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Termites grou behaviour an th los o innovation conformit rules


Departmen o Management Masse University Palmersto North Ne Zealan
Keyword Individua behaviour Competitiv strategy Innovation Leadershi Abstrac Author an researcher hav enthusiasticall extolle th benefit o innovatio fo busines an othe organisation fo numbe o years Ironically althoug mos o today' organisation clai the encourag innovativ an creativ behaviour man ar i realit unabl o unwillin t tolerat suc behaviou amongs thei employees Thi i partiall du t th fashionabl manageria trend i cos cuttin an downsizing Anothe caus fo th lac o creativ behaviou ma b du t hig nee fo conformit amongs organisationa members Normativ influenc i a instinctiv surviva mechanis servin t establis an maintai uniformit an stability Althoug conformit help grou stabilit an grou cohesiveness an th ac o copyin other ma b a effectiv metho o learning th subsequen ``groupish' rigidit o behaviou an though als serve t stifl creativit an innovation Attempt t explai th phenomeno o normativ influenc an it detrimenta impac o creativ huma performanc i a organisationa context Th emphasi o innovatio an creativit shoul b particularl relevan fo wha Kugle predict wil b turbulen twenty-firs century

Reflection

Richar J Pec

Grou behaviou an los o innovatio 559


Receive Februar 200 Revise Ma 200 Accepte Ma 200

Introductio Wh woul rational profit-oriente organisatio avoi an eve prohibi creativ an innovativ behaviou tha coul potentiall resul i increase profits Thi articl attempt t explai th lac o creativit an innovatio i large organisation i term o tw interrelate organisationa performanc anomalies (1 A overbearin nee fo staf t confor t th behaviour an expectation o th organisationa norm conditio know a normativ influence (2 A overbearin nee fo som organisation t selec fo conformit amongs employe behaviours thereb perpetuatin th statu qu an followership rathe tha encouragin individualis an leadership dominan cultur o conformit an followershi generate ``mor o th same'' whil cultur encouragin individualis an leadershi produce ne product o method o productio b harnessin employe creativit an innovation Fo th purpose o thi discussion th term creativit an innovatio wil b use togethe a wel a interchangeably althoug the ar no i realit synonymous Creativ thinkin lead t chang an i tha chang provide socia o economi benefits th resul become a innovation Drucke (1999 argue tha th searc fo innovatio mus b systemati an purposeful a oppose t waitin fo th accidenta ligh bul experience Thi discussio

Journa o Manageria Psychology Vol 1 No 7 2001 pp 559-574 MC Universit Press 0268-394

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attempt t explai wh th rhetori supportin th systemati an purposefu pursui o innovatio i no alway acte upo i reality Automate processe Behaviou i organisation ha ofte bee describe i metaphorica terms Whe discussin productivit an automation i i usefu t mak referenc t th highl organise natur o ant an termites On vivi illustratio ca b see i th manne i whic som insect appea t b organise fo th purpos o th greate goo o th colony hive o nest I contras wit huma enterprises insec activitie d no produc o requir manager t overse thei wor an thei constructio projects Ho ca the achiev suc seemingl amazin result withou a architectural planning managing leading organising o supervisin function Clar (1997) usin th exampl o nest-buildin behaviou o termite explain tha nes buildin i unde th contro o wha ar know a stigmergi algorithms Clar (1997 p 75 describe th proces lik this termite mak mu ball tha a firs ar deposite a random Eac bal carrie chemica trac adde b th termite Termite prefe t dro th mu ball wher th chemica trac i strongest Probabilit suggest tha mos o th mu ball wil b deposite o to o ol ones servin t generat a eve stronge attractiv force Column begi t b formed Whe tw column ar fairl clos together th drif o chemica attractant fro th neighbourin colum influence th droppin behaviou b inclinin th insect t preferentiall ad t th sid o eac colum tha face th other Thi proces continue unti arche ar formed an throug mor stigmergi effects complexit o tunnel an chamber result Clar (1997 emphasise tha a n poin durin thi proces i pla o th nes represente o followed N termit act a constructio leader N termit ``knows' anythin beyon ho t respon whe confronte wit specifi patternin o it loca environment Th termite d no tal t on anothe i an way excep throug th environmenta product o thei ow activity Automate processe an huma behaviou Whil w ma marve a th succes o stigmergi algorithm fo achievin en result fo termit colonies suc programme mindlessnes canno b equate wit th realit o huma organisationa life W kno tha peopl d no wor unde th influenc o stigmergi algorithms an ye ther ar man parallel tha ca b drawn whic see t hav disproportionatel larg influenc o th wa ou organisation functio o o th wa som woul wis the t function Frederic Taylor th founde o th scientifi managemen movement perhap misinterprete b som fo hi ``allege inhumanity' toward worker (Pug an Hickson 1996) coul b accuse o attemptin t initiat somethin aki t stigmergi algorithm throug th applicatio o rigi wor pattern an clearl define laws principles an rules I sens i coul b argue tha h attempte t produc unthinkin clone tha woul

wor a efficientl a machine o termites Organisation n longe adher t Grou behaviou suc belief . . . o d they an los o Som organisation hav deepl embedde cultures traditions an innovatio operatin procedure designe t reduc th cognitiv loa fo individuals supposedl makin thei wor easie an o standardise nature However th reduce nee t thin ofte result i performanc rigidity th consequenc 561 o a over-relianc o plans stric operatin policies an deepl entrenche procedure . . . typ o huma stigmergi algorithm I i argue tha relianc o suc ``automated' system increase th ris tha th organisatio wil eventuall los it competitiv edg throug th los o individualisti an innovativ employe behaviour Th impac o th organisatio ca b quantifie i los earnings du t th introductio o fewe ne ideas an a consequenc fewe ne product o service fo th customer Th organisatio ma als experienc highe operatin cost du t lo morale increasin staf turnover an unnecessaril inflate trainin an recruitmen costs Th resul i demoralise an alienate staff an fo th organisation reduce competitiveness Thi i supporte b Greenwoo an Hining (1996 wh war tha stagnan organisatio (on tha canno innovat t mee evolvin environmenta conditions wil eventuall fin itsel unabl t compet i a increasingl comple an technologicall sophisticate economy A organisation a wit singl individual wil economis b developin patterne thinking findin securit i th establishmen o routin habit suc a meeting an standardise decision-makin procedures Thi i analogou t th termites us o stigmergi algorithm fo directin thei nes buildin behaviour th resul i efficien an economi activity bu wit minimal i an exploitatio o opportunities Robert (1988 suggest tha innovatio require tw parts th generatio o a ide o invention an it exploitatio throug busines o othe application Therefore efficien economi activit withou purposefu exploitatio canno b calle innovation Creativit an innovatio th benefit Fo severa decade now i ha bee fashionabl fo organisation t b see t thriv i th mids o chao (Peters 1987) t b creative an fo managemen t encourag innovativ behaviou amongs employees encouragin the t escap fro predictabl an conventiona pattern o thought Manager hav bee encourage t foste cultur bette equippe t cop wit th rapidit o chang an th unpredictabilit o th time (Galbraith 1982 Schuler 1986 Waterman 1987) Drucke lon ag punctuate th importanc o creativ an innovativ behaviou i busines b arguin tha ther ar onl tw basi function i busines marketin an innovation H claime tha marketin an innovatio produc result an th ``rest' shoul simpl b viewe a cost t th organisatio (Drucker 1974 p 61) Manageria thinkin ha undergon numbe o stage o a evolutionar process Manager an theorist hav cycle throug variet o ``fashions' includin efficiency zer defects quality flexibility learning an innovation

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Stuar Young th executiv chairma o Ne Zealand' Interloc Industries wh successfull entere th highl competitiv Japanes market maintain tha i i innovatio an no qualit o an o th othe managemen fashion tha ha mad Interloc Industrie s successfu i Japa (Gilbertso an Gilbertson 1992 p 152) Creativit an th abilit t demonstrat initiativ ar see t b ke criteri fo achievin succes an ensurin surviva fo al organisation (Day 1994) Th focu o creativit an innovatio ma b ste i management' evolutionar proces tha wil improv b ongoin an incrementa refinement rathe tha complet paradig shift a ha occurre wit earlie managemen fashions Authors academics an consultant hav describe th benefit o creativit an innovatio wit almos evangelica zeal Ho effectiv hav thes proponent o chang bee i alterin th wa tha organisation operate Increase display o initiative innovatio an creativit ar difficul t quantify Creativit an othe cognitiv processe ar wha Clar (1989 call in-the-hea function becaus the lac transparency Constructiv creativ behaviou an resultin innovation ar therefor ofte onl know t hav occurre i organisation b outcome suc a successfu ne products services and/o th introductio o mor effectiv ne operatin procedures Author suc a Ettli (2000 an Jansze (2000 argu tha thi i th ag o innovation Jansze (2000 p 7 explain tha innovatio ne technologies ne application i th for o ne product an services th developmen o ne markets and/o th introductio o ne organisationa form wil resul i increase ne valu fo customer an ultimatel th firm Victim o self-deception I i possibl tha a entir organisatio ca b self-deceiving Coul i b tha th collectiv entit reall ha littl abilit t roo ou discrepancie betwee wha i articulate an wha i practises a i s ofte th cas i a individua perso experiencin denial[1] I i possibl tha member o a organisatio conspir agains thei ow articulate belief espousin th benefit o creativit i orde t maintai th statu qu an confor t predictabl routine an self-limitin traditions Whil senio managemen mus b hel accountabl fo th discrepanc betwee th organisation' managemen philosoph an reality wha ca explai middl an front-lin management' willingnes t compl wit suc conformis attitudes Deutsc an Gerar (1955 describ suc conformit i term o normativ influence The clai tha fea o rejectio b th grou wil caus individual t chang thei usua behaviour onl t rever t thei rea attitude an behaviou whe awa fro th perceive pressur applie b th group Individua manager ma privatel disagre wit th decision-makin cultur o th organisation whil publicl acceptin it impac o thei workin lives Suc complian behaviou wil als fulfi thei nee fo acceptance whil minimisin conflic betwee themselve an senio management wh hav th powe t rewar o punis accordingl a the se

fit Non-complianc wit th grou norm i perceive t significantl reduc Grou behaviou a individual' chance fo promotion Conformit i therefor mean t an los o satisf needs suc a th need fo approval recognitio an perhap power innovatio Pleasin senio management i i perceived ca satisf thes needs I Crutchfield' (1955 conclusion abou peopl wh hav stron tendenc towar socia conformit ar correct a organisatio demandin conformit 563 ma b censurin it mos intelligen members Accordin t Crutchfield thos peopl wh hav tendenc t confor ten t b intellectuall les effectiv an demonstrat highe incidenc o authoritaria behaviours Whil som degre o conformit i necessar par o an organise grou i orde fo i t functio cohesively it us a selectio an promotio criterio wil inevitabl ostracis an remov thos wh hav th abilit t stee th collectiv decision-makin proces awa fro it well-establishe patterns Som organisation ma attemp t overcom thi proble b deliberatel recruitin widely bot geographicall an demographically Sha (cite i Hampto e al. 1987 p 256 point out ``Group tha ar heterogeneou i term o personalit profil usuall perfor mor effectivel tha group tha ar homogeneou i thi respec . . . group wit variet o opinions abilities skills an perspective ar mor effective'' Th benefit o employin suc heterogeneou group ma b completel los however i everyon succumb t th pressur o th organisation' normativ influence Creativit ha bee prove t b importan t organisationa succes (Mintzberg 1994 an yet accordin t Rickard (1999) som practitioner an academic refus t tak i seriously largel becaus th concep o creativit threaten deeply-grounde belie i rationa approaches Pathologica behaviou Suc ``rational' approache includ dogmati belie i th valu o restructuring Som managers i seems woul prefe t focu o continuin cost-cuttin measures rathe tha offse th los o ``mass' wit othe form o competitiv strategie suc a th systemati pursui o innovatio t stimulat growt an increas turnover Researc b Amabil an Cont (1999 suggest tha corporat decisio maker o th futur shoul approac downsizin wit grea caution The argu tha th long-ter negativ effect o suc action o creativit an innovatio ma onl retrigge th corporat woe tha starte th cycl i th firs place To muc emphasi o cost-cuttin an downsizin result i a increasin numbe o anorexi and/o neuroti organisations wit littl energ an fallin capability larg amoun o effor i expende i self-recriminatio (fro to muc inwar lookin behaviou tha ofte result i unnecessar o destructiv restructurin programmes an repetitiv expression o helplessnes an anxiet concernin th future Thes symptom ar comparabl wit peopl sufferin fro episode o somatofor disorder Som mean ``body'' I somatofor disorders psychologica disorder tak physica form Daviso an Neal (1998 p 155 explai tha suc disorder

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hav n know physiologica explanatio an ar no unde voluntar control bu ar though t b linke t psychologica factors possibl anxiety Emotiona energ i converte int self-injuriou physica energy resultin i symptom suc a blindnes an deafnes commo (metaphoricall speaking trait amongs downsize organisations Organisation displayin symptom analogou t somatofor disorde ignor o rejec unpalatabl busines intelligenc abou th marke an thei competitor (the hav becom blin an dea t externa cue an sometime ar incapabl o seein th damag tha the inflic upo themselve a well) thereb losin thei capacit fo informe competitiv responsivenes t externa threats Interpersona problem ar prominen an thi i ofte evidence throug recurrin industria disputes Additiona level o stress ofte self-inflicte throug painfu restructurin programmes exacerbat th symptom wit pani attacks increase anxiety an collectiv depressiv disorders Accordin t Mintzber (1994) th preoccupatio wit ``self' i justifie an give a aur o legitimac wit accompanyin explanation tha th fir i usin ``rational' managemen approache b concentratin o ``efficiency'' ``coordinate effort'' ``improve control'' ``strategi planning'' an ``wast reduction'' Meanwhile marke shar an moral plummet Christense (1997 comment tha disruptiv technologie ar particularl eas t overloo an ca b particularl dangerous Th anorexic/neuroti organisatio wil b unawar o suc loomin threat fro competitors it focu i o ``efficiency'' Sau (1993 p 27) discussin th effect o a over-emphasi o efficienc withi society complain tha ``th rationa an logica approac t though an procedura system ma hav remove democracy' singl greates strengt th abilit t ac i a unconventiona manner'' Societ i th for o th organisation i ha create t achiev it aim als ma a consequenc hav los it abilit t accep o tolerat unconventiona behaviour I ma hav becom prisone o conventiona solutions Thi i th antithesi o curren prescription fo success whic us term suc a create explorin alternatives right-brai thinking whole-brai thinking intuition reflecting examining challengin assumptions divergen thinking an s fort t describ way o effectin chang i today' worl (Brookfield 1987 d Bono 1990 Gardner 1993) Colgrov (1968 claime tha th mer actio o instructin someon t b creativ an t avoi obviou approache t proble woul resul i uniqu o creativ ideas Thi ma b mor successfu i th organisatio implement complementar change tha furthe suppor th emergenc o creativity Ofte however th rhetori i no supporte an rigi system an procedure guar agains th emergenc o anythin eve vaguel resemblin wha ar perceive t b non-conformis behaviour an thi i expresse i promotio policies th allocatio o resources an th complexit o decision-makin processes

Conformit an it impac o creativit i organisation Grou behaviou Deepl roote traditions risk-avers culture an comple manageria an los o hierarchie stifl act o creativit amongs manageria rank (Sexto an innovatio Bowman-Upton 1991) Senio manager ofte believ tha the wor i creativ organisation Long-standin tradition ma induc sens o collectiv pride bu suc tradition als ofte serv t stifl creativ behaviour 565 Thes so-calle tradition ma resul i dogmati pursui o ``sameness'' wher th organisatio continuousl perpetuate wha i ha alway don before regardles o th valu o suc pursuit o th impac the ma hav upo th ever-changin an fickl market Suc organisation promot thos wh confor t thei traditions mee th unwritte rule tha sustai th organisation' culture an perpetuat th behaviour deeme appropriat b manager wh hav climbe thei wa u th organisationa ladder Accordin t researc b Torranc (1993 anythin tha doe no fi th prevailin paradig i i dange o bein questioned ridiculed an ultimatel rejected Th prevailin cultur become inwardl focused ofte onl providin li servic t th need o th marke an th customer Whil ther i grea dea o unabashe tal abou th increasin nee fo creativit amongs manager an managemen theorists i i argue tha fo man organisations it articulate desirabilit i onl a expressio o contemporar an fashionabl managemen idealism an tha i realit i i rejecte b man manager an thei subordinates Den an Goldber (1999 elaborat b claimin tha i i no chang tha peopl resist a i s ofte claimed wha the resis i th threa o los pay los o comfort an los o control Organisations ofte unwittingly restric th incidenc o creativ behaviou b threatenin thos thing tha peopl mos valu i an fro thei wor i orde t ensur tha the confor (thereb supposedl minimisin ris an possibl failur bot fro persona an a organisationa perspective) Clar (1997 p 180 claim tha ``[W] us intelligenc t structur ou environmen s tha w ca succee wit les intelligence'' Clar assert tha advance cognitio depend o ou abilitie t dissipat reasonin fo th purpos o reducin th loa o ou individua brains Muc o ou achievemen i du t ou accrue knowledg an wisdom an accordin t Clark' reasonin w manag th enormou complexit resultin fro suc achievemen throug web o linguistic social political an institutiona constraints Thes web for scaffoldin fo guidin ou behaviours Th comple organisationa structur help u t reduc ou cognitiv load bu suc reduce cognitiv loa i bough a th cos o les freedom whic mean tha individualis ma b frowne upo an a consequenc innovatio an creativit li dormant Ther i a iron i ou treatmen o organisationa policie an tradition a scaffold fo ou cognitiv success Clar (1997 p 186 explain tha ``[M]uc o wha goe o i th comple worl o human ma . . b understoo a

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involvin somethin rathe aki t . . stigmergi algorithms.' Clar (1997 continue b arguin that
[U]nlik th termite w wil no alway perfor a actio simpl becaus a externa promp seem t deman it However ou collectiv successe (an sometime ou collectiv failures ma ofte b bes understoo b seein th individua a choosin hi o he response onl withi th often-powerfu constraint impose b th broade socia an institutiona context o action

Amabil (1996 ha fo numbe o year argue tha th environmen an socia contex driv th behaviou o th individual He view suppor Clark' argument implyin tha th ver structure facilitatin succes als ac a ou greates constrain fo eve greate success a thes ``scaffolds' inhibi individualism I orde t repea previou successes organisation develo programme (scaffolds) whic encompas way o learnin an way o doin things B maintainin suc programmes th organisatio ca readil repea th ``magi formula' tha go i t wher i i today Unfortunately thes programme als isolat th organisatio fro it changin custome need an th ever-changin environment Change i custome need and/o th environmen wil no b notice immediatel du t shieldin effec cause b th inflexibilit an rigidit o thes programmes Ironically thes sam programmes simila i natur t th termites stigmergi algorithm allo th organisatio t economicall trai an manag staff whil a th sam tim blindin i t change tha ma b critica t it long-ter survival Wh deman suc hig level o conformit i conformit impact adversel o performance Thi articl bega wit workin definition fo creativit an innovation Ther i howeve anothe definitio tha ma b mor pertinen t th directio tha thi discussio ha taken Organisationa creativit coul b define a ``havin th freedo an th abilit t questio ne informatio agains ol rule o assumption an the t revis thes rule an assumption whe th forme n longe work'' Thi ha bee adapte fro Slavin' (1997 definitio describin constructivis theorie o learning Innovation ofte resul fro discovery th transformatio o comple information th revisio o rules an activ learning al o whic ar epitomise i th constructivis vie o learning Fro practitioner' perspective th outcom o desirabl creativ activit i th organisatio shoul resul i ne marketabl product and/o service o ne productio and/o deliver system (adapte fro Burgelma e al. 2001 p 4) Thi result i th exploitatio o th advantage inheren i strateg o produc differentiatio o cos reduction o combinatio o both Creativity whe define i thi manner i usefu fo introducin nove ideas ne solution t recurrin problems an bette way o copin wit o initiatin change Suc creativ behaviou wil resul i ne innovation tha driv chang a oppose t passivel waitin fo chang t occur Bu i ma neve b learne b manager wh hav no bee empowere t tak contro o thei ow learnin (Brow e al. 1989) Unfortunately man manager thriv i

syste create t perpetuat standar operatin procedures efficiency an Grou behaviou rigidit o bot though an action Conservativ manager wil minimis an los o risktaking thereb ensurin tha n failure occur bu the als fai t innovatio introduc innovation o establis processe fo th systemati pursui o innovation Evolutionar biologist hav vie tha ther i natura selectio amongs 567 organism fo thos trait an behaviour whic hav histor o bringin succes t previou generations thereb reinforcin thos sam trait an behaviour (Wright 1994) simila proces o Darwinia evolutio appear t b a wor i som organisation a the selec fo behaviour tha mirro thos o senio management chang i th environmen i whic thes organisation functio wil se th developmen o adaptiv response an necessar changes bu unti thi i deeme t b essentia fo survival suc change ar an wil b resisted Delay i adaptatio ma b costl fo th organisation shoul i b confronte wit rat o turbulenc an chang t whic i i unaccustomed Whil th messag o creativit i zealousl communicate t employee a ever opportunity rewar an promotio systems an manageria behaviour implicitl reinforc strategie o predictability rigi conformity an stric adherenc t norm inspire an moulde b tradition Th messag bein transmitte acros generation o employee i on o cautio an conservativ reluctanc t accep o implemen anythin smackin o ris o potentia failur n matte ho grea th possibl benefit i change (mutations shoul prov t b successful Suc organisation develo a obsessio wit failur avoidanc an ris avoidance Paradoxically whil expendin grea dea o effor keepin manager curren i thei field o expertis b facilitatin furthe learnin an providin exposur t ne ideas thes organisation mak pariah o an manager wh tak ris an whos action ma subsequentl resul i failure Th consequence o mistak wil almos certainl spel th en t an aspiration o promotio o bette pay an wil inevitabl jeopardis long-ter jo security Safet an securit ca onl b foun i predictabl conformis behaviour Argument fo an agains conformit I th nee t confor i s powerful i mus b assumed fro a evolutionar perspective tha conformit als ha som benefit fo th organisation Ridle (1996 explain tha childre an adult alik lear mor fro copyin rol models fashions an th commones pattern o behaviou tha fro tria an error B producin cultura sheep societ facilitate co-operatio rathe tha predominanc o non-conformin individualists Co-operatio an selflessnes withi grou produce greate succes fo th grou tha selfishness bu i th individua withi th grou ca gai greate benefi b bein selfish th individual' interes wil generall com first Group o organisation wil therefor expen grea dea o energ i perpetuatin ``groupishness' a oppose t individualism Thi ca b achieve throug rule an procedure

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whic Hampto e al. (1987 clai ar designe t reduc th amoun o informatio processin t manageabl leve an whic als resul i standardise behaviour th huma equivalen o stigmergi algorithms Ridle (1996 p 181 discusse th danger associate wit conformit wit example suc a th lac o reaso an judgemen associate wit Hitler' Germany th denunciation i Maois China an th persecution occurrin i th US durin th tim o McCarthy Everyon fall victi t th influenc o conformity W g t se th lates movie o wea th ne fashio i footwea an clothes W atten particula universit becaus tha i wher ou friend go W agre t absur extreme o behaviou i th nam o politica correctness Conformit declare agreemen wit th norm recognitio o th grou an it membership a unwillingnes t b isolated Whil literatur trumpetin th virtue o creativit continue t accumulate i i suggeste tha inertia resistance an th hig nee fo conformit withi organisationa structure wil maintai a implici cultur whic i intoleran o individualit o rea creativ behaviour Th conscience o individua employee an managerial-leve staf ar alway i dange o becomin assimilate int th greate conservativ an conventiona organisationa conscience Th writer o Sta Tre demonstrat a extrem exampl o thi i thei representatio o th assimilatio technique practise b th Borg rac o part-mechanica an part-organi beings Thei strengt lie i thei abilit t completel assimilat th lif form the encounte i thei conquest throug space Th Bor thin a on entity wit n appreciatio o understandin o individua thought Whil the demonstrat man benefit b collectiv existence thei constan undoin lie i thei inabilit t dea wit th unpredictable creative an individualisti behaviou o thei ultimat enem humans Th slo caree progressio throug th hierarchica layer o a overl conformis organisatio ma serv t confin a individual' creativit an critica thinkin t weekend an day off whe th normativ influenc o th grou ha th leas powe t influenc th individual' attitude an behaviours B th tim th individua succeed i reachin senio managemen level hi o he conformis mindse ma n longe b capabl o recognisin opportunities o i wil rejec creativ o critica thinkin skill i orde t satisf grou complianc wit th existin culture Intuitio an spontaneit ar replace b rigid strictly-define plannin procedures an well-learne organisin skills Thes the becom th manageria function mos value b th organisation Th see o creativit continue t b verball sow throughou th organisatio bu i practic remain dormant choke of b th well-traine conformist wh flourish controllin al o th organisation' energ i orde t cultivat persona caree ambitions perpetuatin th statu qu i orde t d so Suggestion Tabl introduce som suggestion fo overcomin th negativ impact o normativ influence Pressur fo conformit i ofte mos prevalen i

Elemen Organisatio structur Employee Cultur

Characteristic Smal semi-autonomou units

Grou behaviou an los o innovatio 569

Well-educate an highl trained Ope cultur espousin loyalty trust helpfulness a actio an performance-orientation tea oriente bu supportiv o creativ an independen thinkers encouragin o on-goin learning A atmospher o copetitio co-operatio an competition Managemen Supportive guiding facilitative hig standards hig achievement participativ an toleran o failure Leadershi Dynamic motivational communicative influencing Promotio Base o performanc an ability Remuneratio Innovativ an base o grou an individua performance Focu Innovation market an customers externa environment Rule an Minima an flexibl fo th long-ter healt an prosperit o th policie organisation Strategie Flexibl an tw pronged Focu o growt an marke dominanc b providin custome satisfactio throug qualit an innovation an second outmanoeuvrin th competitio b gettin insid thei decisio cycle identifyin an isolatin thei weaknesses an innovatin a pac beyon th copin capacit o th competition Tactic Numerous creative unique unexpected mi o bot spontaneou an wel planned Decisio makin Decentralised wel conceived Use competitiv intelligenc gatherin an analysi t ai decisio making Learnin Continual encouragin discover an exploration an on-goin learnin

Tabl I Pathwa t mor innovativ organisatio

societie an organisation whic rigidl adher t tyrannicall inflexibl system an procedures Ther i littl toleranc fo individualisti behaviou o fo experimentation I contrast democrati leadership th developmen o trust an th us o devolve decisio makin wil stimulat sens o adventur an ownershi amongs staff On characteristi tha i valuabl fo tea leade i his/he capabilit t encourage enabl an motivat member i thei innovativ effort (Cutler 2000) Schneide e al (1996 explai tha organisationa cultur ca b shape an influence b th dominan earl leader an founders demonstratin th hig degre o responsibilit an influenc suc position hol i th long-ter performanc o th firm I thes leader encourag creativ behaviou i i mor likel t occur tha i the discourag i (Rickard an Moger 2000) I suc a environment althoug influence b th leader' vision ther i les pressur fo staf t thin an ac lik th ``boss'' resultin i a increase desir fo involvement a oppose t waitin fo ``orders' an cynica ``shruggin o th shoulders' a th seemingl inep behaviou o th decisio makers Give sens o ownershi an purpose a organisation' member wil wor together applyin thei creativ abilitie t fin innovativ solution an see ne opportunities Havin decision impose fro abov wil al to ofte resul i corporat cynicis an th givin o mer compliance

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Numerou specie o anima surviv throug th herdin instinct lookin an actin i simila manner makin i difficul fo predator t isolat an captur on individua fro th large movin her o group Som aspect o organisationa behaviou ca b compare wit th herdin behaviou o animals wit peopl conformin t th standard an behaviour o th majorit an th successfu i orde t surviv an prosper an t provid protectio agains bein single ou a ``different'' Th encouragemen o creativ behaviou i crucia fo th surviva an succes o busines organisation an thi i i tur dependen upo th abilit o individua member wh ca innovat an outsmar th competition I business unlik th exampl fro th anima kingdom fligh an conformit ar rarel th bes option whe confronte wit predator competito behaviour Restructurin t comba anxiet o stress-induce symptom i als ofte no th bes solution Copetition combinatio o competitio an cooperation wil reduc th negativ impac tha normativ influenc ma hav o a organisation Staf operat effectivel i smal team competin fo resource an profit an ye the als co-operat o som level t ensur tha thei competitiv behaviou doe no becom destructive Th team ar encourage t develo thei ow norms bu du t th dynami natur o thei environment the ar rarel abl t focu o tradition protectin th statu quo o th fulfilmen o destructiv persona ambitions Thi i simila t Bennis (1999 suggestio o corporat confederations whic ar mad u o semi-autonomou units al joine b commo vision Benni suggest tha the shoul operat o si principles (1 the diffus powe t al units (2 decisio makin i share betwee th unit an th centra authority (3 the hav a overarchin vision purpose constitution o operatin principles (4 unit understan wher thei boundarie are whethe thes ar business produc lin o geographi boundaries (5 powe i balance s tha non o th unit dominate th others an (6 th unit hav autonom the ar fre t b self-governing a lon a the d no violat th operatin principles Team tha ar le an staffe b flexible innovative an motivate people an tha hav innovativ pa policie (Montemayor 1996 an othe supportiv system wil hav greate opportunit fo succes an surviva tha team focuse o promotion conformity an th developmen o an adherenc t long-standin traditions Moscovic (1976 argue tha ther i conformit bia tha serve th nee t adap t th statu qu fo th sak o uniformit an stability Whe confronte wit th flui dynamic o th busines worl however th survivor ar no thos wh demonstrat uniformit an stability A describe i Darwin' theor o evolution th successfu ar thos wh ca

demonstrat flexibilit an adaptability Thi sometime require th Grou behaviou acceptanc o minorit influenc an encouragemen o diversity innovation an los o an change fo th purpos o increasin th organisation' probabilit o innovatio succes an survival Organisationa learning bot a th individua an organisationa levels i crucia fo broadenin horizons bein ``allowed' t lear fro mistakes 571 sharin o information an th developmen o ne an uniqu idea an methods Althoug ther i greate ris attache t th initiatio o somethin ne a oppose t th continuatio an refinemen o wha ha alway bee don (sometime interprete a disput betwee thos wh champio innovatio an thos wh champio quality) th long-ter benefit o suc experimentatio wil resul i increase organisationa longevit (Ettlie 2000 Burgelma e al. 2001 ) Tradition gro ou o a organisation' histor an weav we tha attempt t predict describe an contro th futur b maintainin hol o th past Tradition dictat th term an condition unde whic th organisatio wil attemp t interpre an confron th future Tradition ca provid guidanc an pride bu the ca als resul i myopi an rigidit o bot though an behaviour Applyin th exampl o th Germa Blitzkrieg surprise aggressiv advancement an rapi manoeuvr wer tactic tha resulte i victory Similarly busines tha i abl t manoeuvr rapidly tha ca exploi ne opportunitie an tak advantag o competitor' limitin traditions indifference o carelessness wil b bette equippe t identif an captur market an increas profit (Pec e al. 2000) Suc businesse conve trus i th decision-makin abilitie o thei manager an staff believin tha the wil d wha i bes fo th business Conclusio Thi discussio ha describe disadvantage an danger implici withi a organisationa cultur demandin to muc conformit an complianc fro it employees A extrem requiremen for o toleranc of conformis behaviou ma resul i avoidanc of o veile antagonis toward display o individualism creativity an innovatio withi th organisationa milieu A over-emphasi o conformit ma reduc th individual' sens o discovery creativity an ownership Suc alienatio ma develo int organisationa symptom tha ca b likene t episode o somatofor disorder i individuals wher organisationa conflic (interpersona problems an unnecessar restructurin (suicida tendencie an physica symptom suc a blindnes an deafness resul i lo moral an a inabilit t respon t competito o othe externa pressures Leadershi an th encouragemen o creativit producin innovation suc a ne product o ne method o productio exploi th advantage inheren i dua strateg o produc differentiatio an cos reductio o th developmen o differentiate capabilities However normativ influenc produce a inwar rathe tha a outwar focus concentratin effor o promotio an th

Journa o Manageria Psycholog 16,7 572

satisfactio o collectiv belongin need whil ignorin customers competitors an othe externa factors Suc non-productiv behaviou i commonl accepte du to
.

th individual' driv t satisf variou socia need b conformin t grou pressure th group' practic o ostracisin o ridiculin tha whic i different th individua an group' desir t simplif tha whic i complicate b standardisin throug rules policies an procedures an th group' respons t anxiet an stres b focusin it energ injuriousl o itself

Thes organisationa maladie ca b remedie bu th responsibilit lie wit senio managemen t establis an develo a atmospher an structur conduciv t creativit fo al staff Th argumen agains conformit mus no b confuse wit th nee fo grou cohesiveness whic i emphasise throug commitmen t th group' task an ha bee foun t b facto i increase productivit (Mulle an Copper 1994) Th developmen o grou cohesivenes i a essentia manageria responsibility Also thi discussio abou conformit shoul no b see a a argumen agains th developmen o norms which a Anderso an Wes (1998 hav pointe out ca compe worker t b innovativ an entrepreneurial Again th developmen o suc norm i a importan manageria responsibility Management havin investe th mos i th statu quo wil ofte b th firs lin o resistanc whe th organisation' tradition an method ar questioned an i i ofte onl outsider wh dar t d so Unles managemen ar mad t se tha th tradition the hol s dearl ar actuall inhibitin performanc b promotin display o non-productiv conformit an organisationa neurosis chang wil onl eve b slo an reactiv rathe tha bein dynami an proactive No al tradition ar necessaril bad Tradition als serv t remin u o ou pas an ma ac a th glu tha hold u togethe durin time o crisis I i therefor crucia tha managemen learn t differentiat betwee thos tradition tha hel an thos tha hinde performance or lik th termit colony th organisatio wil continu mindlessl doin th same regardles o necessit o long-ter consequences
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