning)

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I Table 2: Pre-Post Scores and Mean Differences on Jesness Scale 11, with Associated t Values, Arrayed by Length of Stay in Residential Treatment in Months
Length 01 stay/Months
4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 N

Pre-

Post-

Mean difference
0 13.7 16.2 17.6 14.1 20.6 16.1

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1 7 18 13 23 18 17 8 17 6 2

59.0 51.5 55.2 54.5 58.6 51.5 53.4 58.0 52.9 50.7 57.5

59.0 65.3 71.4 72.1 72.7 72.1 69.5 67.0 74.9 72.8 69.0

9.0
22.0 22.1 11.5

1.81 3.10 2.54 3.30 3.40 3.44 1.28 3.00 1.77 0.75

.01 .05 .01 .01 .01 .01

Table 3: PrePost Scores and Mean Differences on Jesness Scale 77, with Associated t Values, Arrayed by Age at Discharge from Residential Treatment
Age at discharge/Years
N
Pre-

Post-

Mean difference
20.2 21.1 17.6 15.1 11.5

14 15 16 17 18

5 24 45 40 16

50.2 49.7 55.0 57.6 53.9

70.4 70.8 72.6 72.7 65.4

64 93 4.83 4.68 2.35

,001 ,001 ,001 .05

problems arc rcported in Tablc 4. Such problems appear to have limited and variable effects on score changcs. Data relating pre-post score differences to invcntoried IQ are rcported in Tablc 5. Thc grcatcst incan differencc is obsewed among subjects whosc IQs fall in thc 110-119 interval.

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Table 4: fre-Post Scores and Mean Differences on Jesness Scale 17, with Associated I Values, Arrayed by Duration of School (Learning) Problems

Duration of problem[s]
No information No problems indicated Less than 1 year 1-3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years 7 years

N
4 6
14

Pre48.5 54.8 53.1 55.4 58.4 54.5 54.2 55.4 59.4 49.6 50.4 60.0 63.3 59.0

Post76.5

Mean dilference
28.0 15.7 19.7 17.2 10.2 16.8 20.3 15.2 2.2 18.7 16.0 11.6 10.4 21.0

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70.5
72.8 72.6 68.6 71.3 74.5 70.6 57.2 68.3 66.4 71.6 73.7 80.0

38 8
12 4 5 5 9 16

8 years

9 years

11 years 12 years 13 years

10 years

5
3
1

2.98 4.50 1.20 2.59 1.60 1.10 1.70 2.10 3.01 1.30 0.75

.05 ,001
.05
'

.01

DISCUSSION
Outcomes with some significance are indicated at all levels of age and length of trcatment time in Table 1. Similar significance levcls are not apparent in Table 4, due to the small numbcr of subjects in each category. However largc or small, effects indicate positive gains for thc subjects. Youth between the ages of 15 and 17 who have significant attitude change about their communication ability may have a more refined system for formal thinking (Piaget and Inhelder, 1969), and thus be able to rcalize alternatives. This would enable them, hypothetically, to profit at a deeper level, from the treatment. It is meaningful that the youth in this study indicate that generally thcy perceived their language skills as improved. Since Weiner (1985) states that language deficits may have dehabilitating effects upon both academic and social success and Maynard (1988) has reported that studies of the pragmatic parameters of languagc prcscnt in conversational interaction have the potential to show the basis of socially maladjusted behavior, it is paramount that treatment models for the emotionallyhehaviorally disturbed youth include some type of language therapy. PPC may rehabilitate language deficits because of the high level of group interaction in the therapy. Youth are required to express feelings and

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Table 5: Pre-Post Scores and Mean Differences on Jesness Scale 11, with Associafed f Values, Arrayed by Inventoried 1 0 Level
N

1 0 Level [/n/erva4
<75 75-89 90-109 110-119 >119

Pre
56.0 54.1 55.5 52.5 51.1

Post-

Mean dillerence
8.0 15.9 16.5 22.4 14.8

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4 32 68 19 7

64.0 70.0 72.0 74.9 65.9

1.27 3.96 5.88 3.67 1.92

,001 ,001 ,001

)erceptions. The youth is cncouraged to express himself, and receptive Astening skills are strengthened as the youth listens to the responses made by other group members. A focus of the group sessions is to lessen tendencies to distortcd thinking, which enhances the acquisition of reasoning abilities. In addition, skill in pragmatics is acquired as ambiguous language is not tolerated. Prizant, Audet, Burke, Hummel, Maher and Theadore (1990) emphasize a holistic approach to rehabilitate subjects with emotional/behavioral disorders that exhibit communication deficits. They do not believe that isolated therapeutic approaches treat the interactional nature of communication and conduct disorders. These researchers furthcr state that their clinical experience suggests a direct, positive correlation between improvement in communication and improvement in emotional/ behavioral problems. Carr and Durand (1985) and Prizant and Wetherby (1987) prescnt documented empirical evidence for this interaction of language deficit and emotional/behavioral disturbances. A more holistic approach is also recommended by Ruhl, Hughes, and Camarata (1992) as thcy state that subjects with emotional/behavioral disorders should be considered at risk for communication disorders. In view of this study, it appears that PPC may be a more cncompassing treatment strategy that attempts as part of the process, albeit inadvertently, to strcngthen communication skills as perceived by the youth in this study. REFERENCES Alexander, M. P., Bcnson, D. F., & Stass, D. F. (1989). Frontal lobes and language. Brain and Language, 37,656-691. Allen, D. A,, & Rapin, I. (1989). Language disordcrs in preschool children: Prcdictors of outcome. Bruin and Development, 2 , 7 3 4 0 . Baker, L., & Cantwell, D. P.(1987). Comparison of well, emotionally disordered,

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and behaviorally disordered children with linguistic problems. Journal o f the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 193-196. Brinton, B., & Fujiki, M. (1993). Clinical forum: Language and social skills in the school age population language, social skills, and socioemotional behavior. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools. 24, 194-198. Buros, 0. K. (Ed.). (1978). The eighth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 872-73). Highland Park, NJ: Gryphon Press. Cantwell, D., & Baker, L. (1991). Psychiatric and developnrental disorders in children with comniunicafion disorder. Washington, DC: Amcrican Psychiatric Press. Cam, E., & Durand, V. (1985). The social-communicative basis of behavior problems in children. In S. Reiss, & R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoreticalfssuesin Behavior Therapy (pp. 219-254). New York: Academic Press. Chapman, J. (1966). The early symptoms of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psycliiatty, 112,225-251. Chess, S., & Rosenberg, M. (1974). Clinical differentiation among children with initial languagc complaints. Journal ofAutisrn and Childhood Schizophrenia, 4,99-109. Craig, H. K. (1993). Social skills of children with specific language impairment: Peer relationships. Language, Speech, and Hearing Service.p in Schools, 24,206-215. DAmico, J. S., & DAmico, S. K. (1993). Language and Social skills from a diversity perspective: Considerations for the speech-language pathologist. Language, speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 24,236-243. Diamond, S., Balvin, R. S., & Diamond, F. R. (1963). Inhibition and Choice. New York: Harper and Row. Flavell, J. (1985). Cognitive development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gardner, R. A. (1994). Conduct disorders o f childhood: Dynamics and psychotherapy. Crosskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics. Golstein, H., & Gallagher, T. M. (1992). Strategics for promoting the social communicative competence of young children with spccific language impairment. In S. L. Odom, S. R. McConnell, & M. A. McEvoy (Eds.), Social Cornpetence of Young Children with Disabilities: Issues and StrategiesJor Intervention @p. 189-213). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brooks. Grinnell, S. W., Scott-Hartnet, D., & Glasier, J. L. (1983). Language disorders (letter to the Editor). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatty, 22,580-581. Gualtieri, C. T., Koriath, U., Van Bourgondien, M., & Salecby, N. (1983). Language disorders in children refcrred for psychiatric services. Journal o f the American Academy o f Child and Adolescent Psychiaty, 22, 165-171. Jcsncss, C. F. (1971). Behavior Problem Check List. Tonawanda, N Y MultiHealth Systems, Inc.

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Kamhi, A. G., & Catts, J. W. (1989). Reading disabilities: A developmental langrrageperspective. Toronto, ON: College-Hill. Levine, M. D. (1987). Development, variation and learning disabilities. Cambridge: Educators Publishing Service, Inc. Maynard, D. W.(1988). Language, interaction, and social problems. Social Problems 35,3 11-334. Myers, W. C., & Mutch, P. J. (1992, May). Language disordcrs in disruptive behavior disordered homicidal youth. Journal ofForensic Sciences JFSCA, 37(3), 919-922. Piaget, J., & Inhclder, B. (1969). Thepsychology o f the child. New York: Basic Books. Prizant, B. M., Audet, L. R., Burke, G. M., Hummel, L. J., Maher, S . R., & Theadore, G. (1990). Communication disordcrs and emotional/behavioral disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 179-192. Prizant, B. M., & Wetherby, A. M. (1987). Communicative intent: A framework for undcrstanding social communicative behavior in autism. Journal o f the American Academy o f Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26,472-479. Rice, M. L., Sell, M. A,, & Hadley, P. A. (1991). Social interactions of speech and language-impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 34, 1299-1307. Ruhl, K. L., Hughes, C. A., & Camarata, S. M. (1992). Analysis of the expressive and receptive language characteristics of emotionally handicapped subjects served in public school settings. Journal of Childhood ConimunicativeDisorders. 14(2), 165-176. Tannehill, R. L. (1987). Employing a modified positive peer culture treatment approach in a state youth center. Journal o f Oflender Counseling, Services andRehabilitation, 12(1), 113-129. Vorrath, H. H., & Brendtro, L. K. (1985). Positivepeer culture (2nd Ed.). New York: Aldine De Gruyter. Westman, J. C. (1990). Handbook of learning disabilities: A multisystem approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Weiner, P. (1985). The value of follow-up studies. Languagc impaired y o u t h s the years between 10 and 18. Topics in Language Disorders, 5(3), 78-92. Wylie, H. L., Franchack, P., & McWilliams, B. J. (1965). Characteristics of children with speech disorders seen in a child guidance center. Perceptual Motor Skills, 20, 1101-1107. AUTHORS NOTES Elainc Traynelis-Yurek is chairperson of the Department of Education at the University of Richmond. Her tcaching responsibilities include both undergraduate and graduate courses in reading and spccial education. Research activities include learning disabilities, dyslexia, spelling, self-esteem, fine-mo-

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tor development, Positive Peer Culture, and the link between learning disabilities and adjudication of delinquency. George A. Giacobbe is an associate professor of special education, with a specialization in emotional disturbance, at Virginia Commonwealth University. Dr. Gioacobbe earned his PhD at thc University of Gcorgia. He is currently interested in the factors of intervention strategies that produce successful outcoines. The authors wish to acknowledge Elk Hill Farm in Goochland, Virginia, for graciously allowing us to pursue our studies at their facility. All subjects in this study wcre residcnts of Elk Hill Farm. Addms correspondence to Dr. Elaine Traynelis-Yurek, Department of Education, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23 173.

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