Internal Combustion

Engines

Timothy T. Maxwell
Advanced Vehicle Engineering Laboratory
Texas Tech University

2008

Conduction 3
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Historical Perspective

ICE purpose—production of mechanical power

Fuel oxidized inside engine as opposed to external
combustion engines



Fuel/air mixture and combustion products are the
working fluids



Spark–ignition ICEs or Otto cycle



Compression–ignition ICEs or Diesel cycle



1st ICE in 1860, J. J. E. Lenoir,



Coal–gas fuel



No compression



About 5000 built

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OTTO’s Engine


Nicolaus Otto and Eugene Langen



Atmospheric engine 1867



Complex with free piston to create vacuum



About 5000 built



1867 Nicolaus Otto – 1st four stroke Otto cycle engine

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Otto’s Competition

Alphonse Deau de Rochas

Unpublished French patent 1862



De Rochas 4 points for maximum engine efficiency



Largest possible cylinder volume with minimum
boundary surface



Greatest possible working speed



Greatest possible expansion ratio



Greatest possible pressure at the beginning of expansion



De Rochas never reduced ideas to practice, thus
Otto given credit for 4 stroke cycle ICE

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Other Engines and Sub–systems

By 1880’s two–stoke cycle ICEs developed

Carburetor & ignition systems late 1880’s


Late 1890’s single cylinder 1.3 m bore engine


Produced 600 hp @ 90 RPM (14—18% efficient)


Rudolf Diesel’s compression ignition
or diesel engine appeared in 1892


Felix Wankle’s rotary engine successfully
tested in 1957

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Fuels for ICEs

Fuel development also important

1st fuel used was gas (not gasoline)


Gasoline and lighter fractions of crude oil
available in late 1800’s


Various carburetors developed
to mix liquid fuels with air


About 1905 gasoline problems began as a result of
higher compression ratios — rc > 5



Gasoline improved to reduce spark knock


Use of Tetraethyl lead (GM) (Kettering)

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Air Quality & Emissions

1940’s air–pollution recognized as a problem

Smog produced by reactions of oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) and hydrocarbon compounds (HC) in
presence of sunlight


Autos large source of HC and NOx


Diesels source of soot, smoke particles, NOX & SOX


California established emissions standards
in early 1960’s


EPA created in 1970


Unleaded gasoline


Alternative fuels
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Air Quality & Emissions

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The Future for ICEs

Potential for additional development of the ICE?

SI and CI engines contine to be developed
and perfected


Computer control made a large impact on engine
design and performance


New materials reduce engine weight and increase
efficiency and performance


New ideas also continue to provide
new and better engines

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Engine Classifications

Application — truck, auto, aircraft, marine, etc.

Basic design — V, inline, radial, recip, rotary


Working cycle — 2 or 4–stroke, turbocharged,
supercharged, naturally aspirated


Valve/port design/location — flathead, overhead,
overhead cam, loop scavenged, rotary valve, etc.


Fuel — gasoline, fuel oil, natural gas, LPG,
alcohol, hydrogen, etc.


Mixture preparation — carburetor, fuel injection
in manifold, fuel injection in cylinder

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Engine Classifications, cont.

Ignition type — spark ignition, compression

ignition, pilot injection



Combustion chamber design — open chamber
(wedge, hemisphere, bowl–in–piston), divided
chamber, swirl chambers, prechambers



Load control — throttling of fuel and air flow
(constant mixture ratio), control of fuel only,
combination



Cooling — water cooled, air cooled, adiabatic



1st classification — SI vs CI



2nd classification — 4–stroke vs 2–stroke

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4–Stroke Cycle Engine

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2–Stroke Cycle Engine

Compression stroke



Power stroke

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4 Stroke Spark Ignition Engine

4 cylinder


Overhead cam

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 2 Stroke Compression

Ignition Engine

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Parameters Vary During Cycle

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Engine Performance Characteristics

Performance over operating range

Fuel consumption within operating range
and cost of fuel consumed


Noise and air pollution emissions


Initial cost and installation


Reliability and durability of engine 


Maintenance and effect of maintenance on
availability and operating costs

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Engine Performance

Maximum power (or max torque) available as a

function of operating speed



Range of speed and power over which engine
operation is satisfactory



Maximum rated power—highest power output an
engine can develop for a short period of time



Normal rated power—highest power an engine can
develop continuously



Rated speed—Crankshaft rotational speed at which
highest power is developed

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Compression Ratio

Compression ratio, rc

max cylinder vol Vd + Vc
rc = =
min cylinder vol Vc
Vd = displaced or swept volume
Vc = clearance volume

B


Ratio of bore to stroke Rbs =
L


Ratio of connecting rod
length to crank radius
l
R= L = 2a
a
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Cylinder Volume

Cylinder volume vs crank angle

 B2
V = Vc + (l + a
s )
4
( )
1/2
s = a cos  + l
a sin  2 2 2

V
(
= 1 + 1 2 ( rc
1)  R + 1
cos 
R 2
sin 2  ) 
1/2

Vc  

Combustion chamber
surface area
 BL 
R + 1
cos 
( R
sin  ) 
1/2
A = Ach + AP + 2 2

2  
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Mean Piston Speed

Mean piston speed

SP = 2 L N
N is crankshaft rotational speed


Gas velocities in intake
and cylinder scale with
mean piston speed
ds


Instantaneous SP =
piston velocity dt

SP   cos 

= sin 1+ 
 ( ) 
1/2
SP 2
 R 2

sin 2


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Brake Torque and Power

Dynamometer (Brake)



Torque
T = F b


Power
P = 2
N T

(
P [ kW ] = 2  N  rev s  T [ n-m ] 10
3 )
N  rev min  T [ lbf-ft ]
P [ hp ] =
5252
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Indicated Work

P–V work on piston by the gases

Indicated Work per Cycle — Wci



Integrate curve in p–V diagram
Wci =
pdV


Gross indicated work—comp & exp strokes



Net indicated work—all four strokes



Pumping work

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Indicated Work

Indicated power per cylinder

nR = number of crank revolutions per power stroke
nR = 2 for four stroke engines Wci N
Pi =
nR = 1 for two stroke engines nR


Indicated power is power transfer between
gases and piston


Brake power is net power output of engine


Friction


Pumping losses


Accessories

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Mechanical Efficiency

Friction associated with moving parts


Bearings

Valve train


Pistons

Accessories


Friction power


Measure–operate engine on dyno without firing


Measures all friction losses including pumping losses


Depends on throttle setting, temp, engine speed, etc


Mechanical efficiency


Ratio of brake power to indicated power


Typical values @ full throttle


~90% below ~2000 RPM & ~75% @ max rated speed

Pb Pf
Pi = Pb + Pf m = = 1

Pi Pi
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Mean Effective Pressure

Brake power divided by displacement

Engine’s ability to do work per unit displacement

PnR PnR
Work per cycle = mep =
N NVd

mep(kPa) = =
( )
P(kW)nR 10 3
6.28 T (N-m)nR
3
N(rev/s)Vd (dm ) Vd (dm 3 )
P(hp)nR ( 396, 000 ) 75.4 T (lbf-ft)nR
mep(psi) = 3
=
N(rev/min)Vd (in ) Vd (in 3 )

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Mean Effective Pressure

Maximum bmep is convenient measure of

engine design


bmep values for good engine design are well established


Can use in engine design to estimate displacement


Typical bmep values


Typically maximum near max torque engine speed 


Naturally aspirated SI engines — 125 to 150 psi


Turbocharged SI engines — 180 to 250 psi


Naturally aspirated 4S CI engines — 100 to 130 psi


Turbocharged 4S CI engines — 145 to 175 psi

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Specific Fuel Consumption

Mass flow rate of fuel
m
f

m
f


Specific fuel consumption
sfc =


Fuel flow rate per unit power output

P


Efficiency of engine to convert fuel into work

m
f (g/s)
sfc(mg/J) =
P(kW)
m
f (g/hr)
sfc(g/kW–hr) =
P(kW)
m
f (lbm/hr)
sfc(lbm/hp–hr) =
P(hp)


Smaller magnitude better



SI engines 0.47 lbm/hp hr



CI engines 0.32 lbm/hp hr

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Fuel Conversion Efficiency

Ratio of work produced to fuel energy consumed

Lower heating value
QLHV


Fuel energy content in BTU/lbm



Standardized test with Bomb Calorimeter



Fuel conversion efficiency

P nR
Wc N P

f = = =
m f QLHV  m
f nR  m
f QLHV
 N  QLHV
1

f =
sfcQLHV

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Air/Fuel & Fuel/Air Ratios

Air/Fuel ratio — ratio of mass air flow rate into

engine to fuel mass flow rate into engine

A m
a
Air/fuel ratio ( F ) =
m
f


Fuel/Air ratio — ratio mass fuel mas flow rate into
engine to air flow rate into engine

m
f
Fuel/air ratio ( F A) =
m
a


Normal operating range



SI engine (gasoline) 12  A/F  18 or 0.056  F/A  0.083



CI engine (diesel) 18  A/F  70 or 0.014  F/A  0.056

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Lambda and Equivalence Ratios

AFa


Lambda ratio

=
AFs
FAa


Equivalence Ratio

=
FAs

Lean Stiochoimetric Rich

<1 1 >1
 >1 1 <1

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Volumetric Efficiency

Intake system restricts airflow into cylinder

Volumetric efficiency is a measure of how well a
particular engine configuration can induct air


Only used with 4 stroke engines
2 m
a ma

v = =
ai is the density of the inlet air
aiVd N aiVd


Total volumetric efficiency or VE of port
and valve only


Typically 80 to 90%, but can be greater than 100%

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Correction Factors

Inlet air temperature and pressure (density) and

relative humidity affect engine performance



Thus, performance parameters are frequently
corrected to a standard temperature, pressure,
and relative humidity



Several standard conditions have been used

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Brake Power Correction


Indicated Power
Pi,m = Pb,m + Pfriction,m


Corrected Brake Power
Pb,s = CF Pi,m
Pfriction,m


Correction Factor
1/2
ps,d  Tm 
CF =  T 
pm
pv,m s


Where

ps,d is the standard dry–air pressure

pm is the measured ambient–air pressure

pv,m is the measured ambient water–vapor partial pressure

Tmis the measured ambient temperature

Tsis standard ambient temperature

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Specific Parameters

Parameter divided engine weight

specific weight =
by rated power rated power
engine volume
specific volume =
rated power
m
NOx
sNO x =
P
m
CO
sCO =
P
m
HC
sHC =
P
m
Part
sPart =
P
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Performance Relationships


Power, torque and mean effective pressure

P=
n f ma NQLHV FAa ( ) P=
(
n f nv NVd QLHV
a,i FAa )
nR nR

T=
n f nvVd QLHV a,i FAa ( ) (
mep = n f nv QLHV
a,i FAa )
4

P n f nv NLQLHV
a,i FAa

= =
( )
n f nv SQLHV
a,i FAa ( )
AP 2 4


Factors for engine performance
mep AP S P
P=


Fuel conversion efficiency
4


Volumetric efficiency
mepVd


Air inlet density
T=
4


Fuel/air ratio
1


Mean piston speed
sfc =

f QLHV
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Indicated and Brake Power and Torque

Wide–open throttle operating conditions for SI engine

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Fuel Consumption Characteristics

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Fuel Consumption Characteristics

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Real 4 Stroke Cycle

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Spark Timing

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Fuel/Air Ratio and mep

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F/A Ratio and Emissions

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