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Yoga
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Hindu philosophy
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation).
Yoga (Sanskrit: ) is a commonly known generic term for the
physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which
originated in ancient India with a view to attain a state of
permanent peace.
[1][2]
Specifically, yoga is one of the six stika
("orthodox") schools of Hindu philosophy. One of the most detailed
and thorough expositions on the subject is the Yoga Stras of
Patajali, which defines yoga as "the stilling of the changing
states of the mind"
[1]
(Sanskrit: : - :). Yoga has also
been popularly defined as "union with the divine" in other contexts
and traditions.
[3]
Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
[4][5][6]
Post-classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha as the
originator of yoga.
[7][8]
Prephilosophical speculations and
diverse ascetic practices of first millennium BCE were
systematized into a formal philosophy in early centuries CE by
the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
[9]
By the turn of the first
millennium, Hatha yoga emerged as a prominent tradition of
yoga distinct from Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and marks the development of asanas into the full body postures
now in popular usage
[10]
and, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people
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associate with the word yoga today.
Hindu monks, beginning with Swami Vivekananda, brought yoga to the West in the late 19th century. In the
1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. This form of yoga
is often called Hatha yoga. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a
complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma and heart patients.
[citation needed]
In a
national survey, long-term yoga practitioners in the United States reported musculoskeletal and mental
health improvements.
[11]
Contents [hide]
1 Terminology
2 Purpose
3 History
3.1 Prehistory
3.2 Vedic period
3.3 Preclassical era
3.3.1 Upanishads
3.3.2 Bhagavad Gita
3.3.3 Mahabharata
3.4 Classical yoga
3.4.1 Early Buddhist texts
3.4.2 Samkhya
3.4.3 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
3.4.4 Yoga Yajnavalkya
3.4.5 Jainism
3.4.6 Yogacara school
3.5 Middle Ages
3.5.1 Bhakti movement
3.5.2 Vajrayana
3.5.3 Hatha Yoga
3.5.4 Sikhism
Aragons
Azrbaycanca
()
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Brezhoneg
Catal
esky
Cymraeg
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Deutsch
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Esperanto
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Franais
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Hrvatski
Ilokano
3.6 Modern history
3.6.1 Reception in the West
3.6.2 Medicine
3.6.2.1 Potential Benefits for Adults
3.6.2.2 Physical injuries
3.6.2.3 Pediatrics
4 Yoga compared with other systems of meditation
4.1 Tantra
4.2 Buddhism
4.2.1 Zen Buddhism
4.2.2 Tibetan Buddhism
4.3 Christian meditation
4.4 Islam
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Citations
6.3 Bibliography
7 External links
Terminology [edit]
In Vedic Sanskrit, the more commonly used, literal meaning of
the Sanskrit word yoga which is "to add", "to join", "to unite", or
"to attach" from the root yuj, already had a much more figurative
sense, where the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes
on broader meanings such as "employment, use, application,
performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to harness" as in
"to put something to some use"). All further developments of the
sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
slenska
Italiano
Basa Jawa

Kinyarwanda
Latina
Latvieu
Lietuvi
Magyar
Bahasa Melayu
Mirands
Nederlands

Norsk bokml
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Ozbekcha
Statue of Lord Shiva in Bangalore, India,
perf orming yogic meditation in the
Padmasana posture.
"exertion", "endeavour", "zeal" and "diligence" are also found in
Epic Sanskrit.
[citation needed]
There are very many compound words containing yog in
Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection",
"contact", "method", "application", "addition" and "performance".
For example, gu-yoga means "contact with a cord"; chakr-
yoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar
instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the
thigh)"; chandr-yoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellation"; pu-
yoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhakti-yoga means
"devoted attachment" in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriy-yoga has a grammatical sense,
meaning "connection with a verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga
Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the Supreme" due to
performance of duties in everyday life
[12]
In Hindu philosophy, the word yoga is used to refer to one of the six orthodox (stika) schools of Hindu
philosophy.
[note 1]
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are often labelled as Rja yoga.
[14]
According to Pini, a
6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to
yoke) or yuj samdhau (to concentrate).
[15]
In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj
samdhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology.
[16]
In
accordance with Pini, Vyasa (c. 4th or 5th century CE), who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga
Sutras,
[17]
states that yoga means samdhi (concentration).
[18]
In other texts and contexts, such as the
Bhagavad Gt and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the word yoga has been used in conformity with yujir yoge
(to yoke).
[19]
Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a
yogi or yogini.
[20]
Purpose [edit]
Generally put, yoga is a disciplined method utilized for attaining a goal.
[13]
The ultimate goal of Yoga is
Piemontis
Polski
Portugus
Romn
Runa Simi

Shqip
Simple English
Slovenina
Slovenina
/ srpski
Srpskohrvatski /
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
Trke
Ting Vit
Vro
Male f igure in a crossed legs posture on
moksha though the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological
system with which it is conjugated. Bhakti schools of Vaishnavism combine yoga with devotion to enjoy an
eternal presence of Vishnu.
[21]
In Shaiva theology, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva.
[22]
Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of Brahman or tman pervading all things.
[23]
In the specific sense of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, yoga is defined as citta-vtti-nirodha (the cessation of the
perturbations of consciousness).
[13]
This is described by Patanjali as the necessary condition for
transcending discursive knowledge and to be one with the divinely understood "spirit" ("purusha"): "Absolute
freedom occurs when the lucidity of material nature and spirit are in pure equilibrium."
[24]
In the Yoga
Sutras, Patanjali indicates that the ultimate goal of yoga is a state of permanent peace or Kaivalya.
[2]
Apart from the spiritual goals the physical postures of yoga are used to alleviate health problems, reduce
stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as a complete exercise
program and physical therapy routine.
[25]
History [edit]
Prehistory [edit]
Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization sites, dating
to the mid 3rd millennium BCE, depict figures in positions
resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing "a form
of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga," according to
archaeologist Gregory Possehl.
[26]
Ramaprasad Chanda, who
supervised Indus Valley Civilization excavations, states that,
Not only the seated deities on some of the Indus seals are in
yoga posture and bear witness to the prevalence of yoga in the
Indus Valley Civilization in that remote age, the standing deities
on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing posture of
meditation) position. It is a posture not of sitting but of
standing."
[27]
Some type of connection between the Indus Valley
seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated
Vro
Winaray
Edit links
a mold of a seal f rom the Indus valley
civilization
upon by many scholars, though there is no conclusive
evidence.
[note 2]
Vedic period [edit]
Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (Vedic
ritual of fire sacrifice) might have been precursors to yoga.
[note 3]
Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in
the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which probably evolved into yogic asanas.
[35]
Early Vedic
Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as, Munis, the Kein, and Vratyas.
[37]
Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (ritualistic texts of the
Vedic corpus, c. 1000800 BCE) and the Atharvaveda.
[35][38]
Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests
the presence of an early contemplative tradition.
[note 4]
The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices known as (tapas) are referenced
in the Brhmaas (900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas.
[41]
The Rig Veda, the
earliest of the Hindu scripture mentions the practice.
[42]
Robert Schneider and Jeremy Fields write,
Yoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of years ago and are
said to directly enliven the body's inner intelligence.
[43]
According to David Frawley, verses such as Rig Veda 5.81.1 which reads "Seers of the vast illumined seer
yogically [yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence."
[44]
show that "at least the seed of the entire
Yoga teaching is contained in this most ancient Aryan text".
[44]
According to Feuerstein, breath control and curbing the mind was practiced since the Vedic times.
[45]
, and
yoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymns
[46]
While the actual term "yoga" first occurs in the Katha Upanishad
[47]
and later in the Shvetasvatara
Upanishad,
[48]
an early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest
Upanishad (c. 900 BCE).
[note 5]
Yoga is discussed quite frequently in the Upanishads, many of which
predate Patanjali's Sutras.
[50]
Preclassical era [edit]
Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500200 BCE such as the
middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Mokshadharma of the Mahabharata. The terms samkhya and
yoga in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies rather than the philosophical systems which developed
centuries later.
[51]
Upanishads [edit]
Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation and
elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.
[52]
The earliest reference to
meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads.
[37]
Chandogya Upanishad
describes the five kinds of vital energies (prana). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as
internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the Upanishad.
[35]
Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga
as the mastery of body and senses.
[53]
The term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scripture Katha Upanishad (a primary Upanishad c. 400 BCE)
where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leads
to the supreme state.
[37][note 6]
Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with concepts
of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost
being tman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness.
[55][56]
It is
the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga. Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c. 400-200
BCE) elaborates on the relationship between thought and breath, control of mind, and the benefits of
yoga.
[56]
Like the Katha Upanishad the transcendent Self is seen as the goal of yoga. This text also
recommends meditation on Om as a path to liberation.
[57]
Maitrayaniya Upanishad (c. 300 BCE) formalizes
the sixfold form of yoga.
[56]
Physiological theories of later yoga make an appearance in this text.
[58][59]
Further systematization of yoga is continued in the Yoga Upanishads of the Atharvaveda (viz., ilya,
Pupata, Mahvkya)
[clarification needed]
.
[60]
The concepts of Chakra and Kundalini are first mentioned in
these
[clarification needed]
Upanishads.
[61]
Bhagavad Gita [edit]
Main article: Bhagavad Gita
Krishna narrating the Gita to Arjuna.
Main article: Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga"
extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter
(ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including
meditation,
[62]
it introduces three prominent types of yoga:
[note 7]
Karma yoga: The yoga of action.
[note 8]
Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion.
[note 9]
Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.
[note 10]
In Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna
about the essence of yoga as practiced in daily lives:
- v | _
*
(yoga-stha kuru karmani sanyugam tyaktv dhananjay
siddhy-asiddhyo samo bhutv samatvam yoga ucyate)
- Bhagavad Gita 2.48
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada translates it as "Be steadfast in yoga (yoga-stha), O Arjuna.
Perform your duty (kuru karmani) and abandon all attachment (sangam) to success or failure (siddhy-
asiddhyo). Such evenness of mind (samatvam) is called yoga."
[67]
Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters
dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge).
[68]
Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.
[69]
Aurobindo, a freedom fighter and philosopher, describes the yoga of the Gita as "a large, flexible and many-
sided system with various elements, which are all successfully harmonized by a sort of natural and living
assimilation".
[70]
Mahabharata [edit]
Amitabha depicted in yogic meditation,
Kamakura, Japan
Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the
Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the Mahabharata epic. The verses of the
section are dated to c. 300200 BCE. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents
of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms like
vichara (subtle reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to Patanjali's terminology are
mentioned, but not described.
[71]
There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata.
Separation of self from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman etc. are all described
as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as being
identical.
[23]
Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.
[72]
Classical yoga [edit]
During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta era (c. 200 BCE500 CE) philosophical schools of
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to
emerge.
[73]
Early Buddhist texts [edit]
Early Buddhist Pali suttas (c. 2917 BCE)
[74][note 11]
are the
oldest surviving texts to describe a systematic and
comprehensive yoga discipline. The only other Indian texts with
an antiquity comparable to the Pali suttas are the Yoga Sutras
of Patanjali. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems
alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to
time.
[76]
Another yoga system that predated the Buddhist school
is Jain yoga. But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it
is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain
school and elements derived from other schools.
[77]
The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and
states, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the ascetic (shramana) tradition.
[78][79]
One key innovative
teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition.
[80]
File:KapilaMuni.jpg
Kapila Muni, in a Kolkata temple
Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not
liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take
place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness.
[81]
The Buddha also departed
from earlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.
[82]
While the
Upanishads thought liberation to be a realization at death of a nondual meditative state where the
ontological duality between subject and object was abolished, Buddha's theory of liberation depended upon
this duality because liberation to him was an insight into the subject's experience.
[82]
The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the
palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.
[83]
However there is no
mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecar mudr.
Samkhya [edit]
Further information: Samkhya
Samkhya was the oldest of Indian schools to take a coherent form in
first century CE.
[84]
When Patanjali systematized the conceptions of
yoga, he set them forth on the background of the metaphysics of
samkhya, which he assumed with slight variations. In the early works,
the yoga principles appear together with the samkhya ideas. Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras,
also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy),
brings out the intimate relation between the two systems.
[85]
Yoga agrees with the essential metaphysics
of samkhya, but differs from it in that while samkhya holds that knowledge is the means of liberation, yoga
is a system of active striving, mental discipline, and dutiful action. Yoga also introduces the conception of
god. Sometimes Patanjali's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila's
Nirivara Samkhya.
[86]
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali [edit]
Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox
(which accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophical
Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as
an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha.
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
[87]
Pada (Chapter) English meaning Sutras
Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit 51
Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit 55
Vibhuti Pada On supernatural abilities and gif ts 56
Kaivalya Pada On absolute f reedom 34
schools
[88][89]
founded by Patanjali. Karel Werner, author of
Yoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process of
systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga
Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali.
[note 12]
Scholars also note the influence of Samkhyan
and Buddhist ideas on the Yoga Sutras.
[90][note 13]
The yoga
school accepts the samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but
is more theistic than the samkhya, as evidenced by the addition
of a divine entity to the samkhya's twenty-five elements of
reality.
[92][93]
The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so
close that Max Mller says that "the two philosophies were in
popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with
and Samkhya without a Lord...."
[94]
The intimate relationship
between samkhya and yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:
These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects
of a single discipline. Skhya provides a basic
theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and
defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-
operation in a state of bondage ("bandha"), and
describing their state of disentanglement or
separation in release ("moka"), while yoga
treats specifically of the dynamics of the process
for the disentanglement, and outlines practical
techniques for the gaining of release, or
"isolation-integration" ("kaivalya").
[95]
Patanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophy.
[96]
The verses of Yoga Sutras
are terse and are therefore read together with the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350450 CE), a commentary on the
Yoga Sutras.
[97]
Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system for control of the mind.
[98]
A sculpture of a Hindu yogi in
the Birla Mandir, Delhi
Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:
tt
(yoga citta-vtti-nirodha)
- Yoga Sutras 1.2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is
the inhibition (nirodha) of the modifications (vtti) of the mind (citta)".
[99]
The use of the word nirodha in
the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist technical terminology and
concepts play in the Yoga Sutras; this role suggests that Patanjali was aware of Buddhist ideas and wove
them into his system.
[100]
Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff
(Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."
[101]
Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as
"Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept
derived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic
of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:
1. Yama (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya
(Truth, non-lying), Asteya (non-covetousness), Brahmacharya
(non-sensuality, celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).
2. Niyama (The five "observances"): Shaucha(purity),
Santosha(contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of
the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul), and
Ishvara-Pranidhana (surrender to God).
3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to
the seated position used for meditation.
4. Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prna, breath, "yma", to
restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.
5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
Yoga Yajnavalkya
[103]
6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
8. Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.
In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the world to be
illusion. The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of many
individual selves discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared by all persons.
[102]
Yoga Yajnavalkya [edit]
Main article: Yoga Yajnavalkya
The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the
Vedic sage Yajnavalkya. It takes the form of a dialogue between
Yajnavalkya and his wife Gargi, a renowned female philosopher.
[104]
The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the
period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE.
[105]
Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini
and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make
frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya.
[106]
In the Yoga
Yajnavalkya, yoga is defined as jivatmaparamatmasamyogah, or the union between the individual self
(jivatma) and the Divine (paramatma).
[103]
Jainism [edit]
According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum
of all the activities of mind, speech and body.
[6]
Umasvati calls yoga the
cause of "asrava" or karmic influx
[107]
as well as one of the essentials
samyak caritrain the path to liberation.
[107]
In his Niyamasara,
Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhaktidevotion to the path to
liberationas the highest form of devotion.
[108]
Acarya Haribhadra and
Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12
minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof.

sayogo yoga ityukto jvtma-

paramtmano
Union of the self (jivtma) with the
Divine (paramtma) is said to be yoga.
Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic
meditation in the Kayotsarga
posture.
Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic
thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion.
[109]
The five yamas or the
constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five
major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization
between these traditions.
[110][note 14]
Yogacara school [edit]
Main article: Yogacara
In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of
Classical Hinduism, the Yogacara movement arises during the Gupta
period (4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the name as it provided a
"yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of
the bodhisattva.
[112]
The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to
reach enlightenment.
[113]
Middle Ages [edit]
Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga.
Hatha yoga emerged as a dominant practice of yoga in this period.
[114]
Bhakti movement [edit]
Main article: Bhakti Yoga
The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a personal
God (or "Supreme Personality of Godhead"). The movement was initiated by the Alvars of South India in the
6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries.
[115]
Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as the practical meditative
exercises, with devotion.
[116]
Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha
(separation) bhakti. Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna.
[117]
Vajrayana [edit]
Main article: Vajrayana
While breath channels (nis) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical Upanishads,
it was not until Tantric works, such as the eighth-century Buddhist Hevajra Tantra and Carygiti, that
hierarchies of chakras were introduced.
[118]
Hatha Yoga [edit]
Main articles: Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika
The basic tenets of Hatha yoga were formulated by Shaiva ascetics Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath c.
900 CE. Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing
exercises.
[119]
Hatha yoga is also defined in the 11th-century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha, which defines it
in relation to the center channel, bindu etc.
[120]
Hatha yoga, sometimes referred to as the "psychophysical
yoga",
[121]
was further elaborated by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th
century CE. This yoga differs substantially from the Raja yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma,
the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vital energy
(tha).
[122][123]
Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja yoga,
[124]
it
marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage
[10]
and, along
with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today.
[125]
It is similar to a diving board preparing the body for purification, so that it may be ready to receive higher
techniques of meditation. The word "Hatha" comes from "Ha" which means Sun, and "Tha" which means
Moon.
[126]
Sikhism [edit]
Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century, when Sikhism was in
its nascent stage. Compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, describe many dialogues he had
with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga.
[127]
Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and
rituals connected with Hatha Yoga.
[128]
He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation
on the name) instead.
[129]
The Guru Granth Sahib states:
Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee
An early illustration of Indians
perf orming Yoga Asana in 1688
must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He
understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination."
[130]
Modern history [edit]
Reception in the West [edit]
Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid
19th century along with other topics of Hindu philosophy. Thus N. C.
Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851. The first
Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga
to a western audience was Swami Vivekananda, who toured Europe
and the United States in the 1890s.
[131]
The reception which Swami
Vivekananda received is inconceivable without the active interest of
intellectuals, in particular the New England Transcendentalists,
among them R.W. Emerson, who drew on German Romanticism
and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G.F.W. Hegel, the Schlegel brothers, Max Mueller, A.
Schopenhauer and others who found Vedanta in agreement with their own ideas and a cherished source of
religious-philosophical inspiration.
[132]
Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century were a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of
Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.
[133]
The
reception of Yoga and of Vedanta are thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly Neo-platonically
based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th
centuries. M. Eliade, who was rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions brought a new element
into the reception of Yoga by the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga - Immortality
and Freedom,
[note 15]
By introducing the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga the conception of the
"transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-
Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself.
[134]
In the West, the term "yoga" is today typically associated with Hatha yoga and its asanas (postures) or as
A western style Hatha yoga class.
a form of exercise.
[135]
In the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a
great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public. During this period, most of
the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages: Sivananda Saraswati (1887-1963) and
Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888-1989).
[136]
Among the teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the
west in this period were B.K.S. Iyengar, K. Pattabhi Jois, and Swami Vishnu-devananda, and Swami
Satchidananda.
[137][138][139]
Kundalini Yoga was brought to the United States by Yogi Bhajan in 1969.
[140]
A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda,
connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside
of counter culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to a religious denomination.
[131]
Numerous
asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped 19th and early 20th century Western exercise
traditions.
[141]
Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has been on the constant rise. The number of people who
practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011).
In 2013, for the White House, "Yoga has become a universal
language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing many
lines of religion and cultures,"... "Every day, millions of people
practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being. That's
why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidential
Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer
the challenge." at a time some schools in America are against its
practice inside educational facilities, saying it promotes Hinduism in
violation of the Establishment Clause.
[142]
Medicine [edit]
Main article: Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine
Potential Benefits for Adults [edit]
Long-term yoga practitioners in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental health
improvements, as well as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics.
[11]
Regular yoga practice increases
brain GABA levels and has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some other metabolically
matched exercises, such as walking.
[143][144]
The three main focuses of Hatha yoga (exercise, breathing,
and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease. Overall, studies of the effects of
yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce high blood pressure, improve symptoms of heart
failure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lower cardiovascular risk factors.
[145]
For chronic low back pain,
specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs has been found 30% more beneficial than usual care alone in a
UK clinical trial.
[146]
Other smaller studies support this finding.
[147][148]
The Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs
programme is the dominant treatment for society (both cheaper and more effective than usual care alone)
due to 8.5 fewer days off work each year.
[149]
A research group from Boston University School of Medicine
also tested yogas effects on lower back pain. Over twelve weeks, one group of volunteers practiced yoga
while the control group continued with standard treatment for back pain. The reported pain for yoga
participants decreased by one third, while the standard treatment group had only a five percent drop. Yoga
participants also had a drop of 80% in pain medication use.
[150]
There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer
patients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue
and increase anxiety control.
[151]
Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs include yoga as
a mind-body technique to reduce stress. A study found that after seven weeks the group treated with yoga
reported significantly less mood disturbance and reduced stress compared to the control group. Another
study found that MBSR had showed positive effects on sleep anxiety, quality of life, and spiritual growth in
cancer patients.
[152]
Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia. Some encouraging, but inconclusive,
evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia
and improve health-related quality of life.
[153]
Implementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increase their
quality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and Symptom Identification Scale
and the Quality of Recovery Index.
[154]
Yoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioning (executive functioning, including
inhibitory control) acute benefit.
[155]
Physical injuries [edit]
Main article: Sports injury
Since a small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sports
injuries;
[156]
caution and common sense are recommended.
[157]
Yoga has been criticized for being
potentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic outlet
syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage to the common
fibular nerve, so called "Yoga foot drop,"
[158]
etc. An expos of these problems by William Broad published
in January, 2012 in The New York Times Magazine
[159]
resulted in controversy within the international yoga
community. Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, and author of The Science of Yoga: The Risks and
the Rewards,
[160]
had suffered a back injury while performing a yoga posture.
[161]
Torn muscles, knee
injuries,
[162]
and headaches are common ailments which may result from yoga practice.
[163]
An extensive survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% had suffered some physical
injury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents had suffered an injury
producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus
(seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatest
number of injuries.
[156]
Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation, for
pregnant women, or for nursing mothers. However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certain postures
which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged.
[164]
Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners'
competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, many people
get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newly certified
instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing
certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginning yoga student can
overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong
enough to perform them.
[159][163]
Vertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from
rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, for example, in a
beauty shop while your hair is being rinsed, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices. This
is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke.
[165][166]
Acetabular labral tears, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to have
resulted from yoga practice.
[167]
Pediatrics [edit]
Yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for
breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief.
Many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs. The Encinitas, California
school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P.E., holding against the
parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded
program.
[168]
Yoga compared with other systems of meditation [edit]
Tantra [edit]
Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social,
religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice, an individual perceives reality as
maya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.
[169]
Both Tantra and yoga offer paths that
relieve a person from depending on the world. Where yoga relies on progressive restriction of inputs from
outside; Tantra relies on transmutation of all external inputs so that one is no longer dependent on them,
but can take them or leave them at will. They both make a person independent.
[170]
This particular path to
salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such
as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from
social relationships and modes.
[169]
During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly
chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is
known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate's
previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini yoga for the purpose of moving the Goddess
into the chakra located in the "heart", for meditation and worship.
[171]
Buddhism [edit]
Further information: Dhyna in Buddhism
Zen Buddhism [edit]
Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana" via the Chinese "ch'an"
[note 16]
is a form of
Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with yoga.
[173]
In the
west, Zen is often set alongside yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family
resemblances.
[174]
This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic practices have some of their
roots in the Zen Buddhist school.
[note 17]
Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for
Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.
[175]
Tibetan Buddhism [edit]
Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into
nine yanas, or vehicles, which are said to be increasingly profound.
[176]
The last six are described as "yoga
yanas": "Kriya yoga," "Upa yoga," "Yoga yana," "Mah yoga," "Anu yoga" and the ultimate practice, "Ati
yoga."
[177]
The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with the Anuttara
yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.
[178]
Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart
rhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes breath
work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre the
practitioner.
[179]
The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's
summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caal (Tib.
"tummo"), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan
yoga."
[180]
Chang also claims that Tibetan yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana
and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.
Christian meditation [edit]
Main articles: Christian meditation, A Christian reflection on the New Age, and Aspects of Christian
meditation
Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation. This
has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way.
[181]
The Roman Catholic
Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to
some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.
[182][183][184]
In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian
reflection on the New Age," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document
was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican's position.
[185]
The Vatican warned that
concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that
equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral
deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the
gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge.
[181]
The letter
also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other
religions and cultures"
[186]
but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other
approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality."
[181]
Some fundamentalist Christian
organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the
New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.
[187]
Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. This is held by an
interdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates as an
anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutional
boundaries to be crossed."
[188]
Islam [edit]
The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adapted both
physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).
[189]
The ancient Indian yogic text Amritakunda
("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century. Several other yogic
Yoga portal
Hinduism portal
India portal
texts were appropriated by Sufi tradition, but typically the texts juxtapose yoga materials alongside Sufi
practices without any real attempt at integration or synthesis. Yoga became known to Indian Sufis gradually
over time, but engagement with yoga is not found at the historical beginnings of the tradition.
[190]
Yoga is a growing industry in Islamic countries (Two Bikram Yoga studios in Iran). Also, yoga is used in
developing countries like Palestine to help the population manage stress. This article is a comparative
study of yoga and Islam, showing their similarities. Yoga and Islam
[191]
Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally non-binding, against Muslims
practicing yoga, saying it had elements of "Hindu spiritual teachings" and that its practice was blasphemy
and is therefore haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized the decision as "insulting."
[192]
Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said that its
members would continue with their yoga classes.
[193]
The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting of
religious mantras,
[194]
and states that teachings such as the uniting of a human with God is not consistent
with Islamic philosophy.
[195]
In a similar vein, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed
a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hindu elements"
[196]
These fatwas have, in turn, been
criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.
[197]
In May 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakolu, discounted personal
development techniques such as yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism. His
comments were made in the context of yoga possibly competing with and eroding participation in Islamic
practice.
[198]
See also [edit]
Yoga series
List of asanas
List of yoga schools
References [edit]
Notes [edit]
1. ^ Jacobsen writes, "Yoga has five principal meanings:
yoga as a disciplined method for attaining a goal
yoga as techniques of controlling the body and the mind
yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darana)
yoga in connection with other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring to traditions
specialising in particular techniques of yoga
yoga as the goal of yoga practice."
[13]
Monier-Williams includes "it is the second of the two Skhya systems," and "abstraction practised as a
system (as taught by Patajali and called the Yoga philosophy)" in his definitions of "yoga."
2. ^ See:
Jonathan Mark Kenoyer describes one figure as "seated in yogic position."
[28]
Karel Werner writes that "Archeological discoveries allow us therefore to speculate with some
justification that a wide range of yoga activities was already known to the people of pre-Aryan India."
[29]
Heinrich Zimmer describes one seal as "seated like a yogi."
[30]
Thomas McEvilley writes that "The six mysterious Indus Valley seal images...all without exception show
figures in a position known in hatha yoga as mulabhandasana or possibly the closely related
"utkatasana" or "baddha konasana...."
[31]
Dr. Farzand Masih, Punjab University Archaeology Department Chairman, describes a recently
discovered seal as depicting a "yogi."
[32]
Gavin Flood disputes the idea regarding one of the seals, the so-called "Pashupati seal," writing that it
isn't clear the figure is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is intended to represent a human
figure.
[33]
Geoffrey Samuel, regarding the Pashupati seal, believes that we "do not actually "know" how to interpret
the figure, nor do we know what he or she represent."
[34]
3. ^ See:
Jacobsen writes that "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in the
Vedic tradition. The use by Vedic priests of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance of
the sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga."
[35]
Whicher believes that "the proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and
contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation,
ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control..."
[36]
4. ^ See:
Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the
early Brahminic literature, contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early
Brahminic contemplation. A close reading of this text suggests that it was closely related to a tradition of
early Brahminic contemplation. The poem may have been composed by contemplatives, but even if not,
an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend in Indian
thought."
[39]
Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from "the subtlest
meditative stage, called absorption in mind and heart" which "involves enheightened experiences"
through which seer "explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces...".
[40]
Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from Vedic term dhih which refers to "visionary
insight", "thought provoking vision".
[40]
5. ^ Flood: "...which states that, having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within
oneself."
[49]
6. ^ For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the
"Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur"
[54]
7. ^ Flood writes, "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to traditional yoga practice.
The Gita also introduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love'
(bhakti)."
[63]
8. ^ Karma yoga involves performance of action without attachment to results.
[64]
9. ^ The yoga of devotion is similar to the yoga of action, but the fruits of action, in yoga of devotion, are
surrendered to Krishna.
[65]
10. ^ Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom, knowledge, and direct experience of Brahman as the ultimate reality.
The path renounces both desires and actions, and is therefore depicted as being steep and very difficult in
the Bhagavad Gita.
[66]
11. ^ On the dates of the Pali canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for some time, that
the Pali canon as we have it and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source cannot be taken
back further than the last quarter of the first century BCE, the date of the Alu-vihara redaction, the earliest
redaction we can have some knowledge of, and that for a critical history it can serve, at the very most,
only as a source for the Buddhism of this period. But we also know that even this is problematic... In fact, it
is not until the time of the commentaries of Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, and others that is to say, the
fifth to sixth centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the actual contents of [the Pali]
canon."
[75]
12. ^ Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a
systematic training, and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middle
Upanishads....Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is
obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by
Patanjali's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga."
[60]
13. ^ Werner writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there
is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pli Canon and even more
so from the Sarvstivda Abhidharma and from Sautrntika."
[91]
14. ^ Worthington writes, "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making the
practice of yoga part and parcel of life."
[111]
15. ^ Eliade, Mircea, Yoga - Immortality and Freedom, Princeton, 1958: Princeton Univ.Pr. (original title: Le
Yoga. Immortalit et Libert, Paris, 1954: Libr. Payot)
16. ^ "The Meditation school, called 'Ch'an' in Chinese from the Sanskrit 'dhyna,' is best known in the West by
the Japanese pronunciation 'Zen' "
[172]
17. ^ Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen
Buddhist school of meditation."
[175]
Citations [edit]
1. ^
a

b
Bryant 2009, p. 10.
2. ^
a

b
Bryant 2009, p. 457.
3. ^ Bryant 2009, p. xvii.
4. ^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page
68.
5. ^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samdhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005,
pp. 12.
6. ^
a

b
Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut
Ratnakar p. 102
7. ^ Feuerstein, Georg (2001). The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice. Arizona,
USA: Hohm Press. p. Kindle Locations 72997300. ISBN 978-1890772185.
8. ^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000). "Introduction". Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati.
Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta. p. xxiv. ISBN 81-87594-00-4.
9. ^ Whicher, pp. 3839.
10. ^
a

b
"Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice" by Mikel Burley (page 16)
11. ^
a

b
Birdee, Gurjeet S. et al. "Characteristics of Yoga Users: Results of a National Survey." Journal of
General Internal Medicine. Oct 2008, Volume 23 Issue 10. p1653-1658
12. ^ Whicher, p. 67.
13. ^
a

b

c
Jacobsen, p. 4.
14. ^ Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume
II, pp. 1920.
15. ^ Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). A History of Indian Philosophy 1. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass.
p. 226. ISBN 81-208-0412-0.
16. ^ Bryant 2009, p. 5.
17. ^ Bryant 2009, p. xxxix.
18. ^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000). Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati. Calcutta, India:
University of Calcutta. p. 1. ISBN 81-87594-00-4.
19. ^ Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). A History of Indian Philosophy 1. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass.
p. 227. ISBN 81-208-0412-0.
20. ^ American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga." Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the yoga
philosophy; an ascetic."
21. ^ "Vaishnavism" Britannica Concise "Characterized by an emphasis on bhakti, its aim is to escape the
cycle of birth and death in order to enjoy the presence of Vishnu."
22. ^ Larson, p. 142.
23. ^
a

b
Jacobsen, p. 9.
24. ^ Patanjali, Yoga Sutra III, 55, ed.: Miller, Barbara Stoler (transl., intr.), Yoga - Discipline of Freedom. The
Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali, New York, 1998: Bantam Books, p. 73
25. ^ Dupler, Douglas; Frey, Rebecca. Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine , 3rd ed (2006). Retrieved 30 August
2012.
26. ^ Possehl (2003), pp. 144145
27. ^ In his article "Mohen-jo-Daro: Sindh 5000 Years Ago" in Modern Review (August, 1932)
28. ^ ""Around the Indus in 90 Slides" by Jonathan Mark Kenoyer" . Harappa.com. Retrieved 2012-11-28.
29. ^ Werner, p. 103.
30. ^ Zimmer, p. 168.
31. ^ McEvilley, pp. 219-220
32. ^ "Rare objects discovery points to ruins treasure" . Archives.dawn.com. 2007-05-08. Retrieved 2012-11-
28.
33. ^ Flood, pp. 2829.
34. ^ Samuel, p. 4.
35. ^
a

b

c

d
Jacobsen, p. 6.
36. ^ Whicher, p. 12.
37. ^
a

b

c
Flood, p. 9495.
38. ^ Whicher, p. 13.
39. ^ Wynne, p. 50.
40. ^
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b
Whicher, p. 11.
41. ^ Flood 1996, p. 94.
42. ^ P. 51 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Yoga By Joan Budilovsky, Eve Adamson
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44. ^
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P. 25 Haha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice By Mikel Burley
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48. ^ P. 99 The Wisdom of the Vedas By Jagadish Chandra Chatterji
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50. ^ P. 132 A Student's Guide to A2 Religious Studies for the OCR Specification By Michael Wilcockson
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52. ^ Wynne, pp. 4445,58.
53. ^ Whicher, p. 17.
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56. ^
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58. ^ Whicher, p. 21.
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Werner, p. 24.
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81. ^ Wynne, p. 105.
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Taimni, I. K. (1961). The Science of Yoga. Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House. ISBN 81-7059-
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Werner, Karel (1998). Yoga And Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-1609-9.
Whicher, Ian (1998). The Integrity of the Yoga Darana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga . SUNY Press.
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Worthington, Vivian (1982). A History of Yoga . Routledge. ISBN 0-7100-9258-X.
Wynne, Alexander "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation." Routledge, 2007, ISBN 1-134-09741-7.
Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies of India . New York, New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-
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