Study of Electric Motors by Experiment

E STUDY OF
ECTRIC MOTORS
THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES

GIFT OF
R. E. Hopkins
The Study
of Electric
Motors by Experiment
CONTAINING
Sixty Experiments that Bear Directly upon the Construction,
Motors ; together ivith
and Explanation of Electric Much Helpful Information upon the Experimental c/lpparatus Required
Operation
By
THOMAS
M. ST. JOHN, Met.
E.
Author of "Fun with Electricity," "The Study of Elementary Electricity and Magnetism by Experiment," "Wireless Telegraphy for Amateurs and Students," "Electrical Handicraft," "Things a Boy Should Know About Electricity," Etc., Etc.
New
York
THOMAS
M. ST. PUBLISHER
JOHN
COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY THOMAS M. ST. JOHN
BY THE SAME AUTHOR

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THE STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
Materials of Construction Laboratory Motors and Dynamos. Materials of ConIron. struction. Permanent Magnets. Copper. Electromagnets.
I.
CHAPTER
Exp.
1,
II.
Permanent Magnetism
12
study the horseshoe magnet. Exp. 2, To see what ordinary things are acted upon by a magnet. Magnetism. Exp. 3, To find through what substances magnetism will act. Exp. 4, Making magnets from a magnet. Exp. 5, To see what is meant by the north pole of a magnet. Exp. 6, Attractions
To
and repulsions of magnets.
Exp. 7, To see if we can make more than two poles in a bar magnet. Exp. 8, To study the theory of magnetism. Exp. 9, To find whether soft iron will permanently retain magnetism. Exp. 10, Hard steel and soft steel. Exp. 11, About residual magnetism. Exp. 12, About induced magnetism. Exp. 13, About polarization and Exp. 14, To study combinations of polepole-pieces. Exp. IS, To study the effect of a continuous pieces.
study the magnetic field of Exp. 17, Magnetic field with armature in place. Exp. 18, Lines of force and airgaps. Exp. 19, Hollow Armatures. Exp. 20, To Study a certain combination of two magnets.
pole-piece.
Exp.
16,
To
the horseshoe magnet.
CHAPTER
III. Experimental Apparatus Experimental Apparatus. Strap Key, Style A. Strap Key, Style B. Strap Key with Side Switch. Double-
28
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Current-Reverser. How this Reverser Works. Two-Point Switch. Rheostats. Five-Point Rheostat. Eleven-Point Rheostat. Current Detectors. Simple Current Detector. Handy Current Detector.
Key
CHAPTER
IV. Electromagnetism Exp. 21, Electric current and magnetic needle. Exp. 22, Reversing the current in the detector. Exp. 23, Magnetism from hollow coils of wire. Exp. 24, About with cores. coils of wire Exp. 25, Polarity of coils. Exp. 26, About horseshoe electromagnets. Exp. 27, Regarding the joining of electromagnets. Exp. 28, Magnetic figure of electromagnets. Exp. 29, Magnetic figure of single electromagnets. Exp. 30, Magnetic figure of
38
two
like poles.
CHAPTER
Motion and Currents Exp. 31, Motion produced with a hollow coil of wire and a piece of soft iron. Exp. 32, Motion produced with a hollow coil of wire and a bar magnet. Exp. 33, Motion produced with an electromagnet and a piece of iron. Exp. 34, Motion with an electromagnet and a bar magnet. Exp. 35, Motion with an electromagnet and a horseshoe magnet. Exp. 36, Motion with two electromagnets. Exp. 37, Rotary motion with a hollow coil and a permanent magnet. Exp. 38, Rotary motion with a permanent magnet and an electromagnet.
V.
46
CHAPTER
VI. Electric Motors in General Simple Action of Motors. The Field-Magnets. Armatures. Commutators. The Brushes. Methods of Winding. Reversing Motors. Coils in ^'Series."
Coils in "Shunt."
50
CHAPTER
Apart.
nets.
VII. Practical Experiments with Motors. Small Motors. Motor No. 1. Taking Motor No.
55
Exp. 39, To test the poles of the field-magExp. 40, To test for residual magnetism in the pole-pieces. Exp. 41, To test the lifting-power of the field-magnets. Exp. 42, To test the lifting-power of the field-magnets when the armature is in place.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Exp. 43, To study the magnetic field of the field-magnets with the armature in place. Exp. 44, To test the magnetic field of the field-magnets with the armature
VII
PAGE
removed.
netism.
poles.
the motor.
Exp. 45, Making permanent magnets with Exp. 46, To test the armature for magExp. 47, To test the armature-magnets for
CHAPTER
Rotation
Exp.
48,
VIII.
Speed Regulation and Direction of

64
Attractions and Re-
Direction of Rotation.
pulsions in Motor No. 1. Exp. 49, Backward motion for Motor No. 1. Exp. 50, Reversing Motor No. 1 with the current-reverser. Exp. 51, Reversing Motor
No. 1 by a second method. Exp. 52, Regulation of speed for Motor No. 1, coils in series. Exp. 53, Controlling speed and direction of rotation of Motor No. series-wound. Load on Motors. Series-Wound 1, Motors. Exp. 54, Motor No. 1, shunt-wound. Exp. 55, Motor No. 1, shunt-wound and reversible, with
one method of speed regulation. Exp. 56, Motor No. 1, shunt-wound and reversible, with a second method
of speed control.
tors.
Direct-Current Shunt- Wound
Mo-
Regulation of Field-Magnetism. Exp. 57, Motor No. 1, shunt-wound and reversible, with speed
control by regulation of field-magnetism, together with starting-box. Starting-Boxes. Exp. 58, Counter-Electromotive force of motors. Counter- Electro-
motive force.
Exp.
59,
To show
in
the counter-current flows in a motor.

lation of speed with
which direction Exp. 60, Regu86
lamps
in parallel.
CHAPTER
Various Electric Motors Small Motors and Large Motors. Compound- Wound Motors. Comparison of Series, Shunt and ComMotors. Differentially- Wound pound Motors. Motors. Alternating-Current Railway Motors. Special Motors. Protection of Motors. Motor No. 2. Dynamo-Motor No. 3. 110- Volt Motors. Motors for Intermittent Duty. 110-Volt Laboratory Motors. A One-Eighth Horse-Power Motor. A OneIX.
Vlll
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Seventh Horse-Power Motor. Another One-Seventh Horse-Power Motor. A One-Quarter Horse-Power A One-Tenth Horse-Power Motor. ^lotor. CHAPTER X. Electric Current for Running Motors... 101 Various Methods. Battery Currents. Forcing Dry
Batteries. Arrangement of Cells. Storage-Batteries. Running Small Motors from Small Dynamos. Bank of Lamps. Battery Regulator for 110- Volt Currents.

CHAPTER
I
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
1.
Laboratory Motors and Dynamos.
When
the stu-
dent gets to the point where he begins his experiments with motors, he feels that he is doing something, for things begin to move and he can see that he is pro-
There are many ducing results right from the start. things that can be done with a properly-constructed motor, and a motor that will merely go around is a very
poor sort of a thing for the student; in fact, it isn't worth anything to use in the laboratory. What the
is a motor that can be taken apart and used for experiments, one that is so constructed that it shows how the big machines work, and one that is under perfect control. Motors should be easily controlled
student needs
as to speed, as well as to the direction of rotation. The advantage of the laboratory motors described in
this
do,
book is that they will do all that other motors will and much besides; for they are designed especially for those who want to use them for experimental pur-
poses as a part of the general study of electricity. As the main features and parts of small dynamos and
motors are the same
in fact,
most small dynamos can
10
STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT
be used as motors
we
ments that
will aid in
shall first take up a few experiunderstanding both machines. The
student will find it to his advantage to perform the experiments that are herein suggested, unless he has already done so, for it will make things clear as he goes along.
2. Materials of Construction. It would seem that big motors or dynamos should be built of many different things and be very complicated in order to be able to do
what
you
is
expected of them; but when you examine them
on the contrary, that they are very simple and that they are made up chiefly of but two metals, iron and copper. Of course, there are other things on them, such as insulating materials, nickelplating, etc., but these are there chiefly for looks and for keeping the iron and copper in place so that they can do
see,
in construction
their proper work.
There must be some reason for this choice of materials and for this simplicity of construction, and that is what we want to find out by experiment. If the student will keep these two things in mind, when doing the experiments, he will see why these special experiments and
explanations have been given.
3.
we seldom
and
bridges,
an element, from a chemical standpoint, but see pure iron. About all of the iron we use that is sold in the market for wagons, machinery,
Iron
is
etc., is far from being pure, as it contains other things, too, such as carbon, phosphorus, silicon, sulphur, etc. These impurities, as the chemist calls them,
are the very things that make it possible to so modify the iron that it becomes suitable for electrical purposes;
for, if we had only the absolutely pure iron, we could not have steel and other forms of iron that are really shall see how more important than the pure iron.
We
iron
is
used in the construction of these wonderful elec-
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
II
trical machines, and find out why certain kinds of iron are better than others for the purpose. 4. Copper is also an element used in electrical ma-
chines, but in this case

sible.
we
try to get
it
as pure as pos-
The copper used for the wire and other parts of motors and dynamos must be pure, and a great deal of care is used in making it for these purposes. The experiments that follow will show how the copper wire and iron act together to make the motor or dynamo a success.
think of
Permanent Magnets. About the first thing we when the magnet is suggested, is the ordinary horseshoe magnet. These have been made for centuries,
5.
but
electricity
took a long time before the connection between and magnetism .was discovered. The horseshoe magnet is a permanent magnet, for it holds its magit
netism for years

6.
if
handled properly.
Electromagnets are those produced with the aid of the electric current, and it is these with which we shall spend most of our time in the experiments. If it were not for the electromagnets, which are made with iron and copper, we could not have motors and dynamos.
CHAPTER
II
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
TWENTY EXPERIMENTS IN PERMANENT MAGNETISM THAT BEAR DIRECTLY UPON THE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLANATION OF MOTORS AND DYNAMOS.
7. Note. While most of the twenty above-mentioned experiments will be found in Part I of "The Study of
Elementary Electricity and Magnetism by Experiment," they are repeated herein because they have a direct bearing upon motors and dynamos. A review of these will aid the student, and, if he has never actually performed experiments along this line himself, he should not fail to follow out the suggested experimental work. EXPERIMENT 1. To study the horseshoe magnet. 8. Directions. If you remove the soft iron "armature" or "keeper" from the end of the horseshoe magnet and then move it about over the whole magnet, you will find that the attraction for the armature is greatest at the ends of the magnet. There does not seem to be any pull upon the small piece of iron at the curved part of the
magnet, but
this
part
is
silently
work
just the same, as
you
will find
doing its part of the by one of the future
experiments. 9. Discussion.
"poles,"
The ends of the magnet are called its and the central part that seems to have no magnetism is called the "equator." Electromagnets have poles, also, and the location of these poles becomes quite an important matter in dealing with motors and dynamos.
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
13
EXPERIMENT 2. To see what ordinary things are acted upon by a magnet. 10. Directions. With your horseshoe magnet, try all of the different metals that you can find, to see which are
affected by the magnet. Try iron, copper, tin, zinc, lead, wood, glass, and any other things you have at hand.
11. Discussion. Most bodies, when placed near a magnet, do not seem to pay the slightest attention to the magnet, and when removed from the magnet they do
the case of iron and steel, however
not seem to have taken any magnetism with them. In and a few other
things might be mentioned we have substances that are really affected and which, in certain cases, take some-
thing from the magnet. Steel, which is a modified form of iron, has the property of holding quite a little of the
magnetism when removed from the magnet, and it is this property that makes it possible for the horseshoe
magnet
to hold
its
magnetism
at
all.
Substances that are attracted by a magnet are called "magnetic" substances, even if they do not hold the mag-
netism afterwards
but a magnetic body
is
not necessarily
a magnet.
12. Magnetism is that queer something or other that magnets have and give out freely to surrounding bodies. For the student who is working with motors and dynamos, it isn't necessary to stop and think about the etherwhirls and other theoretical discussions. This matter has been taken up in some of the author's other books, but
it
does not need to be discussed here.
When we
the "magnetic the magnet is
take up the subject of "lines of force" and field," we shall find that the space about
filled
with "magnetic lines of force" and
that objects placed in this field are bathed with invisible power of some sort called magnetism. Experiment 2
14
proved that all substances are not affected by this queer bath, and this is a good thing; for we must have some inactive parts in the motors and dynamos.
3. To find through what substances magnetism will act. If you put a small piece of iron wire 13. Directions. or a little heap of iron filings upon a sheet of stiff paper
EXPERIMENT
and then move your horseshoe magnet about immediately under the paper, you will see that the paper does not
hold the magnetism back. If you try thin pieces of wood, cardboard, glass, and various other things, you will also see that these are like-
wise unable to keep the magnetism from reaching the iron. Now, if you try a sheet of tin in place of the
paper, you will find that the magnetism is not so strong as in the case of the other things and that, if the tin be thick enough, almost no magnetism will get through to
attract the iron.
14. Discussion. say that paper, wood and the other things through which magnetism can act are "transparent to magnetism," for the power of the magnet can
We
pass through them.

really
In the case of the
tin,
which
is
nothing more than sheet iron covered with
tin,
the magnetism, or most of it, is held back. further on, what becomes of the magnetism
acts like a "screen" to
We
shall see,
and why iron

and
magnetism.
act through cotton
The
fact that
magnetism can
a very important one, as the covering on the copper wires used on motors and dynamos is either cotton or silk.
silk cloth is
15. Note. As it will be impossible to give herein all of the elementary experiments on magnetism in connection with the work on motors, the student is referred to
any good text-book on the subject, and
if
he
is
not thor-
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
1$
oughly familiar with such experiments, he should take up the subject and get at the bottom of it. EXPERIMENT 4. Making magnets from a magnet.
16. Directions.
When
a piece of
steel is
rubbed prop-
upon a horseshoe magnet, magnetism is given to the steel, which also becomes a magnet. The steel has the power of holding the magnetism, and it can even pass some of it along to other pieces of steel.
erly
EXPERIMENT
17.
5.
To
see
what
is
meant by the
north pole of a magnet.

Directions.
If
we rub a
sewing-needle upon one
of the poles of a permanent magnet, we shall have a small straight magnet, and this is called a "bar magnet.''
It is an easy matter to float this small bar magnet upon a cork in a dish of water to see if it will turn to any
particular direction. the north.

18.
One end
The end
is
of
it
will
always turn to
Discussion.
the north
when
it
of a magnet that points to floated or otherwise suspended is
called its "north pole,"
and the other end

is
is
its
"south
pole."
The north
pole
pole, and, as the little
also called the "north-seeking" magnet has the power to point, we
The "magnetic needle" it has "pointing-power." and the "compass" work upon this principle and depend upon a small pivoted bar magnet for their action. The student should be provided with a small magnetic needle for testing the poles of his motors and dynamos. EXPERIMENT 6. Attractions and repulsions of
say that
magnets.
19. Directions. After you have made a small bar magnet with a needle, or you can use your compass instead, you should experiment with them to find out the laws of magnetism. If you try to touch the north pole
l6
of the horseshoe magnet, which should be marked with a line or with an N, to the end of the little floating bar
that points to the north, you will find that they actually repel each other. If you try the opposite poles, that is, a north with a south, you will find that they
magnet
attract each other.

20. Discussion.
The
attractions
and repulsions of
these
magnets are strong enough to move a freelysuspended magnet, and to show that real motion can be produced by the action of one magnet upon the other. As will be seen when we come to the experiments upon
little
electromagnets, it is this action of attraction or repulsion that causes the armature of the electric motor to revolve.
EXPERIMENT
21t Directions.
7.
To
see
if
we can make more
than two poles in a bar magnet.
and hold
it
down with your
Place a sewing-needle upon the table, finger while you touch its
point with the south pole of your magnet. Lift the magnet straight from the needle, touch the middle part with
the north pole, and, finally, the head of the needle with the south pole again. Now if you dip the needle into iron filings you will find that you have made three poles, for the filings will stick to it in three places. You should test these three places with your compass to find out whether the poles are north or south.
22. Discussion.
It
seems rather strange that we can
magnet with three or more poles, and that we can make them north or south as we desire, but such is the case, and we can have as many poles as there are
"have a bar
places touched with the magnet. Such poles are called "consequent poles," and they are made use of in the construction of motors and dynamos.
They
will be studied again
when we
take up experiments
with the motor.
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
If
EXPERIMENT 8. To study the theory of magnetism.

23. Directions.
If
we
place a
little pile
of iron filings
upon a piece of paper and then draw a pencil or other unmagnetized thing lightly over it, we shall find that the pencil has made some little furrows through the filings, and there will be nothing else that can be seen. Now, if, in place of the pencil, we draw one end of a bar magnet
through the filings, we shall see that something has happened besides the making of the grooves. 24. Discussion. Whenever a magnet acts by contact
upon the
pile of filings, as
explained above,
we
find that
the filings have been brought into line and that they Most of the particles of point in the same direction. filings have been made to change their first positions and
take up
new
lines.
Each
little
piece of iron has been
magnetized, and, although it could not follow the magnet bodily, it has at least turned upon a pivot, like the compass-needle, to watch the magnet disappear. Every bar of steel is composed of very small particles, which are called molecules, and it is supposed that these
molecules have the power to turn upon their axes when the magnet is rubbed over the steel. Of course they are
too small to be seen, but the experiment with the filings should aid in understanding how they act under the influence of the magnet.
In this case, the pile of filings
takes the place of the piece of steel, while each piece of There are experifiling takes the place of a molecule. ments that show that the pile of filings becomes magnetized and gets poles like any piece of iron. When as many as possible of the particles of a piece of steel have been brought into line, we say that the
steel
see, later, that
has been "saturated" with magnetism. We shall we can magnetize a piece of steel by using
l8
the electric current instead of a permanent magnet. Each little molecule of the steel is supposed to be a very small
magnet, even before we try to bring it into line, so that all that is really necessary is to have the magnet or the
electricity
all
swing the molecules around so that they will same direction. EXPERIMENT 9. To find whether soft iron will
point in the
permanently retain magnetism.

25.
Directions.
Rub
a short length of soft annealed
upon your horseshoe magnet to magnetize it as you did the needle, and then test it by seeing how many iron filings it will lift. Try a needle again and compare
iron wire
the strength of this with that of the wire.

26. Discussion.
We
find that, although the soft iron

it
wire
is
strongly attracted by the magnet,
does not carry

the magnet.
away much magnetism when removed from

In the case of the
the
steel,
however,
we
it
find that this holds

will lift quite a load
magnetism very
filings.
well,
and that
of the
This power to retain the magnetism

tivity,"
is
called "reten-
or "coercive force."
From
this
we
see the differ-
how one might

trical
its
ence between iron and steel at once, and can understand be better than the other for certain elec-
The fact that soft iron loses most of purposes. magnetism as soon as it is removed from the action of a magnet makes it suitable for many electrical machines in which it is absolutely necessary to have it act
in this
way.
10.
EXPERIMENT
27.
Hard
steel
and
soft steel.
Directions.
Take a needle
that has been thor-
test its lifting-power with filings, then place it upon a piece of iron and hammer it several times to jar its molecules out of line. Testing it again, you will find that it has very little magnetism.
oughly magnetized,
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
19
is
Now
is
take an ordinary wire nail, which
made
of what
called soft steel, try the same thing with this and you will find that you can hammer out part of the magnetism ;
that
is,
its
retentivity
is less
than that of
steel.
Again,
try the
same thing with a piece of
soft iron wire
and
you
will find that the
28. Discussion.
want
hard
to
we make a permanent magnet, we should use good

has the proper retentivity, and that, for
wire has almost no retentivity. It should now be clear that, when
steel that
places where we do not want magnetism to last, we should use the softest of iron. There are times where it is
necessary to use soft steel or cast iron in order to get a medium retentivity. The choice of iron for making
motors- and dynamos depends largely upon the amount of "carbon" in it, as it is this element when combined
with the iron
steel.
which determines the hardness of the

11.
EXPERIMENT
29. Directions.
About
residual magnetism.
When we
wire and then pounded it it lost all of its magnetism, or practically all of it. Now try again, and, before you strike it with the hammer, see
lift a few iron filings; that some of the magnetism after it has been taken from the magnet? 30. Discussion. Even soft iron will show some indications of magnetism when it is first taken from the magif
magnetized the soft iron with a hammer, we found that
the magnetized wire will
is,
does
it
really hold
net, and, even if it does lose the greater part of it when pounded, there is a slight tendency towards retentivity. This magnetism that iron holds is called "residual mag-
netism," and it is this magnetism that is made use of in the dynamo to start the production of electricity, as will be explained later. The principal thing for the student
to
remember now
is
that
it
is
important, in the case of
20
dynamos, for some magnetism to remain in the iron after dynamo has been stopped. This is certainly one practical use of residual magnetism. EXPERIMENT 12. About induced magnetism. 31. Directions. Place an unmagnetized sewing-needle upon a piece of stiff paper, then move your horseshoe magnet around under the paper. Test the needle for magnetism by seeing if it will lift any filings. 32. Discussion. We learned in Experiment 3 that magnetism will pass through paper, and so we expected that the needle would move around by the pulling-effect of the magnet. As the steel of the needle has considerable retentivity, it held the magnetism very well and was
the
strong enough to
lift
almost as
many
filings
as
it
did
when
it
We
was magnetized directly upon the magnet. see from this that we can magnetize steel without
;
even touching it directly with a magnet. This needle is said to have been "magnetized by induction" that is, it was magnetized at a distance, without actual contact. This effect is brought into play in every electromagnet
when
it
is
through the through the

that
energized by the electric current flowing coil of wire. If magnetism did not act
air
and
at a distance,
many
of the effects
we now
get would be impossible.
Induction-coils,
dynamos, motors, telegraph instruments and numberless other electrical machines depend upon this simple thing
for their action
and usefulness.
13.
EXPERIMENT
pieces.
About
polarization
and pole-
33. Directions. If you place a soft iron wire about an inch long upon one pole of your horseshoe magnet so that it will point away from the magnet, you will find
that the end of the wire will
lift filings,
also.
swinging needle
test the
end of the wire for
poles,
With your when
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
21
placed upon the north and then upon the south pole of the magnet. Try the same thing with a piece of paper
between the magnet and the wire, to see

filings.
if
you can
lift
34. Discussion. piece of iron, when placed upon the pole of a magnet, becomes magnetized by induction, even if it does not touch the magnet at the end. The effect
is
the
same
that
as for the needle,
when
it
was magnetized
lift
through the paper, and, as the wire could
iron,
we
know
it
had poles
at the end.
By means
of the
compass-needle we find that the pole at the lower end of the wire is the same as that of the magnet to which it
is attached; that is, if the wire hangs upon the north pole of the magnet, the lower end of the wire will also
be a north pole. This wire is said to have been "polarized," and the pieces of iron which take up these poles by being in contact with a magnet are called "pole-pieces." As will
be seen
look more thoroughly into the construcmotors and dynamos, pole-pieces are used on most every machine of this kind to lead the lines of force where they are most needed. EXPERIMENT 14. To study combinations of poletion of
when we
pieces.
If you put two short lengths of soft upon the same pole of a magnet, as suggested in Fig. i, you will find that both of the lower ends of the wires will lift filings and that they are of the same polar-
35. Directions.
iron wire
ity.
if
This will be evident, as they will repel each other

act.
they are near enough to

If
you now hammer the wires a little to remove the residual magnetism and then place them upon the opfilings,
posite poles, as in Fig. 2, they will still be able to lift but they will attract each other when near enough.
22
This might be expected from the information derived
from Experiment
36. Discussion.
13.
From
the latter part of this experi-
ment we see that the two movable poles tend to rush toward each other, and that there must be a pull upon the
poles of the regular horseshoe magnet in their attempt to get nearer each other to shorten the distance the lines
of force have to travel in getting from one pole to the other. This shows the necessity of having rigid polepieces on motors and dynamos so that they will keep the proper distance apart.
Fig. 2
EXPERIMENT
tinuous pole-piece.
15.
To study
the effect of a con-
In place of the two wires used in 37. Directions. Experiment 14, bend one piece as shown in Fig. 3, place the two ends upon the poles of the magnet, then test the
curved part for magnetism to see if it will lift any filings. In this continuous pole-piece there 38. Discussion.
was no tendency
to
lift
iron,
showing
If
is
that there
was no
pole at the bend of the wire. small horseshoe magnet that
we
consider the wire a
magnetized by induction,
we
that
can understand that

it
its
poles are at the ends
and
has no power to attract near its equator. If the wire be bent a little more, as in Fig.
lift
quent pole will

able to
(Exp. i.) 4, a consebe made at the bend and we shall be
small pieces of iron, as indicated.
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
23
In the case of motors and dynamos with two poles, we want the lines of force to pass in great quantities between the poles or pole-pieces, so we do not want the
shall see that the pole-pieces to touch each other. lines of force on their way from one pole to the other pass through certain coils of wire, and that this is neces-
We
dynamo.
sary to produce motion in the motor or electricity in the Whenever the poles are joined by a metal strip,
many small motors, this strip is made of brass and not of iron; for iron would sidetrack some of the lines of force, as did the bent wire of Fig. 3.
as in the case of
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
EXPERIMENT
16.
To
study the magnetic
field of
the horseshoe magnet. 39. Directions. Remove the armature of the horseof
shoe magnet, place the magnet upon a table, put a piece stiff paper over it, then sprinkle some fine iron filings
upon the paper.

ticles
Tap the paper gently to assist the parof filings as they try to swing around. If you have the proper filings, you 40. Discussion.
will see that they
arrange themselves in lines and curves about the poles of the magnet, and that they indicate roughly how far out the force of the magnet reaches.
If you place your compass-needle in various positions about the magnet, you will find that this is more delicate than the filings and that the "magnetic field" reaches out into space on all sides of the magnet. The picture made
by the
filings is called
a "magnetic figure," and
we
shall
24

fields
use these to study the magnetic scribed in this book.
of the motors de-
filings
from this experiment that the little particles of become magnets, by induction, and that, when they are assisted by the tapping, they get into the same lines
see
We
about in the
as those taken by the compass-needle when it is moved field. The magnetism travels from one pole
to the other in
curved
lines,
and, for convenience,
we
agree that they start from the north pole of the magnet and pass through the air to the south pole. They seem
strongest near the poles, and from the magnetic figures we see that there is quite a space about the ends of the
magnet from which these

to get to the south pole.
lines
pour
in their wild rush
EXPERIMENT
in place. 41. Directions.
17.
Magnetic
field
with armature
Lay
the horseshoe
its
magnet upon the
table as before, but with
soft-iron armature in place
upon the poles, then make its magnetic figure with the Study the space near the poles and armature and filings.
note whether the lines of force are as strong as
the armature
when
was removed.
42. Discussion.
From
this
it
is
evident that the lines
of force go through the iron armature instead of passing out through the air. Of course, many of them leak out of the sides of the poles and get past the armature but the greater part of them take the easy path through iron instead of the path through the air, which offers a
;
high resistance.
There were no well-marked curves
directly over the
armature, and this indicates that at this point the lines of force do not leak out into the air on the contrary, they are only too glad to hide themselves in the iron as they
;
swiftly pass around
and around the
circuit.
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
25.
was no
This experiment should now make it clear why there pull upon the armature when it was placed at
magnet in Experiment I. do not get poles and a pulling-effect unless the lines of force come out into the air on their way from the
the equator of the horseshoe
We
north pole to the south pole. Wherever there age of lines of force we have poles.
is
a leak-
Lines of force and air-gaps. magnet upon the table, as before, place a couple of matches against its poles, and then put the armature so that it will press against the matches while trying to get to the poles. Make the magnetic figure of this arrangement and note especially what the filings do over the spaces occupied by
18.
EXPERIMENT
43. Directions.
Lay
the horseshoe
the matches.
44. Discussion.
Magnetic
lines of force will
go out
to get to a piece of iron on their way around the circuit between the poles if the distance to travel in the air is thus shortened. If we want to carry the mag-
of their
way
netism across any space without losing very much in power, we can fill the space with soft iron, and if airgaps have to be left, as in the case of the armatures of
motors and dynamos, the air-gaps are made as small as

practicable, thus
making
19.
the resistance to the lines of force
as small as possible.
EXPERIMENT
45. Directions.
poles, as in Fig. 5.
this
Hollow armatures.
Place the horseshoe magnet upon the table again, but this time lay an iron ring against the
An
ordinary iron washer will do for
experiment. Sprinkle iron filings upon the paper placed over this arrangement and note especially how the
lines of force act
over the hole in the ring.

indistinct?
Do
they
seem prominent, or are they few and

46. Discussion.
The
iron ring in this experiment acts
26
very much like the regular armature, inasmuch as it seems to take most of the lines of force and to make an
easy path for them. The field seems to be particularly weak over the hole in the ring, and this indicates that
the lines of force bend around the hole to follow the
iron,
and so they do not leak out
into the air to attract
the filings.
have, here, the same thing on a small scale as in the round armatures of dynamos and motors, which are
We
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
also
made hollow. In large machines it is important to have the rapidly revolving armatures hollow to give them the required ventilation and to allow the proper wiring. Besides, on large machines, a solid armature would be
too heavy.
EXPERIMENT
tion of
47. Directions.
20.
To study
a certain combina-
two magnets.
Place two horseshoe magnets upon
the table with their like poles together, as indicated in Fig. 6, then make the magnetic figure of the combination as described before.
Note especially whether the lines of force pass across the space between the poles or whether the field seems
weak
lines
there.
It
48. Discussion.
might seem
to the student that the
of force should pass around through the curved parts of the magnets and not rush across the air-space at the middle of the combination. But if you consider the
fact that these lines are
streaming out of both north
PERMANENT MAGNETISM
2/
poles in their endeavor to get to the south poles, you can see why they are only too willing to rush across the
short air-gap to the desired pole. Many of the larger motors and dynamos are
similar in construction to the plan given in these magnets. Diagrams will be given later to show
somewhat two
the
route of the lines of force in such combinations.
CHAPTER
III
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
EXPLAINING APPARATUS USED IN CONNECTION WITH MOTOR AND DYNAMO EXPERIMENTS.
49. Experimental Apparatus. While it is taken for granted that the student is familiar with all of the simple apparatus that is required for doing experiments with
motors and dynamos, a short discussion of them
will be
given herein, however, as some of the pieces used by In case the reader the author are of special design.
own apparatus for these and other experiments, he is referred to the author's book on "ElecAll of the apparatus needed for the trical Handicraft." experiments can be purchased in case the student does
wishes to make his
not wish to
make it. (See list at the back of this book.) not get the idea from the numerous pieces described that all of them are needed. variety is given so that the student can more easily find out what he wants for
Do
his special work.

50. Strap Key, Style A. Fig. 7 illustrates the use of a simple strap key, a dry battery being shown at the
28
right
29
and an electromagnet at the left. When the fingerpiece of the key is depressed, the current can flow, because two of the metal parts are forced together, and, as
Fig. 8
soon as the pressure is removed, the spring of the strap separates the two parts and the circuit is broken again. Fig. 8 is a top view of a very handy strap key, which
is
made
of nickel-plated brass straps, with black finger-
Fig. 9
piece, all
The
being mounted upon a narrow, bright red base. holes at the right and left are eyelet holes, the eyelets also being nickel-plated. The whole is to be screwed to
the table or to the wall by
wood screws
that are to pass
30
through the two holes, the wires from the battery or small dynamo being fastened under the heads of the screws. The screw-head shown at the center is the head
of the adjusting-screw, which is used to adjust the height of the brass key-strap above the lower contact. 51. Strap Key, Style B. Fig. 9 shows a different form
Fig. 10
of key (Apparatus No. 84 in "Electrical Handicraft") made with nickel-plated brass straps, black finger-piece,
and spring binding-posts, all mounted upon a black base cleats at the bottom and nickel-plated corner nails. The current enters the key at I and leaves at O, when the key-strap is depressed. This has no side switch. 52. Strap Key, with Side Switch. In some experiments you want to send intermittent currents, and then, perhaps, you would like to have the current flow for some time without holding the key down. Fig. 10 shows a form of key with which this can be done. Wire
having red
SW
connects the underside of the nickel-plated screw binding-
post,
I,
3!
switch-arm.
rest
with the underside of the pivot of the small Now, when the switch is turned so as to
contact-point,
upon the
CP, current
will pass out
through O, even if the key does not touch the lower This is the sort of key that is used in telegraph strap.
work, and
53.
it is
a very handy form for
Double-Key Current-Reverser.
have the top view
experiments. In Fig. we of a current-reverser (Apparatus
many
Fig. ii
No. 128
here as cause
it
it
in "Electrical Handicraft"), which is suggested is very useful in motor experiments, and beis
so constructed that
is
it
can be used in
many
of nickel-plated brass straps, nickel-plated screw binding-posts, and black finger-pieces, all being mounted upon a dead-black base with bright
ways.
This reverser
made
red cleats. Both of the key-straps press up against the upper strap unless depressed to touch the lower strap marked I. This little reverser is so made that it can be used also for a key, push-button, and two-point switch.
It really consists
is
of two or three pieces of apparatus, and
extremely handy.
.32

54.
How
this reverser works.
Fig.
12 shows
how
apparatus can be used to reverse the direction of the current in an electromagnet or other coil of wire. dry cell is shown at the right of the figure, with
this piece of
wires leading from it to the two binding-posts C and Z of the reverser, C standing for the carbon and Z for the
zinc of the
cell. cell,
When
it
the current comes from the carI,
can go no farther than Strap cause the other straps are above it.
bon of the
be-
Fig. 12
If
Key
touch
strap, the current will pass
2 be pressed far enough to strike the lower along Key 2, which does not
4,
now
and out through

It will
cell.
to the coil
the reverser at Y.
then pass from 3 to
and back to 4, and
then back to the
pressed, the current, which still enters the reverser at C, will pass to 3 and out at Y. It is evident, then, that by this simple arrangement the cur3
is
When Key
rent can be
made
to pass through the coil in either di-
rection by pressing the proper key. shall see that with the aid of this reverser and
We
with motors of the proper design, we can reverse motors and do various interesting experiments. 55. Two-Point Switch. Fig. 13 shows the full-size
top view of a two-point switch (Apparatus No. 62 in "Electrical Handicraft") that can be used to advantage
in some of the motor experiments. The five holes show the location of the nickel-plated eyelets, the switch-arm
being
33
at the middle. Dotted lines and represent wires under the bright-red base, and these connect the two eyelets at the ends with those upon which the
WA
WB
switch-arm
is
turned.
Connections are made by means
of screws put into the two end eyelets and the middle
Fig. 13
one, the wires being held under the screw-heads the switch is screwed to the table.
when
Fig. 14 shows one use for this switch, in which the current from a dry cell may be turned to either of two
things as, for example, a bell or motor. This may also be used to switch the current from a small dynamo, the
battery being replaced by the dynamo.
In either case, the
Fig. 14
current enters the switch at Q, from which it will pass to the desired instrument by turning the switch-arm to
the proper contact-point. 56. Rheostats are adjustable resistances that are so
arranged that different lengths of resistance-wire can be thrown into the circuit by merely turning a switch-arm
to the desired point.
Numerous kinds
of rheostats are
34
made, but the ones herein described have been designed

for students' use. With these rheostats we can regulate the speed of motors, vary the brilliancy of the electric lamps and do a number of things. Some of the small
made that they so gradually increase or decrease the speed of a motor that there are no distinct changes or jumps. It is much more interesting to have
rheostats are so
the motor leap ahead a
little
as each contact-point is
1*2Fig. 15
reached than to have no such changes, and it is more fun to have the motor sing a different tune as each distinct
speed
and
This is the plan used on trolley-cars commercial power-plants, and that is why this sort of rheostat is used in these experiments. 57. Five- Point Rheostat. Fig. 15 shows the top of
is
reached.
in other
a neat and useful five-point rheostat, the resistance-wires under the base being shown by dotted lines (Apparatus
No. 124 in "Electrical Handicraft"). This instrument can be placed in the battery or small dynamo circuit by
35
posts
joining the wires to the nickel-plated screw bindingand Y. If the current enters at when the
switch-arm
is
in the position
shown
in the figure,
it
will
be obliged to pass through the entire length of the re-
Fig. 16
sistance-wire and out through wire before the instrument by way of binding-post Y.
it
can leave
If we now move to the second nickel-plated contactpoint 2, two parts of the resistance-wire will be cut out of the circuit, thus reducing the resistance. By moving
K to contact-point 3, about one-half of the resistance will have been cut out, and when K rests upon contact-point 5, the current will pass from X to Y with almost no re-
36

This
is
sistance.
and we
shall see
how
the general action of most rheostats, the two kinds described herein can
be used in the experiments. dead-black bases and have a

point rheostat
cells
is
fine
designed to they are used to run small motors, as, for example, the "St. J. Motor No. i." When current is derived from small dynamos, the "Eleven-point Rheo-
They are mounted upon appearance. The fiveregulate the current from
two dry
when
stat" should be used.

58.
Eleven-Point Rheostat.
is
Fig. 16.
is
rheostat
built in a
way
that
little
different
Although this from
general principle of the two
that used for the five-point rheostat just described, the is the same (Apparatus
Fig. 17
No. 125
this
in "Electrical Handicraft").
is
instrument
it
other, as
cells
The resistance of more than that of the has been designed to work with three dry
quite a
little
connection with small motors and for experimental work with miniature incandescent lamps. In conin
nection with small lighting-plants run on the current from small dynamos, this rheostat can be used to regulate the brilliancy of the lamps, and it is also useful in
protecting lamps and other apparatus

current.
from too much
This instrument looks very well when mounted upon a switchboard, as the contact-points and other parts are
nickel-plated.
59.
Current Detectors.
We
shall see
by the experi-
ments upon
acts like a
this
37
subject that an ordinary coil of wire

electricity passes
magnet when a current of
through
and that the electromagnetism produced by the coil acts upon the pivoted needle-magnet and causes it to move. We really have two magnets acting upon each other, when the current is turned on. Uses for these detectors will be given under the proper experiit,
ments.
60. Simple Current Detector. Fig. 17 shows a form of current detector that will do for many experiments,
and
it
is
very inexpensive.
The
coil is
mounted upon a
Fig. 18
narrow base, the ends of the wire being fastened to eyelets which also act as binding-posts. Screws are used to
fasten the detector to the table, the circuit-wires being
held under the heads of the screws.

of narrow spring steel and
is
The
needle
is
made
pivoted at the center, as
shown.
61. Handy Current Detector. Fig. 18 shows a handy form of detector that has the coil and nickel-plated spring binding- posts mounted upon a black base (Apparatus No. 22 in "Electrical Handicraft"). This can be set anywhere, as it does not have to be screwed to the table. (For the construction of galvanoscopes and delicate de-
tectors see Chap. 3 in "Electrical Handicraft.")
CHAPTER
IV
ELECTROMAGNETISM
TEN EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTROMAGNETISM THAT AID IN UNDERSTANDING THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF MOTORS AND DYNAMOS.
Electromagnetism is the name given to magnetism produced by electricity. In Experiment 16, we saw that a magnetic needle was affected, when placed in the field of a permanent magnet, and that its north pole always pointed in the direction in which the lines of force pass on their way from the north to the south pole of the magnet. We must now try some experiments that will show how magnetism and electricity work together in motors and dynamos.
62.
that
is
EXPERIMENT
needle.
63. Directions.
21.
Electric current and magnetic

circuit similar to
If
you make up a
that
shown
in Fig. 19 consisting of a battery
DC,
a key,
and one of the current detectors OC,

idly each time
it
just described,
will find that the needle of the detector will
will
38
you go back to
close the circuit at

its
you swing rapthe key, and that you
original position as soon as
ELECTROMAGNETISM
39
open the circuit again. The needle, of course, should be directly under the coil when it is at rest; that is, the coil should be placed in a north and south line.
64. Discussion.
From
this
we
see that the coil of the
detector becomes a small electromagnet the instant the current passes through it and that, best of all, it loses its
have magnetism as soon as the circuit is opened. here the two magnetic fields acting upon each other like the two fields of two permanent magnets.
We
Fig. 20
EXPERIMENT
detector.
65. Directions.
22.
Reversing the current in the

put a current-reverser in
If
we now
the circuit in place of the key, as suggested in Fig. 20, we shall find that the needle will turn in a direction de-
pending upon the particular lever that

66. Discussion.
is pressed. have, then, in this simple coil of wire on the detector, a plan by which we can tell the direction of the current. If the current passes through
We
the coil in one direction,

just the opposite
way from
23.
magnetism is built up in it in that in which it is built when

coils
the current flows in the opposite direction.
EXPERIMENT
of wire.
67. Directions.
Magnetism from hollow

If
Fig. 21.
reverser,
and a hollow
coil of
you arrange a battery, wire as shown, you will
be. able to reverse the current in the coil at will, and if this coil be placed in an east and west line, with
your compass-needle a short distance away, you can
4O
study the change of magnetism in the coil as it reverses. See how far from the coil the needle will be
affected.
68. Discussion.
Here we have merely a

still
per wire without any iron, and

attractions
we
coil of copget poles with
and repulsions for the compass-needle every time the current passes. It is this property that coils of wire have that makes them so valuable in all electrical
apparatus.
"r
"
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
EXPERIMENT 24.
69.
coil
About
coils of
wire with cores.
Directions.
used
Slip an iron core through the hollow in the last experiment and see whether the
is
action
fore.
upon the compass-needle
more or
less
than be-
70. Discussion.
When we
is
place an iron core through
we get what magnet, and we find that

a coil of wire,
commonly
called
an electro-
the core adds greatly to the
strength of the magnet. have already seen that air does not readily conduct the lines of force, and so we may expect that when the
We
lines of force
have to push
their
way through long

is
air-
spaces, the strength of the

is
magnet
lessened.
Soft iron
a splendid conductor of these lines of force, so when the core is in place the "magnetic flux," as these lines are also called, can rush through the core on their way from
ELECTROMAGNETISM
4!
the south to the north pole of the electromagnet. This reduces the air-trip about one-half and thus greatly increases the strength of the electromagnet.
EXPERIMENT
71.
25.
Polarity of coils.
notice the direction of the cur-
Directions.
it
If
we
passes around the coil to see whether it goes in the same direction as that taken by the hands of a
rent as
clock or in the opposite direction,
we
shall find that
Fig. 23
certain direction of current always produces a certain If you take the trouble to follow this up, as sugpole.
gested in Fig. 22, you will find that when the current passes in a right-handed manner, as in the figure, the
left-hand end of the coil will be a south pole. If you face the right-hand end of the coil, the current is seen
(see direction of the arrows) to pass around it in an anti-clockwise direction, and this produces a north pole.
We
find
shall want to know what pole we are expected to when we experiment with the electromagnets on
fix this rule
motors, so the student should his mind.
thoroughly in
EXPERIMENT
nets.
72.
26.
About horseshoe electromag-
Directions.
If
you have a pair of electromagnets-
42
already wound and joined, test the poles with a compassneedle to see if one pole is north and the other south.
Also note the way

the magnets.
in
which the current enters each of
73. Discussion. Fig. 23 shows a side view of two electromagnets with the wires properly joined to get the best results; that is, they are so wound that one will be
north and the other south
when
the current passes, as
shown by
full
(See "Electrical Handicraft" for details for making different kinds of electromagthe arrow.
nets.)
Fig. 24
If
you notice the way the
coils are
wound, and
also the
the current enters the coils, you will find that when looking down upon them, as in Fig. 24, a north pole is produced when the current flows through the wire in an
way
anti-clockwise direction, and that the pole will be south when it flows in a clockwise direction. This was men-
tioned in one of the previous experiments.
EXPERIMENT
tromagnets.
27.
Regarding the joining of
elec-
If you have an experimental electro74. Directions. magnet of the right design, you can try the strength of the two when arranged as suggested in Fig. 23, and then
again with a piece of iron joined to the lower ends of is there such a difthe cores, as shown in Fig. 25. ference in the strength?
Why
ELECTROMAGNETISM
43
The strips of iron shown in Fig. 25 75. Discussion. are held firmly between the base and the ends of the You have seen that cores, thus making a good contact.
lines of force find
it
much
easier to travel through iron
than through the air, so this iron, called a "yoke," makes a complete path for the magnetic flux as it passes from the south pole to the north pole. At this point the lines
and
of force pass out into the air on all sides of the magnet find their way to the south pole near by, making the
Fig. 25
of force very strong between the poles. If it were not for the yoke, the combination would be much weaker. This fact is considered in the construction of motors and
field
dynamos, as we
shall
soon
see.
The yokes should be
made
of soft iron, and for students' use the author prefers yokes that are made up of a number of strips.
shows a useful size for experimental magnets, and these, are shown mounted in Fig. 26 (Apparatus No. 115 in "Electrical Handicraft"). A careful study of ordinary electromagnets will aid you in seeing how things work when you take up the motors. Fig. 27 shows a larger pair of mounted magnets arranged esFig. 25
full size,
44
pecially for experimental
work (Apparatus No. 116
in
"Electrical Handicraft").
EXPERIMENT 28.
nets.
76. Directions.
like those
Magnetic figure of electromag-
If you have a pair of electromagnets shown and discussed in the last experiment,
arrange a sheet of glass over the poles by laying it upon books then sprinkle iron filings upon the glass and tap
;
it,
as previously explained.
77. Discussion.
You
will find that there

this
is
much
stronger
field
between the poles of
magnet than you
Fig. 26
Fig. 27
permanent horseshoe magnet, provided you have any kind of a current, and that you have perfect control of this field by the use of a key placed anywhere in the circuit. Notice how you can make the field disappear when you open the circuit, and how the
lines of force
had
in the case of the
appear the instant you close the
circuit.
EXPERIMENT 29.
tromagnet.
78. Directions.
Magnetic figure of single

will
elec-
If
you
arrange your apparatus
as suggested in Fig. 28, which includes a battery, or dynamo, to give the current, a key and a single magnet
placed on
its side,
you
will be able to
make an
interest-
ing magnetic figure.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
79.
45
field is
Discussion.
This shows us that the
strong
at the poles of the electromagnet and that, without polepieces or other additional parts, we get a figure much like
that produced by a straight bar magnet. If you compare this figure with that of the pair of electromagnets, you
will see
what part the yoke plays

30.
in saving the resistance
to the lines of force.
EXPERIMENT
poles.
Magnetic figure of two
like
80. Directions. If you have a pair of mounted electromagnets so arranged that you can change the wiring
Fig. 28
it
Fig. 29
pay you to join them up so that the (Fig. 27), current will pass around them in the same direction that
will
;
Do so that they will both be north or south poles. this, then make the magnetic figure of this combination and see whether the field is strong or weak between the
is,
poles.
the two poles are the same, the each other, thus weakening the attraction for outside pieces of iron. This arrangement is
81. Discussion.
lines of force repel
When
not adapted for use in motors and dynamos, as there
we
want as strong a field as is possible. The stronger the field between the poles on a motor, the stronger the attractions and repulsions of the armature-magnets for the
poles.
CHAPTER V
MOTION AND CURRENTS

EIGHT EXPERIMENTS SHOWING HOW MOTION CAN BE DUCED BY ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
I'RO-
low
31. Motion produced with a holwire and a piece of soft iron. 82. Directions. Arrange a hollow coil of wire, as shown in Fig. 21, then suspend a short length of soft iron wire by means of a piece of thread directly in front of the opening. Close the circuit for an instant and see what happens to the wire. 83. Discussion. We have here what might be called a sucking effect, for the iron wire will be drawn into the We have a polarizing effect upon the coil instantly. iron wire as soon as the current flows then, as soon as the wire gets poles, it becomes a magnet and is atcoil of
;
EXPERIMENT
tracted
strongly by
this simple
the
electromagnetism of the
coil.
arrangement we can produce motion. EXPERIMENT 32. Motion produced with a hollow coil of wire and a bar magnet.
Even by
84. Directions.
In place of the iron wire of the
last
experiment, use a magnetized sewing-needle and see the effect when the poles are brought near the hole in the
coil.
Try both
poles.
have a stronger effect than in the case of the iron wire, because the magnetic field of the small permanent magnet is stronger than that of the
85. Discussion.
We
wire, which
was magnetized by
induction, and which, as

retentivity.
has been explained, has but

46
little
The
fact
MOTION AND CURRENTS

that one end of the needle
is
47
re-
attracted
and the other
pelled by the coil, shows that the coil has a particular pole at the end used.
EXPERIMENT 33. Motion produced with an electromagnet and a piece of iron. 86. Directions. Fig. 29 suggests a method of supporting your electromagnet H, the wires IE and OE being connected to a key and battery. 1C represents a
Fig. 30
piece of iron, which should be held a short distance from H. Try the effect of turning the current on and off at
the key.
EXPERIMENT 34. Motion produced with an tromagnet and a bar magnet.
elec-
In place of the piece of iron used in 87. Directions. the last experiment, try a good permanent magnet. See if you can show both attractions and repulsions.
EXPERIMENT 35. Motion produced with an electromagnet and a horseshoe magnet. 88. Directions. Fig. 30 shows an arrangement by which, with the reverser, and the other parts, you can get some interesting results. Try reversing the current
in the coil until
you get the best
results.
89. Discussion.
We
have, in this experiment, both atin

in
tractions
and repulsions shows what takes place
rapid succession, and this the motor. The attractions
40
and repulsions follow each other very rapidly in the revolving armatures, but of course the motion is always in one direction instead of in opposite directions, as in
the experiment.
EXPERIMENT
electromagnets.
90. Directions. nets,
it
36.
Motion produced with two
In Fig. 31
we have two
in
one of them being supported
electromagsuch a manner that
will
swing
easily.
The
current that comes from the
and B, so as to magnetize both battery branches at coils at the same time. Try this in different ways, with
the poles of
and
alike
and
unlike, holding
in the
hand.
91. Discussion.
nets,
we have
the
see
dynamo.
We
In the case of the two electromagmain parts of an electric motor or from this that we can get an attrac-
depending upon the poles that is exactly what happens in the motor. The only thing lacking here is some plan by which we can automatically turn the current on and off. EXPERIMENT 37. Rotary motion produced with
tion or a repulsion at will,
are near each other, and this
a hollow coil and a permanent magnet. If you will now refer to 92. Directions.
again,
Fig.
21
you
in
motion
you can get rotary the magnetic needle by properly turning on

will find that
by
this plan
and
off the current at the reverser.
MOTION AND CURRENTS

93. Discussion.
49
In
chapter
we produced
and
all of the other experiments in this motion, but in this we really have
a rotary motion,
it is
this that
we want
in the regular
motor.
EXPERIMENT
38.
we arrange our apparatus as suggested in Fig. 32, a small nail wound with insulated wire will do for the electromagnet, and have a key, battery
a permanent magnet If 94. Directions.
Rotary motion produced with and an electromagnet.
Fig. 32
and a compass-needle, we can get rotary motion and regulate it pretty well by turning on the current at the
right time.
95. Discussion. We might say that we have in this apparatus a very small motor, but it still lacks the one
important feature of being able to regulate

rent.
its
own
cur-
CHAPTER
VI
ELECTRIC MOTORS IN GENERAL

96. Simple Action of Motors. We have seen, in the numerous experiments that have been suggested, that
motion can be produced in many ways by the attractions and repulsions of magnets no matter whether they be
permanent magnets or electromagnets. As electromagmade much stronger than permanent magnets, their magnetism being under perfect control, it is evident that to get the best results, we need a current
nets can be
of electricity to energize the coils of wire. In this way we can get powerful magnets, and with the aid of polepieces
point.
we can
lead the magnetism to just the proper Then, by a plan to regulate the poles, \ve can
get either attractions or repulsions to produce a constant rotary motion.
Now that we have mentioned the broad principle upon which motors work, let us take up the parts of a simple motor in detail to learn just how they do work. 97. The Field-Magnets on all ordinary motors do not
machine.
move, as they are generally a part of the base of the There are many forms in which these field-
magnets are made, depending upon the design of the machine, and still they are very similar to each other
after
all.
mean
When we speak of field-magnets, we really the whole thing, including the cores, the coils and
the pole-pieces. When a current passes through the coils of the fieldmagnets, these become strong electromagnets and they either attract or repel the electromagnets produced in
51
the armature by the same current or by a part of the same supplied current. Figs. 33, 34 and 35 show three
shapes of field-magnets that are commonly used on small motors, and although the second looks different from the first, it is really the same as the first, but tipped upon
its side.
In Fig. 35, however, we have a different form, in which the lines of force have two paths to travel on their way
north pole.
from the south pole through the two yokes Y to the This form of field is like that discussed in Experiment 20, in which two horseshoe magnets were
Fig. 33
Fig. 34
Fig. 35
and it is a common form for the field-magnets of large motors and dynamos, several coils and pole-pieces being used.
used,
In the three illustrations the lettering has been made the same, for convenience, in which C stands for the coil and L for the ends of of wire, P for the pole-pieces,
the coils,
for the field
(where the
lines of force pass
through the armature when it is in place), S for the space between the ends of the poles, and Y for the yokes. In these drawings all parts are omitted for clearness, except the field-magnets. 98. Armatures are made in
many ways
with as
many
;
kinds of windings, but the general principle is the same that is, coils of wire magnetize the cores, and in this way
we
magnets.
get electromagnets that attract and repel the fieldThe coils of wire must be well insulated from
52

and the connections must be
the iron of the armature,
made
proper way to give the desired poles. We shall take up one or two special forms of armatures when we discuss the special motors.
in the
99.
Commutators
are devices for changing the direc-
tion of the current in the armature-coils as they revolve, so that the desired poles will be made. These consist of
bars of copper, called commutator bars, which are insulated from each other and from the shaft of the machine, but so fastened that they will turn with the shaft. The ends of the armature-coils are joined to the commutator bars in such a manner as to allow the current
from one bar and leave it by way of one If the armature did not revolve, it would be an easy matter to get the current in and out of the coils, but, as we must have a constant rotary moto enter a coil
of the other bars.
tion, this device is necessary.
100.
The Brushes
lead the current to the

coils.
commutator
bars and thus to the
are stationary and gently press upon the commutator as it revolves with the shaft. Most small machines have but two brushes,
The brushes
which feed
all of the commutator bars as they revolve, current entering the motor through one brush and leaving by the other. The brushes should make a firm con-
tact with the commutator, but they should not press too hard upon it, as this would retard the motion qf small motors on account of too much friction.
101.
Methods
of
Winding.
As we
shall see in
some
of the experiments that follow, there are two principal ways in which small motors are wound, and these are
called the "series"
the smaller motors are
and the "shunt" windings. Most of wound by the series method, but
some of those
The
that are a little larger are shunt-wound. smaller motors that are described in this book are
53
so designed that they can be used either series-wound or shunt-wound, and this is a great advantage to the stu-
when it comes to really understanding how things work; in fact, these motors have been arranged in this way by the author for the special use of students. (See experiments for discussions of these two methods.) 102. Reversing Motors. It would seem, upon first
dent
thought, that if we reverse the current entering a small motor, the motor should reverse at once. This is not
the case, however, as
we
shall see
when we
is
take up one
of the small motors in detail.
This
with
all of the ordinary small motors designed so that they can be reversed and when we reverse the current we change all of the poles in both
just the trouble for they are not
the armature and field-magnets, and so we have the same effects of attractions and repulsions as before. Wherever
we have an attraction with direction, we again get an

reversed,
direction.
the current flowing in one

attraction with the current
and
this
makes a constant
rotation in the one
To get the motors to reverse, we must have them so constructed that we can reverse the current in the field,
for example, without reversing
it
in the
armature.
This
requires some form of reverser, of course, so connected with the motor that all of this can be done. When we
reverse the current in one part and not in the other, we get a repulsion where we previously had an attraction, and in this way the motor has to turn in the opposite
direction.
103. Coils in "Series."
(See experiments with Motor No. I.) If we have two coils of wire
arranged as indicated in Fig. 37 so that the current which passes through one of them has to also go on through the other before it can return to the battery, we
say that these coils are in series.
When two
or
more
54
arranged in series, the resistance of all of them taken together is equal to the sum of their separate resistances, for the same current has to go through all of
coils are
In Fig. 38 we have two coils so arranged that the current coming from any source branches into two different parts at C, one part return-
them, one after the other. 104. Coils in "Shunt."
F
Fig. 37
Fig. 38
coil F, and the other part through coil say that these two coils are in "parallel," or shunt that one of them is a "shunt" of the other.
ing to
Z through
A.
We
is,
a branch, and when a wire branches into two or more parts, each branch gets a part of the current and
really,
all
the resistance of
that of
any of the branches alone.
of the branches together is less than When the branches
are
all carrying current, the electricity has more than one path, or, in other words, there is more copper to
it.
carry
CHAPTER
VII
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS WITH MOTORS

105. Small Motors. There are many good motors upon the market, but space will not permit of a description of all of them, and as the general principles are the same in all of them, so many details will not be necesIn the experiments which follow, the author has sary. chosen small motors that seem to him to be best adapted to the use of students, some of the motors being those already upon the market, and some being of special design to make them more useful to the student; for it is not enough to have a motor that will simply go around, when it comes to experimental work.
All of the motors described herein are
made
of the
best materials by skilled
workmen, thus giving us something upon which we can depend, and w here special dey
signs have been given, we have something that will do all that ordinary motors will do, and more besides. As the motors used for these experiments differ somewhat in shape and construction, and as we shall have to refer to them frequently, it has been thought best to give them numbers and to refer to them by these numbers. Some of the motors can be used as dynamos, and this is a great advantage for the student; for he then really has two machines in one. (See Chap. 9.) 106. Motor No. 1. This motor (Fig. 39) is designed for students and others who want a small motor for ex-
perimental purposes, as well as for all of the regular work that any small motor can do. After considerable
55
56
best
experimenting, the author decided that this would be the form and construction for an all-around small motor, and he believes that it can be used in more ways than
any other motor of equal cost. It is an efficient motor for its size, and it gives a very good idea of the general construction and action of large motors. One of the special features of this motor is that it is so designed that it can be used on a circuit with a current-reverser,
rheostat, etc., thus making it possible to regulate the direction of rotation and, besides, to control the speed
while running in either direction. This change of direction and regulation of speed is of the greatest value when you want to run small toys and
The four nickel-plated bindmounted upon the framework of the motor, and not upon the wooden base, as is usually the case, so that the motor itself can be removed from the base and
various mechanical effects.
ing-posts are
used in different ways, remounting

this
it
upon
toys, etc.
In
way it will still retain the ability to reverse. As it has a three-pole armature, it will start promptly as soon as the current is turned on. The armature-shaft
carries a pulley, and it is so arranged that a fan can be put on without removing the pulley. One cell of battery will run this motor at high speed, but it will be found best, especially where you want to run toys or
the fan, to arrange the batteries according to the requirements, thus reducing the strain on the cells and in-
creasing their
life
i
Motor No.
is
considerably. (See Chap. 10.) stands three and one-half inches high.
It
enamel with nickel-plated trimmings, and it is well made and strong. With it are furnished one long and two short nickel-plated brass connectingstraps, with which various connections can be convefinished in black
niently
made
for the experiments.

107.
5/
Taking Motor No.

all
Apart.
is
In order to
make a
study of this motor,
armature
necessary is to remove the and to do this simply take out the two small
that
screws that hold the strap-bearing at the pulley-end of the shaft, this being called the back bearing-strap. Carefully pull the
place so as not to lose them.
armature out and put the screws back in In replacing the armature,
Fig. 39
be very careful not to bend the brushes and to so center the armature when putting in the screws that it will
turn freely. This must be done with care or the armature can not revolve as it should, and it may even hit upon the field-magnets as it turns.
EXPERIMENT
magnets.
39.
To
test for poles of the field-
108. Directions. Following the directions in paragraph 107, remove the armature of Motor No. i and arrange it in circuit with a reverser and a dry battery, as in Fig. 40, being careful to have your connections as shown. As previously explained, the current coming
58
from the carbon of the cell cannot get beyond the reverser until one of the keys is pressed. Hold a compass-needle near one of the pole-pieces and
then near the other as you press the left-hand key of the reverser for a moment, and note which pole-piece attracts the north pole of the compass-needle. When you have decided which pole-piece is a north pole, repeat the experiment and press the right-hand key of the reverser.
109. Discussion.
The
student should note that
when
the current enters the left-hand binding-post it passes through the coil in a clockwise direction as you face the
left-hand end of the
coil,
and
in
an anti-clockwise direc-
Fig. 40
tion
should be
when you reverse it. From the results a comparison made with Experiment 25. We have here a
good example of pole-pieces, which lead the lines of force up from the ends of the coil to a place where they can
stream through the armature-core when
in the pole-pieces. 110. Directions.
test the poles for
it is
in place.
EXPERIMENT 40. To test for residual magnetism

Having performed Experiment 39, magnetism without passing any current
through the
coil.
111. Discussion.
The
iron used in the construction of
motors and dynamos holds some of the magnetism after the current ceases to flow, as is shown by this experiment in fact, if this were not the case, the dynamo could not start to generate a current as soon as it is revolved. This will be taken up more fully in "The Study of Dyna;
mos by Experiment."
59
EXPERIMENT 41. To test the lifting-power of the

field-magnets. 112. Directions.
With
the armature removed, as in
the above experiments, and as you can lift the armature when
shown
in Fig. 41, see if
you press one of the keys
of the reverser.
Try other
current pass for a the cell.
moment
42.
pieces of iron, letting the only, so as not to overwork

test the lifting-power of is in place.
EXPERIMENT
the field-magnets
113. Directions.
To
when
the armature
Slip the armature
back into place

lift-
without screwing on the bearing, and again test the
Fig. 41
ing power, comparing
it
with the results of Experi-
ment
41.
It is
114. Discussion.
is in place
evident that
is
when
the lifting-power
small,
the armature and from the pre-
vious discussions, we come to the conclusion that there are not so many lines of force leaking into the air now as there were when the armature was out of the field.
Let us study
this
more
fully in the
next experiment.
study the magnetic field of the field-magnets with the armature in place. 115. Directions. Arrange your apparatus as shown in Fig. 42, holding the base of the motor in a small vise.
43.
EXPERIMENT
To
In this way the pole-pieces can be used to hold a piece of cardboard in a horizontal position, and all can be held
60
firmly if the two little screws that usually fasten the bearing-strap be put through small holes in the cardboard and screwed into place. small slit will be necessary to allow the cardboard to be pushed beyond the shaft be-
tween the pulley and the nickel-plated bearing-strap.
small piece of paper can be pasted over the slot when the cardboard is in place, to keep the filings from falling
through, and the bearing-strap
may
be turned out of the
the magnetic figure of the field with iron filings, tapping the cardboard as previously explained.
way.
Make
Fig. 42
Fig. 43
44. To test the magnetic field of the field-magnets with the armature removed.
EXPERIMENT
116. Directions.
Arrange as for the
last
experiment,
the
but with the armature removed, and again netic figure with filings.
117. Discussion.
is
make
magit
From
the last
field
two experiments
evident that the magnetic
magnets like that on Motor No. I the armature is removed, because the lines of force pass through the iron of the armature more easily than through the air; and, when the armature is there, the lines of force merely have to jump across the small air-gaps. When the armature stands still, the lines of force pass
nearly
straight
easiest path.
of a pair of fieldis more evident when
When
through the iron core, following the the armature is revolving and the
6l
motor
slightly
is
running regularly, these lines of force are changed in their course, but this need not be
taken into account in these small motors.
The chief thing to keep in mind is that the thousands of lines of force are threading through the armature and
its coils
when
case the motor
they revolve, and that if this were not the would not revolve and the dynamo would
45.
not generate a current.
EXPERIMENT
with the motor.
118. Directions.
Making permanent magnets
With the field-magnets you can small permanent magnets out of pieces of steel, needles, etc., if you allow the current to pass through the coil, the armature being removed.
make
Various other experiments can be done with these

electromagnets, but some sort of a key should be in the circuit so that the current can be regulated, leaving it on but for a moment each time to save the battery.
EXPERIMENT 46. To
netism.
119. Directions.
test the
armature for magof
Remove
the
armature
Motor
pulley-end of the shaft into the hole in the front bearing-strap, as shown in Fig. 43. With
i
No.
and
slip the
books or blocks build up a little platform under the core of the armature so that you can place nails or other
small pieces of iron near the core. Hold one of the wires from a battery upon one of the commutator bars, and
with the other hand touch the remaining wire to the

other two bars in succession to see
if
the electromagnets
of the armature can
lift
iron.
120. Discussion. From this it is evident that the electromagnets produced by a current passing through the
armature-coils are quite strong, and that they are capable It must of creating a decided pull upon pieces of iron.
62

if
x
also be evident that
the field-magnets are properly

still
magnetized, the pull will be
EXPERIMENT 47. To
for poles. 121. Directions.
greater. test the armature-magnets
Arrange your apparatus as directed
for the above experiment, but instead of trying to lift iron when the current is turned on, make the little plat-
form
poles.
tall
enough to hold your compass-needle near the
Part 1. Place the armature, as shown in Fig. 44, which gives merely the end view, so that the pole con-
Fig. 44
taining the small screw will be on top. This should be done for convenience, as the screw will act as a guide
and enable you

is
to
keep the facts
clear.
In this a battery
shown to the right, the wire from the zinc being marked Z and that from the carbon C. The current
coming from the
tive
cell
wire,
will
enter the
by way of wire C, called the posicommutator bar at the top,
marked T, and return to the cell through the right bar, marked R. Test each pole of the armature, following the current in your mind, and see if the law given in
Experiment 25 holds true, remembering that the current does not pass around all of the cores in a clockwise direction.
Make
2.
Part
Turn
a diagram and mark your results. the armature to the right through one-
third of a revolution, which will bring pole I over to Test the former position of pole 2, and so on around.

again,
63,
still touching wire C to the top bar, and note that changes have been made in two of the poles, although the relative positions of the north and south poles have
remained the same. Part 3. Repeat Part

one-third of a revolution.
2,
again turning the armature

the
Do
same
relative positions
remain
Part
is, let
Repeat the above, reversing the current that from Z touch the top bar, and that from the right bar. Make a diagram of the new poles and
4.
;
the wire
compare the
to
results with those above.
122. Discussion.
If the student will take the trouble
do the above experiment carefully and fix the results in his mind, he will have no chance to forget the general principles upon which the current reverses each half revolution through the coils of the little armature of Motor No. i. As the current is supposed to pass through the motor in one direction, when it is running under ordinary conditions, it must be clear that while the polepieces of the field-magnets have constant polarity, the
three poles of the armature are rapidly changing.
CHAPTER
VIII
SPEED REGULATION AND DIRECTION OF ROTATION

Direction of rotation. Part 1. Assemble the motor again, being careful not to bend the brushes and to have the armature run easily without hitting the field-magnets. This is important, and it is best to put a small drop of machine, oil on each bearing, placing it with a toothpick
48.
EXPERIMENT
123. Directions.
With the apparatus arranged as in Fig. 40, but without connecting the field-coils to those of the armature, press the right-hand key of the reverser .to
or a match.
Fig. 45
allow the current to enter the coil at the right end that is, allow the current to pass through the coil in a clock;.
wise direction as you look at
it
from the
right.
Test the
pole again and satisfy yourself with the compass-needle that the right-hand pole is south. You may even omit
the reverser
and touch the wire from the carbon
to the
right-hand binding-post of the field, with the wire from the zinc to the other post on the field.
Part
2.
With
hand post of the field across armature, as shown in Fig.

64
the long connecting-strap join the leftto the right-hand post of the
45, but before
you turn on
SPEED REGULATION
AND DIRECTION OF ROTATION
65
the current, try to figure out which way the motor should run if the wire from the carbon (the positive wire)
the current in at R, from which it would go field-coil to L, across to B, thence through the armature-coils to and back to the battery. When
should
let
through the
you have decided, see

the current.
124. Discussion.
if
you were right by trying with

in
Keeping
mind the
fact that the
right-hand pole-piece of the field should be south, and that as the current enters the top commutator bar, as in
Experiment 47, Part I, making the top pole-piece of the armature also south, there will be a repulsion between these two parts, and the motor will turn forwards that is, away from the brushes, giving it an anti-clockwise
;
direction
when you
face the armature.
We
will
have already mentioned the fact that the motor run in the same direction as before if we reverse the
current in the whole motor, as we shall do if we simply change the wires leading from the battery. The
reason should now be clear, for in this case the right pole of the field will be north, and so will the top poleThe poles being the same, that piece of the armature. The previous is, north, we get a repulsion as before.
experiments showed that the poles are reversed when the

current reverses.
125. Attractions and Repulsions in Motor No. 1. We have just shown that, with certain connections, we have a south pole at the right of the motor and also a south
pole at the top of the armature, thus causing a repulsion. The student must not get the idea from this that we have arrived at the conclusions about the only repulsions.
We
repulsion by considering, for convenience, but one pole of the armature. In Experiment 47 we found that the
two
side poles of the
armature were north when the top
66
pole was south, and so we have quite a number of attractions and repulsions. As will be seen by referring to Fig. 46, the top pole
is repelled by the right field-pole, and it same time attracted by the left field-pole. Again, the left and right poles of the armature are repelled by the left pole of the field, and both are attracted by the With the numerous attractions and reright field-pole. pulsions, we get a steady pull and push in the same di-
of the armature
is
at the
rection.
Now,
the
of course,
if
same during the
the poles of the armature remained entire revolution, the armature would
in
soon find a position
which
its
poles
would have the
Fig. 46
greatest attraction for the poles of the field, and there it would remain. Here is where the commutator does its
work, by reversing the current as the brushes change to other commutator bars, thus keeping up the motion. If
you look carefully at the commutator-end of the armature, you will see that this change is made just as the right pole of the armature reaches the middle point of
the south field-piece.
This instantly changes the attraction to a repulsion. If you slowly turn the armature and watch for this, you will see that all of the changes are
made
at this point, for the
lower brush then slides from
The above the right commutator bar to the left one. applies, of course, when the experiment is performed as
described above.
SPEED REGULATION

Backward motion
for
67
EXPERIMENT
No.
1.
49.
Motor
Put on one of the short connectingwill join binding-posts R and B, as shown in Fig. 47, then connect the positive wire, from a batten' to L and the negative wire to A. The current will now pass through the field in the opposite and through the armature in the same direction as in the last experiment that is. we have reversed the current in the field without reversing it in the armature, and this makes the motor revolve in a clockwise direction. 127. Discussion. This plan of reversing the motor is
126. Directions.
straps,
CS, so that
it
Fig. 48
not convenient to change the wiring every time we want to reverse the motor; so we make use of the current-reverser to do this for us, as
rather unhandy, as
it
is
directed below.
EXPERIMENT
128. Directions.
50.
Reversing Motor No.
with
the current-reverser.
current-reverser, as
hand key
first
Arrange the motor, a battery and a shown in Fig. 48. Press the rightand see if the motor turns in the same
;
Experiment 48 that is, anti-clockwise. Follow the current in your mind to make sure that this is correct, then press the left-hand key for a moment to
direction as in
see if the
motor
reverses.
129. Discussion.
easily
We
have, in this case, a
method of
accomplishing the results shown in the previous
68
experiment, and this explains the general method used, even in large motors. The main point to be remembered
that in reversing the motor we have to reverse the current in either the field or the armature without reis,
versing
it
in the other.
EXPERIMENT
second method.
49, in
130. Directions.
51.
Reversing Motor No.
by a
Arrange the wiring as shown in Fig. which the reversing will take place in the armature-coils, connecting the field-coil up as you did the
Fig. 49
armature in the previous experiment. See if you still get the same reversing as before. 131. Discussion. see from this that the motor re-
We
verses by this plan as well as by the other. Now that we have succeeded in changing the direction of rotation
of this
speed.
little
motor,
let
us see
how we can
regulate
its
EXPERIMENT
No.
1,
52.
Regulation of speed for Motor
coils in series.
132. Directions.
teries, as
Arrange the motor, rheostat and batspeed at various
shown
in Fig. 50, then try the
points on the rheostat. In this case, we see that the cur133. Discussion. rent goes through the rheostat, the field-coil, the con-
back to the
and then through the armature-coils and There are no branches here to divide the current, so we say that we have a series-wound
necting-strap,
batteries.
SPEED REGULATION
motor.
stat,
AND DIRECTION OF ROTATION we can
69
In
this
experiment
use the five-point rheoeleven-point
as
shown with two
batteries, or the
rheostat with three batteries.

scribed in Chapter 3.
These instruments are de-
EXPERIMENT
tion of rotation of
134. Directions.
53.
Controlling speed and direc1,
Motor No.
Fig. 51
series- wound.
shows how
to connect the
reverser with the other things used in the last experiment. Be sure that you get the connections right and
Fig. 50
then try to vary the speed with the rheostat and the direction of rotation with the reverser. (See Sec. 137 on Series-wound Motors.)
135. Discussion.
It will
if
be seen here that the
coils
are
the reverser be used, and that we can change the speed of the motor when it is running in either direction. This arrangement is a very handy
still
in series,
even
one for running toys, as we have the motor under perfect control. (See the author's "Real Electric Toy-Making for Boys" for various toys that are to be run with small
motors.)
136.
Load on Motors. When
motor
is
running with-
out doing work and simply has to turn itself, we say that it has no load. Although the motor has no outside work
to do in this case, it really has something to do, for it must overcome the friction of its bearings and the resistance of the air to
its
rapidly revolving armature.

it
As soon
as
we
attach
to
some machine and make
it
7O
do outside work, we say that the motor is running with a load, and it would seem perfectly natural for a motor to slow down a little when its load is increased. From
this
we
to be increased to
should also expect that the current would have keep up the proper speed with the
at
larger load.
Small motors do not run well
slow speed, and so
we have
for toys
to gear
them down
things.
and other
to get to the proper speed (See "Real Electric Toy10,

11,
12,
Making For Boys," Chaps.
for full direc-
Fig. 51
tions
for
making
drums,
137.
etc.,
shafting, bearings, for small motors.)
pulleys,
winding-
Series-Wound Motors.
it
As has
just been
men-
tioned,
natural to expect that a motor should run faster as soon as its load is decreased, and still faster
is
when
the load
is
entirely
thrown
off.
In the case of the
series-wound motor, this would become a serious thing if it were not watched and its speed regulated, for these
motors have a tendency to keep on running faster and faster, or to "race," as it is called, and such motors have
been known to actually tear themselves to pieces by the excessive, speed under no load.
In places where
it
might be possible for the
belts to
break or come
thus allowing a series-wound motor to race, or where a variable speed is not wanted, serieswound motors are not generally used. There are many
off,
places,
however, where a variable speed
is
really
wanted,
SPEED REGULATION
as, for
?!
etc., and under the control of a rheostat placed in the main circuit, as in one of the previous exFor work like this, the operator is on hand periments.
example, on electric cars, pumps, hoists,

speed
is
in these cases the
to attend to the rheostat.

tric fans, for
In the case of ordinary elec-
no chance for the fan to
is constant, and there is and so many of these motors are series-wound. They will race, however, if you remove the fan and let them run. In series-wound motors, the same current passes through both armature and field, so when the strength of current in either of these two parts is changed, it is also changed in the other part. For example, if we increase the load on the motor, the armature will naturally slow down a little, and from the experiments on counter-electromotive force, we know that the resistance of the armature will be decreased. This will allow more current to pass through the armature, and we should expect that more power would be the result but, as mentioned above, the field also feels the effect of this increased current, and
example, the load

race,
the magnetic flux of the field is increased. The counterelectromotive force in the armature increases with_ the additional magnetic flux, and so the motor has to slow
down.
The thing may be summed up, in a general way, by saying that the strength of the field is not constant in series-wound motors. Every change in load makes a
corresponding change in the strength of the field and in the pressure of the counter-electromotive force. This trouble is overcome in shunt-wound motors, as
Series-wound motors have a be explained below. very strong pulling power or "torque" when they start,
will
and
this
is
an advantage
in
starting electric cars
and
other machinery for which they are adapted.
72
EXPERIMENT
138. Directions.
54.
Motor No.
1,
shunt-wound.
Place the two short connecting-straps upon the motor, as shown in Fig. 52, then hold the ends of the wires from a battery against the straps to see if
the motor will turn.
139. Discussion. By this method of wiring, the current which passes to strap i will divide, part of it going through the field-coil and the rest through the armaturecoils to strap
2 and back to the battery.

for experimental purposes.
No.
well
is
not wired for a shunt-wound motor,
While Motor it works
enough
Some
of the
larger motors to be described later are so wound that they really work better as shunt-wound motors than they would if connected up as series-wound motors.
EXPERIMENT 55.
reversible, with
140.
Motor No. 1, shunt-wound and one method of speed regulation. Directions. Fig. 53 shows one way to wire your
;
apparatus to get the results secured in large motors that is, to have them shunt-wound, and at the same time to have them reversible and under control as to speed. In
diagram are shown the motor without any connecta three-cell battery, the reverser, and the eleven-point rheostat, all of which have been described
this
ing-straps,
in
Chapter
3.
With
this wiring, care
must be taken not
to short-cir-
through the armature and rheostat, for the current can go this way without producing motion in If care be used, there will be no trouble the motor. from this, but it is best to put a one-point switch in
cuit the batteries
SPEED REGULATION
wire
73
i and to open this every time the motor is to be stopped and the switch-arm of the rheostat should be turned to the dead-point, as shown. The keys of the
;
coil,
reverser will prevent a short circuit through the fieldas the current can not pass unless one of the keys is pressed. Work out the diagram in your mind before
doing the actual experiment. 141. Discussion. The above arrangement is what we may have in large motors, although there are certain disThe student should thoroughly fix in his advantages.
Fig. 53
mind that we are reversing on the field and regulating the speed by means of resistance in the armature-circuit. If we follow the diagram, we shall see that when the
current gets from the carbon of the batteries or from one of the small dynamos if that be used to furnish the supit divides at C, part of it ply going through wire 2, through the armature-coils to the rheostat, at which point it can not go farther unless the switch-arm be moved to
one of the contact-points. From the rheostat it returns This shows why it is necessary to be to the batteries.
let this current pass when you do not run the motor. In regular work, the current should be turned through the field before it is admitted to the armature.
careful and not

to
want
The other
field-coil as
tion of this
part of the current will rush through the soon as one of the keys is pressed, the direcpart depending upon which key is used but
;
74
in either case, this part will leave the reverser at
Z and
return to the batteries through wire
7.
The rheostat, in this arrangement, takes the part of the usual "starting-box," which allows the current to enter the armature through resistance until it gets a speed and is capable of protecting itself with the current
it
makes while running.
EXPERIMENT
and
it
56.
reversible, with a second

Fig. 54
Motor No. method

shows
this
1,
shunt-wound
of speed control.
142. Directions.
will be
second plan, and

the rheostat
noted that in
this case
we have
Fig- 54
placed in the field-shunt and that we also reverse the current in the same shunt. The armature-current will
be one that
circuit
it,
we must
look out for so as not to shortbatteries.

if
as this
would soon weaken the
The
it
one-point switch, K, will protect the batteries opened as soon as you want to stop the motor.
be
Try the
effect of pressing
one of the keys of the re-
verser, then closing switch K, and finally turning the arm of the rheostat to different positions. You will find
that you can reverse the motor and regulate its speed, hut take particular notice whether it runs faster with much or little resistance put into the field-circuit. If the proper connections be made 143. Discussion.
in the
above experiment, the student

all
will find that, con-
trary to
of the other experiments, the motor runs

slower as
75
we
cut out resistance in the field-shunt by turn-
ing the rheostat-arm around in a clockwise direction, as In all of the experiments with the series-wound usual. motor, as well as with the previous shunt-wound ar-
rangement, the less the resistance, the more the speed. We still have some troubles to overcome, as you will see by the wiring that lets the current to the armature, for it is evident that the whole force of the current is
allowed to pass into the armature when it is standing still. This will not make any trouble in the little experi-
mental motors, but it would be a serious thing in the motors used for regular work. 144. Direct-Current Shunt-Wound Motors. We have
already seen what
is
meant by
coils in
"shunt," so,
when
we have
chine,
the field-coil and the armature-coils arranged in this manner, we say that we have a shunt-wound ma-
whether
it
be a motor or a dynamo.
In some of the experiments we have practical wiring on the small motors, and see how these motors are regulated as to direction of rotation
and speed.
The series-wound motors, as explained in the last section, tend to "run away" when the load is removed, and
this trouble the
shunt-wound motors overcome
in fact,
a well-made shunt-wound motor will run at almost a constant speed, even if the load be changed, provided it In these receives a direct current of constant voltage.
motors, the resistance of the armature-coils is small in comparison to that of the field in fact, when a large
;
shunt-wound motor
current
is
is
started, the
whole force of the
turned through the field-coils to create a strong magnetic field before any is allowed to enter the armature.. This is all accomplished by the "starting-box," the
connections of which are designed to do this. As will be explained in another section, it is veiy important to
76
have the armature come up to speed gradually to give it a chance to generate current like a dynamo to hold
If it were not for this, the the regular current back. armature could not stand the heavy current. Generally speaking, the field of shunt-wound motors isof constant strength, no matter what is happening to
the current in the armature, for the field-coils are connected to the mains leading the current to the motor. In
winding, then, we do not have the counter-electromotive force in the armature affected to any great exthis
tent
by the magnetic flux of the

the load
is
it
field.
Now, when
motor and
increased on a shunt-wound
tends to slow down, thus
reducing the
counter-electromotive force in the armature, in rushes more current through the armature, for the path is easier
than before.
ture brings
little
This increased current through the armaback to speed at once; and we have very effect from the field, as this has remained practically
it
constant in strength. Small motors are not quite so selfregulating as the large ones, as in these there is not so
much
ture.
difference in resistance between the field
and arma-
gested, the resistances of the
Regulation of Field-Magnetism. As just sugtwo circuits of regular shuntwound motors are very different. The field-magnet is
145.
wound with many

time, without too
turns of wire, thus giving
it
enough
resistance to allow the full force of the current, for a
much heating; at least, this coil will stand this current until the armature gets under way, and then the whirling of the armature fans the field-coils and
tends to keep them cool. The armature has a small resistance, as compared with that of the field-coils, so care must be taken to keep the
full
force of the current from entering
it
until
it
gets
SPEED REGULATION
almost to
7/
full speed. This applies to large motors, of course, the small ones, say up to and including one-sixth
horse-power, being so designed that they with full current.
may
be started
In Experiment 55 we regulated the speed by placing the rheostat in the armature-circuit, but this wastes much power. As the armature-resistance is much smaller than
most of the have to arrange to handle all of In this arrangement, this current through the rheostat. the rheostat has to be large to stand the heating effects when the current is held back, and so, if we want the
that of the field-coil, the armature will take
current and
we
shall
Fig. 55
motor
a great deal of the rheostat:
to run at only half speed, we shall have to waste power in the form of heat that is lost at
field is regulated to conbut a small part of the whole current to handle in the field-rheostat, and so it does not
When
the
magnetism of the
trol the speed,
we have
make
so
much
difference
if
a part of this
1,
is lost.
EXPERIMENT 57.
reversible,
Motor No.
shunt-wound and
with speed control by regulation of fieldmagnetism, together with starting-box. 146. Directions. Fig. 55 shows a method, for experimental purposes, of letting the current into the armature slowly. The connections are about the same as for Ex-
periment
56, a small rheostat
being placed in the arma-
/3

shown.
ture-circuit, as
The one-point
switch, K, takes
"main switch" on regular motors, and this should be opened when the motor is to be stopped, to make sure that no current passes through the armature when the motor is not running, thus wasting the
the place of the
batteries.
After you have
made
the desired connections, see that
the starting-box, that is, the rheostat in the armaturecircuit, is so arranged with the lever at the right-hand side that no current can pass through it, and that the
is placed as shown, with Close the main switch, press the left-hand key of the reverser, then turn the lever of the starting-box to the left upon the first contact-point. The
switch-arm of the field-rheostat

all
resistance cut out.
motor should
its
start up slowly with the three-cell battery, speed gradually increasing as the resistance is cut out
by turning the starting-box lever to the left. To get more speed, turn the arm on the field-rheostat to the left so as to add resistance and lessen the strength of
the field-magnet. In stopping the motor, open the main switch first, then bring the other parts to the original starting-points.
147. Discussion.
We
of the
two
effects of resistance.
have here a very good example In the armature we get

in the field-
more speed by cutting out resistance, while magnet coils we add resistance to get more
will
speed.
This
be spoken of again under Section 151 on "counterelectromotive force."

148. Starting-Boxes.
If
we wish
to use a
it,
regular
work and do not
care to reverse
motor is simply to run at a certain was designed, we have a much easier thing to accomplish As the than the numerous requirements just studied. shunt-wound motor is the one generally used for such
motor for and if the speed for which it
79
work,
it
will only be necessary to explain this
special
motor here. We have already discussed the relative resistances in the field- and armature-coils, and have seen the necessity of letting the current into the armature slowly, thus allowing it to come up to speed gradually. This can all be done with one instrument, called a starting-box, a simple plan of which is shown in Fig. 56. In this, the parts are shown in the position taken before the motor
is
started, the
switch-arm resting upon a dead-point.
If
Fig. 56
you imagine this arm turned to the first contact-point, you will see that the current can pass along in the direction shown by the arrow to the pivot of the switch-arm and then through the arm to the contact-point, at which place it divides, part of it going through an electromagnet, M, and so on through the field and out at the main
switch.
The other part goes through
all
of the resist-
and then through the armature. The wires leading to the armature are represented as being large to show that this resistance is small in comparison to that of the field, and because the armature takes most of the current. The drawing shows that the motor under consideration is a plain shunt-wound motor. If the switch-arm be now turned to the second and
ance-coils
third contact-points, etc., resistance will be cut out of the
armature-circuit,
thus
allowing
more
current
to
go
8O
through the armature, as
it increases in speed. Here is where the counter-electromotive force helps for the armature generates a current of higher and higher voltage as it goes faster and faster, and so we can let in more and more current and still not burn out the armature, which, we have seen, has very little resistance, and which would, therefore, take too much current if it were not for this extra resistance to be overcome as it gains
;
in speed.
When
all
of the resistance has been cut out of the

it
armature and
is
getting the
full
force of the current
switch-arm has reached a point at which an iron plate on it touches the poles of the electromagnet, M, where it will be attracted so long as the current flows
like the field, the
and the motor

pulls, as a
is
running.
is
The arm
is
really
under two
net.
trying to pull it away from the magIn case the current is shut off at the central sta-
spring
any purpose, the motor will stop; and as this magnet can no longer hold the switch-arm, it is quickly
tion for
This "releasepulled back to the starting-point again. magnet" is a splendid thing, as it keeps the full current
from rushing through the armature when they turn the current on again at the central station. By this simple plan, then, the field-magnet is energized and then the current is gradually increased in the armature as the speeM increases. The coils in the usual
first,
starting-box are not large enough to take the full current for any length of time without too much heating, as they are designed to carry the current for a few seconds
The only, while the armature is getting up to speed. spring that pulls the switch-arm back really protects the If you let coils, for the current can not be left partly on.
go of the switch-arm before it reaches the release-magnet, the arm will fly back again and open the circuit. As the
8l
magnet
lets
go of the arm as soon as there

it is
is
no current
in the line,
called a "no-voltage release."

58.
EXPERIMENT
motors.
149. Directions.
Counter-electromotive force of
three-cell battery,
Arrange a
Motor
a key, and a three and one-half volt electric lamp, as shown in Fig. 57. As will be seen by the wiring, the
No.
i,
motor
is
series-wound and the lamp forms a shunt to
the motor-circuit.
Press the key to allow the current to start the motor
St
Fig. 57
and note the action of the lamp. When the motor has its full speed, gradually stop it by holding the armatureshaft, watching the lamp. 150. Discussion. We have in this arrangement two paths for the current as it leaves the batteries and reaches the lamp at L, one path being along wire 2 through the motor and back to the batteries through wire 3. The other part goes through the lamp and then through wires 4 and 3 to the batteries. From this it will be seen that the lamp is a shunt of fairly uniform resistance, if we neglect the change in resistance due to its change in brilliancy, and that the motor is a resistance that changes
with the speed.
When
sistance
the motor
is
is held so that it can not turn, its remerely that of the wires in its coils, and as
is
this resistance
small, the
little
motor takes most of the cr--
rent, leaving
very
for the lamp.
82
As soon as the motor gains speed, it generates a counter-electromotive force which holds back the battery cur-
know from
adding resistance to that of the wires. We previous experiments that when we increase the resistance of one shunt, the other shunt has to carry more current, and this is made clear by the lamp, which brightens as the motor goes faster and faster.
rent, thus
ment showed
Counter-Electromotive Force. The last experithat a motor has a much greater resistance when running than when still. The armature-resistance is the one that is affected by the increasing speed, and
151.
is why it is necessary to put a starting-box in the armature-circuit of shunt-wound motors. The field can
that
take care of itself on account of

the armature
its
high resistance, but
would burn out at once on large motors if the whole current were allowed to pass through its coils
of small resistance.
As mentioned, when speaking
of the
starting-box, the little coils of resistance-wire hold the full force of the current back until the speed is such as
force. This represents a current flowing in the opposite direction to that which makes the motor go. have already mentioned the fact that motors will
to create the counter-electromotive
We
generate a current if rapidly turned by a steam-engine or by some other power as, for example, water-power. In the case of the motor just used, the motor was run by
that is, the electrical energy supplied by the batteries If we look at it in the batteries represent the engine.
;
motor should genIn "The Study of Dynamos by Experiment" we shall see what generthis
way we can
easily see that the

if
erate a current, even
run by
electricity.
ates this current.

If a motor be well made, it will generate a current having a voltage that is nearly as high as that of the
SPEED REGULATION
83
This current which enters the armature and runs it. shows that the armature gets very little current from the
supply,
when
this
it
is
what
it
would get
if
running at full speed, compared with the armature stood still.
From
we
see that, in order to
make
the
motor
go, the current that enters it from the supply must be of a greater voltage than that of the counter-electromotive
force. There is a constant struggle between the applied electromotive force and the counter-electromotive force,
and
it is just this struggle in overcoming the counterelectromotive force which changes the electrical energy
supplied to the motor to the mechanical energy which
Fig. 58
the motor has as it turns. If it were not for this forcing back of the counter-current, the motor would not go any
more than a water-wheel would turn without

sure of the water against the resisting buckets.
the pres-
59. To show in which direction the counter-current flows in a motor. 152. Directions. In Fig. 58 we have Motor No. i, a key, and a current detector arranged so that the detector will
EXPERIMENT
be a shunt of the motor.
Place the motor about

its
three feet from the detector so that

will not
magnetic needle
The
be affected by the electromagnets of the motor. motor may be at one end of the table, away from
the other apparatus. Press the key for a

in
moment,
at the
same time noting
which direction the north pole of the compass-needle
84
turns
in
when wire
4,
the figure,
If arranged as 5 touches the key, K. current will enter the detector through
wire
shown by
deflection of the north pole,
the full-line arrow, causing a certain and as this detector-shunt is
of low resistance, the motor will not turn rapidly. Now disconnect wire 5, press the key to allow the motor to
get a high speed, raise the key to disconnect the batteries, and quickly touch wire 5 to wire 3 or to the contact on the key that is attached to wire 3. Note that the
detector-needle
fore.
is
deflected in the
same
direction as be-
153. Discussion.
From
ment we
see that, as the needle
the second part of the experiis deflected in the same
Fig. 59
way
as before, the current

It is
wire 4 again.
evident that
must enter the detector from when the current came
from the batteries, it followed the direction through wire 2 shown by the full-line arrow, and that when the counter-current came from the motor to deflect the needle, must have passed through wire 2 in the shown by the dotted arrow. This shows that
it
direction
the coun-
ter-electromotive force pushes against the applied curThis rent, as discussed in some of the other sections.
experiment must be done quickly and before the motor has slowed down much. 60. Regulation of speed with
EXPERIMENT
in parallel. 154. Directions.
lamps
lamps
in parallel, as
Arrange six three and one-half volt shown in Fig. 59, placing the "bank
SPEED REGULATION
85
of lamps" in series with Motor No. i, a three-cell battery and a key. Try the effect on the speed of the motor of turning on more or less lamps.
155. Discussion.
As
these lamps are so joined that

several
each can
it
I to wire 2, lamps are screwed in, more current will pass than when one or two are If the cells are strong, two lamps will run the used. motor slowly, and it will be seen that these light up
let
some current through from wire

that,
is
evident
when
brighter than when more are used. The faster the motor runs, the greater the counter-electromotive force and the
less
each lamp has to carry.
CHAPTER
IX
VARIOUS ELECTRIC MOTORS

156. Small Motors and Large Motors are names that do not mean as much as they seem to at first, when we consider that a small motor may be so wound as to take a large current, and, in the same way, a large motor
may
A more
be so arranged as to need a current of small voltage. useful classification would be to put the motors
that are to be run with batteries
and other small currents
together and call them low-voltage motors, then the ones that are to be run from the no- or ii5-volt currents
would be
fication does not
called high-voltage motors. This point of classiamount to much, although it might prove
to be a serious thing to try to run a low-voltage motor upon a high-voltage circuit ; that is, it might be serious
for the motor.
Chapter 10
will give information
upon
this part of the subject.
All that need be said here
is
that motors intended for
use with battery currents and currents from low-voltage dynamos are so wired that their resistance is low. Highresistance motors
teries
would hold the current from a few batback to such an extent that there would not be
enough electromagnetism produced to turn the armature. We can, by proper apparatus (see Chap. 10), run lowvoltage motors upon high-voltage currents; but, if we were to do this without modifying the current, we should ruin the motor by burning out its coils and doing other
damage.
157.
Compound-Wound
Motors.
In discussing the
series-wound machine,
86
we saw
that the coils of the field
and armature were in series, and that in the shunt-wound machine the coils are in parallel, each taking a part of
the current.
In the compound-wound motor we have a cross between these two methods, as the field is provided with a series-coil and a shunt-coil. Fig. 60 gives an idea as to how this is arranged, and how the starting-box is placed in the circuits to allow the motor to start up slowly so as not to burn out the armature. The two coils on the field are wound so that the current which flows through them magnetizes the field in the same direction; that is, so that both coils aid each other
88
The speed of series-wound motors varies greatly with the load, and when the load is entirely thrown off, they will race unless proper resistance be thrown into the circuit.
Shunt-wound motors are more or
less self-regulating,
the large sizes being able to run at almost constant speed, no matter whether the load be large or small, provided the load is within the capacity of the machine. The
smaller sizes of this variety are not so self-regulating as the large ones, and so their speed will vary slightly with the load. They will not race, for, as soon as the speed
begins to increase, the increasing counter-electromotive force will decrease the current supplied to the armature,
and
this
keeps the speed within
limits.
159. Differentially-
Wound
Motors.
This
is
similar
to the
in
compound- wound motor, the arrangement of the two

field.
as just described, except coils that are placed on
the
coil,
In this case
but the two are so
we have a series-coil and a shuntwound that they work against

field
is
each other.
By
this
plan the strength of the
due to the difference in the magnetizing effects of the two coils, hence the name, differential. A motor of this winding will run at a very constant speed, but the shunt-wound motor will give a speed that is constant enough, and, besides, there are some drawbacks to the differential winding in case the motor is overloaded. The student will not meet this winding under ordinary circumstances.
160. Alternating-Current Motors are made in many ways, and as the average student will not have a chance to take
up
this part of the subject experimentally, this
branch of the work
The subject of alwill be omitted. ternating currents is a large one in fact, it is too large to be considered in this small book of experiments.
;

161.
89
Railway Motors.
We
have already mentioned
the series-wound motors as being adapted for use on electric cars on account of the powerful starting-torque.
a loaded car is started, the power needed to get it under way is many times that needed to keep it in motion when once started, especially if the car is stopped on a grade. These motors are easily regulated as to speed and load, and so the direct-current series-wound motors are most commonly used for this purpose. Controllers are used for starting and regulating the speed, and these may be so arranged that the two motors on the car can be joined in series or in parallel, with or with-
When
out resistance.
this class of work are made in special for special purposes and have to be very strong and well protected to stand the constant pounding and abuse
Motors used for
ways
given them.
162. Special
Motors.
Electric motors are used for so

that
many
book
it would take a very large mention even a small part of the various applications of these wonderful machines. The shapes and sizes have been ingeniously adapted to the numerous requirements, and we find motors working silently in all kinds of places and for all kinds of power. Large manufacturers of motors will design special motors for special purposes and arrange their various parts to do the work
things
nowadays
to
required. 163. Protection of Motors.
As an
electric
motor
is
care should be given to it as to any machine in fact, even more care should be given to electric motors than is given to most machines, as
a machine, at least as
;
much
wellthey are very apt to be abused with overloads. made motor runs so quietly and makes so little fuss in doing its work that we are liable to get the idea that it
-90

its
has no limit to
powers and that
it
can do no end of
work.
a great mistake, and so all motors to be used on regular commercial circuits should be well prois
This
tected with fuses or other safety devices. As has been stated in the various discussions, a motor takes more curits load is increased and its speed decreased; so must be evident that, if the load be increased sufficiently, the motor will turn very slowly, or even stop.
rent as
it
As soon
resistance of the armature
as the counter-electromotive force decreases, the is so small that we get more

it
current through would be melted

tection
than
if
it can carry and so the wires they were not protected. This pro;
is given by using fuses in the circuit that will melt at some stated number of amperes, or by other au-
tomatic devices that will open the circuit before the current gets near the danger point.
Motors larger than one-sixth horse-power should be protected with a starting-box having a "no-voltage release" (see Sec. 148).
164.
construction to
Motor No. 2. While Motor No. 2 is similar in Motor No. i, it is larger and stronger
r
than No.
It
may
I, and it is furnished in either of two windings. be had as a plain series-wound motor, as show n in
Fig. 61, this style being listed as No. 2205, the price being $2.00. In order to do the experimental work that can be
done with Motor No. i, however, it has to be provided with four binding-posts and some changes have to be made in the wiring in order that it may be run as either
a series-wound or a shunt-wound motor.
This motor, with the changes made for experimental work, is listed as No. 2206 and costs $2.25. In either winding the binding-posts for the field are mounted upon the wooden base, and the brushes are adjustable while running at full
speed.
This feature
is
valuable, as
it is
necessary to get

the proper pressure of the brushes for best results.
91
upon the commutator

high.
It
Motor No. 2 stands four and one-half inches

is
enamel with nickeled trimmings, and the field-magnets are strong, plenty of iron being used in
finished in black
their construction.
165.
Dynamo-Motor No.
it
3.
This machine
is
also fur-
nished to students in two styles of winding in order to

exactly to the requirements. Fig. 62 shows the as plain shunt-wound, this style being advised when it is to be used as a plain motor or dynamo,
adapt
dynamo-motor
Fig. 61
Fig. 62
no changes being needed in direction of rotation. This winding is listed as No. 2209, and it is shown in Fig. 62.
Price, $3.75.
When
as,
it is
necessary to change the direction of rotation
for example, in running certain toys, this dynamomotor may be purchased with an extra attachment which
gives the machine four binding-posts. In this form it may be connected to the rheostat, current reverser, etc., ex-
plained in connection with Motor No. i. With the extra binding-posts and other attachments not found upon any other small dynamos, this machine is especially adapted
92
and general purposes. It can be used shunt-wound motor and as a shuntwound dynamo, and is listed as No. 2210. Price, $4.00. As a motor, it will run with the current from batteries or with the current generated by a twin machine turned by some power. Two No. 3 dynamo-motors make a complete electrical power plant if you have some method of turning the dynamo, which will generate current for the other machine to run as a motor. Motors No. i and Xo. 2 run well on the current from one of these mafor experimental as a series-wound or
chines
in fact,
you can furnish current for

bells,
all
kinds of
experimental work, including

duction-coils, plating outfits,
electric cars,
telephone lines, inminiature lighting outfits,
The
charging storage batteries, etc. construction of this machine is mechanical.

the coils being
The
field is cast solid,
form-wound and con-
nected in multiple. The armature is of the drum type, one and three-fourths inches in diameter, built up of
punchings; that is, it is laminated, with six slots. The brushes are adjustable. The pulley, one inch in diameter,
grooved for a small round belt. Oil cups, black enamel When run at 3,000 r.p.m., gives good current If run as a Safe maximum load, 6 volts 4 amperes. power motor, from 4 to 6 volts give the best results. The very best way to run this as a dynamo is to use a one-eighth horse-power motor in connection with the
is
finish.
bank of lamps explained

166. 110-Volt
in Section 180.
Motors, as has been explained, are properly wound to take the commercial current, and they
develop a counter-electromotive force sufficient to protect
the armature
sizes
up
to
when it gets up to speed. For the small and including the one-sixth horse-power a
is
starting-box
sons.
Small motors,
not generally used except for special reaif well made, will start off very
93
quickly without endangering- the coils unless the load be few sizes are illustrated to give the student excessive.
an idea as to their construction and appearance. All motors heat up when they are running under a load, but of course the heat must not get too great. The small motors shown in the following cuts are of the standard ventilated protected type, and are guaranteed
to carry their full rated load continuously without attaining a temperature greater than 40 degrees Cent, in ex-
cess of that of the surrounding air in all parts except commutator, and 45 degrees Cent, on the commutator. Machines up to i horse-power will carry 25 per cent overload for one hour with temperature rise not to exceed 55 degrees Cent, for all parts except commutator, and 60 degrees Cent, on the commutator. Machines of I horse-power and above will carry 25 per cent overload for two hours with rise of 55 degrees Cent, for all parts except commutator, and 60 degrees Cent, on the com-
mutator.
ous overloads.
Machines are not guaranteed to carry continuAll types of these machines will carry 50 These per cent overload momentarily without injury. ratings are based on condition that the motors are so
placed as to receive free circulation of air. For use in places where they require protection from
dust and
dirt, chips, flying particles,
or protection from
mechanical injury, motors may be furnished with either brass wire gauze or solid iron enclosures, and as all
motors generate heat
w-hile running, and as this heat is not radiated as rapidly in closed as in open motors, the ratings for enclosed motors are somewhat lower than for
open motors.
167.
Motors for Intermittent Duty.
For many
classes
of service, such as the running of elevators and hoists, motors have such intermittent duty that there is little or
94

heat, the load-limit
no trouble from the accumulation of

in these cases
being reached when sparking at the brushes
becomes
serious.
Motors for
strictly intermittent service
are therefore rated higher than for constant service. 168. 110- Volt Laboratory Motors. If you have the
i lo-volt current in your laboratory, you will find that a small motor will be of the greatest help in running small dynamos and other things. The sizes, from one-eighth
horse-power to and including one-quarter horse-power, will be as large as are usually found for experimental A one-eighth horse-power motor will do a purposes.
great deal, and even run light machinery, such as jigsaws and other small things.
If these
motors are run
in connection
with a bank of
lamps, as explained in Section 180, the speed will be under perfect control and there will be no danger of burning out any fuses in the house even if you happen
to get a short circuit while experimenting. The following descriptions of motors are taken
from
the manufacturer's catalogues, and they are herein reproduced for the guidance of those who are interested in
the matter.
Such descriptions are instructive, for they explain the special points of each motor illustrated. The author does not wish the term "laboratory motors" to be
He has chosen the name simply because misleading. these motors are so useful and so well adapted for laboratory purposes. The motors described below are all commercial motors intended for hard work, and they are
suggested because the author is familiar with them, having personally used all of the illustrated sizes for various
purposes. Compound small motors.
169.
windings are advised for these
One-Eighth Horse-Power Motor.

this size will
For the
be large
amateur and student a motor of
95.
enough
to
the small
dynamos
other light
do most of the work needed. It will run that are shown, run jig-saws and machinery. Fig. 63 shows a one-eighth horse-
power motor,
called "Frame 40," that is well suited for laboratory work, as it will stand constant hard usage. It is of handsome and artistic outline, and, while being
well ventilated,
it
is
perfectly protected
and
satisfies the
requirements of a motor having no external currentcarrying parts. It is especially adapted for use in positions
it
where the motor is in easy reach of the operator, as avoids the possibility of touching moving or electrified
Fig. 63
The author has used a number of these motors and has found them very satisfactory. The latest design of the one-eighth horse-power motors differs slightly from that shown in the cut, an improvement having been made in the brush-holder. These motors run at 2,000 'revolutions per minute (2,000 r.p.m.) with full load. A motor of this size weighs about 16 pounds and is proparts.
vided with a 2-inch grooved pulley.
One-Seventh Horse-Power Motor. Fig. 64 and although there does not seem to be much difference between the fractions y$ and 1-7, this motor will meet more severe conditions of service than
170.
shows
this size,
96
the one just described. The frame of this motor is about the same size as that for the one-eighth motor, but it is
heavier and
load,
more solid, mechanically, stands more overand can be wound for higher speeds than the for-
Weight, 18 pounds ; runs at 2,000 r.p.m. illustrate what can be done in changing these motors, using the same frame, this motor can be so
mer.
To
wound
r.p.m.
that
it
will give one-sixth

is
This speed
horse-power at 2,300 rather high, however, for laboratory
Fig. 64
purposes, but it illustrates how the speed and power can be varied at will by changing the wiring of a motor.
171.
is
very useful and
styled
Another One-Seventh Horse-Power Motor that This is efficient is shown in Fig. 65. "Frame i/7-P," and it was designed specially for
Its prin-
driving automatic-playing musical instruments.

cipal
qualities,
which especially fit it for this class of service, are extreme durability, noiselessness, cleanliness, ability to run for long periods locked up in the instrument
case without attention, powerful starting-torque, small dimensions in the direction where space is usually limited and the general convei.e., over the shaft and pulley
nience and ease of
its installation.
These
qualities
have

been found valuable
in
97
many
other kinds of service, and
although designed for a piano motor, it is finding extended sale outside of the musical instrument trade. The
frame No. 1/7- P is furnished either with or without enclosing covers, the enclosure being recommended only where necessary for the protection of the working parts
of the motor, as the motors will run cooler without the
Fig. 65
Whether with or cover, especially under heavy loads. without covers, the motors are ventilated by perforations
in
the lower halves of the heads. This frame will be
furnished with sliding base when ordered. This feature is often very valuable in a motor desired for driving automatic-playing musical instruments, as it allows the
belt to be kept at the
sity
proper tension without the neces-
of cutting and resplicing it. Sliding bases can not be furnished with any other of the small motor frames.
98
172. A One-Quarter Horse-Power Motor. Fig. 66 shows a very practical design for a motor of this power, and although the illustration is about the same size as that for the other motors shown, the motor itself is much larger and heavier than the others. This is of the ventilated protected type with bi-polar frame, and these are generally shunt-wound with flat pulley, as shown. Each
Fig. 66
motor
is furnished with sliding base with belt-tightening attachment and with a starting-box having a no-voltage
release.
rating is, really, a powerful motor, and do a great deal of work. The author has used them for running very large static machines, like those used by doctors for medical purposes, and with a proper rheoA motor of this stat, the speed is under perfect control.
it
A motor of this
will
size will
run quite a
little
light
machinery.
173.
One-Tenth Horse-Power Motor.

it
This
is
anlist
other small motor that should be added to the above

to
make
struction.
complete and to show another kind of conThis is shown in Fig. 67 and can be made to
run on alternating current as well as upon direct current.

This
99
is a practical small motor costing a little less than the one-eighth, but of course it is not so powerful as the one-eighth, which, however, will not run on the alter-
nating current. When furnished for running on alternating current, the field-cores are laminated. When supplied for direct current, the field-cores are cast solid.
to give one-thirtieth, oneone-sixteenth or one-tenth horse-power, according to the speed required. The relative speeds for
The winding can be arranged
twentieth,
Fig. 67
these powers are 1,000, 1,500, 2,000 and 3,000 r.p.m. These motors are furnished with three grooved pulleys,
their diameters being three-quarters, nine-sixteenths
and
seven-sixteenths inches, and the motor weighs four and one-half pounds.
One
such a motor
to
point the student must consider when thinking of is that it is series-wound, thus adapting it
for a fairly uniform load. These small motors are made run for long periods without attention and are just the thing when adapted to the work they have to do. For
laboratory work they are not so good as the one-eighth, which are compound-wound, but where alternating current is supplied they can be used instead of the other
forms described above.

It
should be stated, however, that while this
little
motor
IOO
will

run well on either direct or alternating current where
little
but
power
is
required,
it
is
not strong enough to
properly run Dynamo-Motor No. 3 up to speed for generating a good current. If the student has only alternating current in his laboratory and wants to run one of these dynamo-motors, he will need a one-eighth horse-
power alternating-current motor.
The author can recom-
mend Motor No. 2254
for this purpose.
CHAPTER X
ELECTRIC CURRENT FOR RUNNING MOTORS
The current needed to run 174. Various Methods. your motors will be determined by the particular motors you have, for the current should be of the proper voltage
required to get the best results.
laboratory purposes will be from dynamos. In the latter case, the dynamos may be in the room and under control of the student or they may be at the power-house where the commercial current is generated. The following sections will give suggestions as to the various methods that may be used to run the motors described in this book. 175. Battery Currents are sufficient for all of the experiments given, and where it is not possible to generate your own current or get it from the street, this will be the plan to adopt. There are many kinds of batteries on the market, some being adapted for long runs and others being sufficient where short runs for experimental work only are required. For the usual work required in the laboratory, ordinary dry batteries of good quality do very nicely. They are comparatively cheap and there are no dangers from acids or fumes besides, they can be readily replaced when they get too weak.
The
current-supply
for
either
from
batteries or
176.
it
Forcing Dry Batteries

life
is
a very poor plan, as
very rapidly. A dry battery is really intended for intermittent work, and if run too long at a time or forced too hard, it will not give the best reshortens their
sults.
The
best plan
is
to use
two or
three times as
101
IO2
many
cells as are needed to get the desired voltage, arranging them as suggested below to increase the amperes. 177. Arrangement of Cells. Fig. 68 shows three cells
arranged in series, this combination giving about four and one-half volts. This three-cell set will light small lamps and run Motor No. i at a high rate of speed, and should be used when combined with the eleven-point
rheostat and other things mentioned in the experiments. Fig. 69 shows two sets of three cells each, the two
being joined in multiple; that

in
is,
the whole
is
arranged
"multiple series."
By
this plan
the voltage of the
c ^
Fig. 68
Fig. 69
combined
cells,
cells
remains the same
as that of the three
while the amperes are doubled in quantity.
In
other words, by this plan we have more quantity to draw upon at the same pressure as before, so each cell does
not get the

If
work
that
it
otherwise would.
will
you wish to run your motors

it
time for fans or other purposes,

the batteries as
shown
for,
by
this
any length of pay you to arrange plan, you will be able

for
to get much more out of them before they give out. 178. Storage-Batteries are very satisfactory for run-
ning motors and for other laboratory purposes, especially This can if you have means of charging them yourself.
ELECTRIC CURRENT FOR RUNNING MOTORS
103
be done very easily if you have the no-volt direct current, using a bank of lamps. Even if you do not have a complete bank of lamps, as explained in Section 180, you can get the proper attachments at small expense for this work. For running induction-coils and other things that need
a strong current, good storage batteries are fine ; for they give results that dry batteries can not duplicate. Storage batteries can be bought for $1.00, $2.00, etc., per cell, ac-
cording to
179.
If
size.
Running Small Motors from Small Dynamos.

will generate the right cur-
you have a dynamo that
Fig. 70
rent for your small motors and some way of turning the dynamo, you have a complete electric plant. There are
several methods of operating the dynamo: by handpower, by means of a steam- or a gas-engine, by waterpower, by an electric motor, etc. For those who have
water-power, this is a very satisfactory method, although it would not pay to arrange a water-power plant for run-
ning one of the small dynamos

above.
like the
No. 3 described
At
his country laboratory the author has a fine
water-power running a 3-k.w. dynamo which furnishes current for all lighting and experimental work, and so
the matter of running small dynamos is a very simple one, as it is in the city where the commercial no-volt
current
is
to
be had.
1O4
Fig. 70 shows a handy form of hand-power for running the Dynamo-Motor No. 3 (Sec. 165). This will do
for short runs for experimental purposes. The best way for those who have the
no- volt
direct
run a one-eighth horse-power motor through a bank of lamps to regulate the speed, and then belt the dynamo to this. By this plan, as has been mentioned, the dynamo can be made to deliver all voltages within its
current
is
to
capacity, as the speed
is
so easily controlled.
Fig. 71 shows such a plan, the current from the small
dynamo being passed
to switches or to a switch-board.
This matter of switch-boards and handling the current from the dynamos for small plants will be taken up in
"The Study of Dynamos by Experiment." 180. Bank of Lamps. This is a very useful
piece of laboratory apparatus, especially as it adds greatly to the In all experimental work, one is apt safety of things. to make short circuits by accident, and this causes trouble
by blowing out the fuses in the house. The only thing that happens when a short circuit is made in the circuit leading from the lamps, if arranged as in Fig. 71, is that
the lights will come up to full candle-power. By putting a fuse-plug in place of one of the lamps, of course, the full current will be passed through the bank of lamps
and then the fuses
will
blow
if
a short circuit be made.
ELECTRIC CURRENT FOR
RUNNING MOTORS
IO5
One
should be very careful to think out what will take
place in the circuit before closing any switches volt currents.
on no-
These lamps should be thoroughly insulated and careand if they are to be used in the city, they should be on a slate base to comply with the regulations of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. For a sixlamp bank, the slate base should be from 20 inches to 2 feet long, 8 or 9 inches wide and about I inch thick. Holes must be drilled and plugged with lead tubing to
fully arranged,
hold the screws for the various parts.
The author has
made a number of
these for general purposes with six
lamps, mounting them on slate painted dead black, and
he finds them very useful for regulating the speed of no-volt motors that are used for running jig-saws, small
dynamos, and other light machinery. In charging storage batteries, and, in fact, for regulating the current, there is nothing better. By using assorted lamps of 8, 16 and 32 candle-power, a very fine adjustment can be made. Each 16 c.p. lamp, screwed in, allows one-half an ampere of current to pass through the
c.p. lamp passes one-quarter ampere, one ampere. By proper combinations, you can get just what you need. Such an outfit, with
apparatus. and a 32
flexible
The 8
c.p.
cords,
fuses,
switch, receptacles,
etc.,
mounted
upon a
about $5.00, not including the lamps. It can be attached to any socket. 181. Battery Regulator for 110-Volt Currents. Fig.
slate base, costs
72 shows a method of regulating the no-volt current so it can be used for running small motors, etc., without danger and without too much sparking. The author
that
has used lead plates in sulphuric acid for this purpose, but they are decidedly unpleasant to handle, to say nothing of the troubles that come
if
they tip over.
The
106
method now employed and the cleanest method, is to use dry batteries, the number depending upon the work to be done. These can be joined in multiple so as to get the desired number of amperes. As will be seen by referring to Fig. 72, the current passes from the bank of lamps through the batteries and back the wires leading
to
shown
your apparatus being connected that is, the current you use
;
to the batteries,
is
as
merely a shunt of
the high-voltage current.
The
batteries should be properly joined to the

is,
com-
mercial current; that
they should be considered as
Fig. 72
storage batteries that are being charged. Test the wires leading from the bank of lamps by putting them in a
tumbler of water into which you have dissolved a little ordinary salt. The negative wire will give off large quantities
mark
lator
of hydrogen bubbles. Tie a knot in this wire to it, connect this to the zinc end of the battery regu-
and the other wire
to the carbon
end
that
is,
place
negative to negative and positive to positive, as in the case of charging storage batteries. With proper switches so that you can vary the num-
ber of batteries and by using more or less lamps on your bank of lamps, you can get all of the variations in current that will be needed.
Condensed Price-List of
Apparatus Described in This Book

NOTE We
List
cannot accept orders for less than
$oc.
No.
fore the public. The thousands upon thousands that have been sold in all parts of the world have furnished fun and science for people of all ages, and the mere fact that they are listed by the New York Board of Educato the pupils and teachers of the New York public and recommend tion, and private schools is a guarantee of their value. Were it not for the fact that these are made in such large quantities and sold by stores, agents and mail-order houses, the price would De much higher. Don't fail to get these. They have a national reputation.
Fun With Magnetism and Fun With Electricity have started more young men upon electrical careers than any other scientific outfits ever placed be-
FUN WITH MAGNETISM

This outfit contains a 32-page book of instructions, with 45 illustrations, together with a complete set of apparatus for performing 61 fascinating It will give you some new ideas about magnetism and start experiments. you at the right place in your study of electricity. Think what that means
to start right 1
The book contajns experiments with the horseshoe magnet, with bar magnets, with floating magnets, etc., etc., thus giving a practical knowledge of the subject; and it is all done in such an interesting way that one can't Every experiment clinches some fact and every fact help remembering it. is important. Amusing Experiments. Something for Nervous People to Try. The Jersey Mosquito. The Stampede. The Runaway. The Dog-fight. The The Naval Battle. A String of Fish. A Magnetic Gun. A Whirligig. Top Upsidedown. A Magnetic Windmill. A Compass Upsidedown. The Magnetic Acrobat. The Busy Ant-hill. The Magnetic Bridge. The MerryThe Tight-rope Walker. A Magnetic Motor Using Attractions go- Round. and Repulsions. And 43 Others. No. Rl. Complete outfit "Fun with Magnetism" $0.25 05 If sent by mail, postage extra
FUN WITH ELECTRICITY

The author of this Fun with Science series has spent a great deal of time and money in experimenting to devise apparatus that will do the proper work and be, at the same time, simple and cheap, and in no outfit When you think has he succeeded better than in Fun with Electricity. of an outfit retailing for 50c. and covering the whole subject of "Static Electricity," giving 60 scientific experiments upon its production, conduction and induction, with a 55-page book of instructions with 38 drawings, and a complete set of apparatus of 20 articles for performing these 60 experiments, you will understand why the sales of this outfit have been enormous. As the subject is presented in a fascinating way and not as mere dry science-^-every one likes to do the experiments. No wonder these sets are highly praised by parents and educators in every part of the country! Chain Lightning. An Electric There is Fun in these Experiments: A Race with Electricity. An ElecWhirligig. The Baby Thunderstorm. tric Frog Pond. An Electric Ding-Dong. The Magic Finger. Daddy An Electric Kite. Very Shocking. ConLong-Legs. Jumping Sally. densed Lightning. An Electric Fly-Trap. The Merry Pendulum. An A Funny Piece of Paper. A Joke on the Family Electric Ferry-Boat. ElecCat. Lightning Goes Ov r a Bridge. Electricity Plays Leap-Frog. And 40 Others. tricity Carries a Lantern. There isn't an outfit anywhere at any price that gives better value for the money. An ideal present for a boy. $0.50 No. R2. Complete outfit "Fun with Electricity" 1; If sent by mail, postage extra
FUN WITH PUZZLES

Here is an outfit that every boy and girl should have, for it is amusing, It is real fun to do puzzles and to puzzle your instructive and educational. friends, and this book contains some real brain-teasers that will make you The book contains 15 chapters, 80 pages, and 128 illustrations, and think. If you can't do any particular puzzle you will measures 5x7 1 2 inches. which is bound with the book. If you want find its solution in the "key, to win prizes by doing the puzzles in the magazines, you will find this book a of four hundred puzzles regular school of puzzles that will give you a thorough training for this kind of work. The book alone is well worth the price, to say nothing of the outfit of numbers, counters, pictures, etc. Contents of Book: Chapter (1) Secret Writing. (2) Magic Triangles, (3) Dropped Letter Squares, Rectangles, Hexagons, Crosses, Circles, etc. and Dropped Word Puzzles. (4) Mixed Proverbs, Prose and Rhyme. (5) Word Diamonds, Squares, Triangles, and Rhomboids. (6) Numerical Enigmas. (7) Jumbled Writing and Magic Proverbs. (8) Dissected Puzzles. (9) Hidden and Concealed Words. (10) Divided Cakes, Pies, Gardens, Farms, etc. (11) Bicycle and Boat Puzzles. (12) Various Word and Letter Puzzles. (13) Puzzles with Counters. (14) Combination Puzzles. (IS) Mazes and Labyrinths. Secret Writing is explained in this book, and it shows how you can write letters to your friends and be sure that no one can read them unless they are also in the secret. This one thing alone will give you a great deal of Get this outfit and have some fun. enjoyment. No. R3. Complete outfit "Fun with Puzzles" $0.25 OS If sent by mail, postage extra
FUN WITH SOAP-BUBBLES

easily blown without special apparatus, and even with the proper outfit one must "kno ow how." That's why we furnish a 16-page book with every set to show just how to do it. With the aid of the 21 illustrations and the directions you can produce remarkable will results that surprise and entertain your A child can do it as well as a grown friends.
Fancy Bubbles and Films are not
person.
outfits create Why not be the first in your town with Soap-Bubbles Party?" Just write and ask about the price for any special number of them say six or a dozen.
Soap-Bubble Parties using these
real sensations. to give a "Fun
Contents of Book: Twenty-one Illustrations. The Colors of Soap-Bubbles. The Soap Mixture. Useful Hints. Bubbles Bubbles Blown with Straws. Bubbles Blown witl Pipes. Smoke Bubbles. Bombshell the Horn. Floating Bubbles. Baby Bubbles. Bubbles. Dancing Bubbles. Bubble Games. Supported Bubbles. Bubble Cluster. Suspended Bubbles. Bubble Lamp Chimney. Bubble Lenses. Bubble Basket. Bubble Bellows. To Draw a Bubble Through a Ring. Bubble Acorn. Bubble Bottle. A Bubble Within a Bubble. Another Way. Bubble Shade. Bubble Hammock. Wrestling Bubbles. A Smoking Bubble. Soap Films. The Tennis Racket Film. Fish-net Film. Panshaped Film. Bow and A.TOW Film. Bubble Dome. Double Bubble Dome. Pyramid Bubbles. Turtle-back Bubbles. Soap-Bubbles and Frictional
Introduction.
Outfit.
Blown with
Electricity.
There
No. R4.
is
old and young.

If
nothing more beautiful than the airy-fairy soap-bubble with nging colors." This outfit gives the best possible amusement for
Complete
sent
outfit
"Fun with Soap-Bubbles"
by
mail, postage extra
Three extra packages of Prepared Soap, post paid
$0.25 07 10
FUN WITH SHADOWS

No wonder shadow-making has been popular for several centuries! What could give keener delight than comical shadow-pictures, pantomimes, en terProfessional shadowists use wires, forms, and vari tainments, etc.? devices to aid them, and that is why they get such wonderful results on the stage. Do you want to do the same thing right in your own home and You can do it entertain your friends with all kinds of fancy shadows? with this outfit, for the book contains 100 illustrations and diagrams with directions for using the numerous articles included in the box. You will be surprised to see how easily you can make these funny shadows with the aid of the outfit. Better get
one
now and make shadows
like a professional. Outfit contains everything necessary for all ordinary shadow pictures, shadow entertainments, shadow plays, etc. The following articles are included: One book of Instructions called "Fun with Shadows"; 1 Shadow Screen; 2 Sheets of Tracing Paper; 1 Coil of Wire for Movable Figures; 1 Cardboard Frame for Circular Screen; 1 Cardboard House for Stage Scenery; 1 Jointed Wire Fish-pole and Line; 2 Bent Wire Scenery Holders; 4 Clamps for Screen; 1 Wire Figure Support; 1 Wire for Oar; 2 Spring Wire Table Clamps; 1 Wire Candlestick Holder; 5 Cardboard Plates containing the following printed figures that should be cut out with shears; 12 Character Hats; 1 Boat; 1 Oar-blade; 1 Fish; 1 Candlestick; 1 Cardboard Plate containing printed parts for making movable figures. No. R5. Complete outfit "Fun with Shadows" ................... $0.25 If sent by mail, postage extra .......................... 07
The
FUN WITH PHOTOGRAPHY

Popular Pastimes are numerous, but to many there is nothing more The magic of sunshine, the wonders of fascinating than photography. nature, and the beauties of art are tools in the_ hands of the amateur If you want to get a start in this up-to-date hobby, this photographer. will You outfit will help you. enjoy the work and be delighted with the beautiful pictures you can make. The Outfit contains everything necessary for making prints together with other articles to be used in vaThe following things are rious ways. included: One Illustrated Book of In-
"Fun With Photog1 Package of Sensitized raphy"; Paper; 1 Printing Frame, including and Glass, Back, Spring; 1 Set of Masks for Printing Frame; 1 Set of Patterns for Fancy Shapes; 1 Book of Negatives (Patented) Ready for Use; 6 Sheets of Blank Negative Paper; 1 Alphabet Sheet; 1 Package of Card Mounts; 1 Package of Folding Mounts; 1 Package of "Fixo." Contents of Book: Introduction. Magic Chapter I. Photography. Sunshine. The Outfit. II. General Instructions. The Sensitized Paper. How the Effects are Produced. Negatives. Prints. Printing Frames. Our DePrinting. Printing Frame. Putting Negatives in Printing Frame. III. Fixing. veloping. Drying. Trimming. Fancy Shapes. Mounting. Negatives and How to Make Them. The Paper. Making Transparent Making the Negatives. Printed Negatives. Perforated Negatives. Paper. Negatives Made from Magazine Pictures. Ground Glass Negatives. IV. Nature Photography. Aids to Nature Study. Ferns and Leaves. Photographing Leaves. Perforating Leaves. Drying Leaves, Ferns, etc., Flowers. V. Miscellaneous Photographs. Magnetic Phofor Negatives. Initial Pictures. Name Plates. Christtographs. Combination Pictures. mas, Easter and Birthday Cards. No. R6. Complete outfit "Fun with Photography" $0.50 10 If sent by mail, postage extra
structions, called
FUN WITH CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is universally considered to be an interesting subject, even in school, and it is certainly an important one in these days of scientific This outfit starts you at the right place and presents the elements progress. of the subject in a most interesting fashion. The experiments are so enjoyable that Vou will take pleasure in doing them over and over again, and you will want to do them for your friends. You can have a lot of fun with this set, and even if you have taken ad vanced courses in the subject you will find The something new in these experiments.
Fun With
Chemistry.
of Instructions
is
more you know about chemistry the more you will enjoy it, for then you can more easily appreciate what a splendid outfit this
for the money. Outfit contains over 20 different artiincluding chemicals, test-tubes, adjustable ring-stand, litmus paper, filter paper, glass tubing, etc.; in fact, everything needed for the forty-one experiments. The Book
is
The
cles,
Fun Found Here: From White to Black, or the Phantom Ship. Yellow Smoke Pearls. An Ocean of Smoke. A Tiny Whirlwind. A Smoke Cascade. An Explosion in a Teacup. A Gas Factory in a TestTube Making Charcoal. Flame Goes Over a Bridge. A Smoke TobogganSlide. Fountains of Flame. Making an Acid. Making an Alkali. A
Tears.
fully illustrated,
and measures 5x7 J4
inches.
Through Walls of Flame. An Artificial Gas Well. A Lampblack Factory. Steam, from a Flame. The Flame that Committed Chemical Soup. A Baby Skating-Rink. A Magic Milk-Shake. The Wizard's Breath. A Chemical Curtain. Scrambled Chemicals. And Many Other Experiments. No. R7. Complete outfit "Fun with Chemistry" $0.50
Chemical Fight.
Suicide.
If sent
by mail, postage extra
10
ELECTRIC SHOOTING
GAME
Shooting Animals by electricity is certainly a most original game, and it will furnish a vast amount of amusement to all. The game is patented and copyrighted because it is really a brand-new idea in games and it brings into use that most mysterious something called electricity. While the electricity is perfectly harmless, there being no batteries, acids or liquids, it is very active and you will have plenty to laugh at. It is so simple that the smallest child can play it and so fasci_ nating that grandpa will want to try it. The "game-preserve" is neatly printed in and the birds and wild are animals colors, well worth hunting. Each has a fixed value and some of them must not be shot at all Tissueso there is ample chance for skill. bullets are paper actually shot from the "electric gun" by electricity, and it is truly a weird sight to see them shoot through the air impelled by this unseen force. The Outfit contains the "Game-Preserve," the "Electric Gun," the "Shooting-Box," and the "Electric Bullets," together with complete illustrated
.
directions, all placed in a neat box.
No. R41.
Complete "Electric Shooting Game," postpaid
$0.50
NEW
IDEA TIT-TAT-TOE
Splendid game for two, three, or four players; great improvement upon the good old game; fascinating game instantly learned; nothing better for children's parties and progressive birthday parties; box with game-board, 12 men, directions; discount for party orders. No. R21 New Idea Tit-Tat-Toe, sample, postpaid $0.15
Fun With Telegraphy

TWO
OUTFITS FOR AMATEURS
AND STUDENTS
Every boy can make use of telegraphy in one way or another, and the time taken to learn it will be well spent to say nothing about the fun. After
of which were good, Mr. St. John has at last perfected these outfits, which he can perso and that recommend. are original they are now They practical sonally being made in large quantities hence the low price. The two outfits have the same general construction, although they differ " " sounders" in details, each being designed for its special work. The keys," and "binding-posts" are neatly mounted upon ebonized bases with nickel-
making and experimenting with about one hundred models, many
plated trimmings. No expensive gravity batteries are needed, for the sounders are designed to work with dry batteries, which are clean, cheap, and perfectly safe. These outfits simplify the whole subject of amateur telegraphy
it a pleasure. "FUN WITH TELEGRAPHY " is designed for local use as an ideal " Learners' Outfit " of one instrument. Two may be used from room to room, but " No. 2 " is better for regular line work. " Fun with " Outfit : Illustrated Book of Instructions, called Telegraphy ; " Telegraph Key "; Telegraph "Sounder"; Spring "Binding-posts"; InsuJated Wires for connections. Price, post-paid, 5O cts ; with dry cell, post-paid, 65 eta.
and make
TELEGRAPHY NO. 2 " is designed for regular line work. The stations be several hundred feet apart, as the instruments are very sensitive in " " the operation. By means of an ingenious switch, either station may call other at any time, even though the line is kept on "open circuit." There is absolutely no waste of current when the line is not in use, and this is certainly a great advantage over the old fashioned methods which boys have heretofore
"
may
been obliged to
Outfit:
use.
Illustrated
Book of
Instructions, called
"Telegraphy Number
with high-resistance magTwo"; Telegraph Key "; Telegraph "Sounder," " " aet, and an adjustable up-stop; Special Switch for controlling the batteries; " Nickel-plated Screw Binding-posts"; Insulated Wires for connections. Price, post-paid, 75 cents; with two dry cells, $1.OO
"
THOMAS
M. ST. JOHN, 848 Ninth Ave., New York
St. J.
SEMI-WIRELESS
[PATENT APPLIED FOR]
A SYSTEM THAT TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES

all misunderstandings we wish to state right here in the first sentence that by the name "Semi-Wireless" we do not mean "wireless," for one tiny wire must join all of the stations on any line, and two wires are still better than one. Semi-Wireless is a new system that solves the telegraphic problem for amateurs and students. It is simpler and cheaper than the old-fashioned way, with its slow-moving telegraph sounders and relays, its heavy linewire and its mess of bluestone batteries; it is simpler, cheaper and more reliable than wireless with its coils and condensers, its tuning-coils and In short, it is the ideal system no matter whether there transformers. are to be two or a dozen stations on the line; for every station can telegraph and telephone to every other station. Think what it means to have these two great things combined in one simple system! In wireless work a great deal of energy is wasted, because it has to radiate in all directions in order to radiate at all, and so the receiving-station gets only the smallest part of that energy. Semi- Wireless does not waste energy; it directs it, and so the messages simply have to go where they are wanted, right into every ear on the line; and
To avoid
that is
such remarkable results. One dry battery will do wonders in over a ten-mile telegraphing Semi- Wireless line. The reason? No waste of energy; no horse-
why
so
little
power gives
power needed
to
to get a flea-power the right spot; no dynamo wanted to get a dry-battery effect. Everything is economized, ether-waves are directed, power is concentrated and results are
No matter absolutely certain. what other systems you have, you need a Semi- Wireless.
Semi-Wireless is a brand-new system that satisfies, for it telegraphs and telephones; it is the best thing ever invented for students of telegraphy and wireWe guarantee that less, and it is best for hard service over long lines. Semi-Wireless will do every thing we say it will. The instruments are strong and well made, and when once set up all expense ceases, an occasional dry battery being all that will be needed to keep it going. The "directing wire" can be strung up in a little while by the method fully explained in the book on telegraphy which is given with each instrument. This illustrated book gives full details for building and operating Semi-Wireless lines, and it also includes codes and numerous
aids to learning telegraphy.
The Standard Instrument, Wireless telegrams with any dry batteries, we absolutely Wireless messages loud and
.
No. 2550, is for sending and receiving Semicode; and, when used with two or three good guarantee that it will send and receive Semiclear over any properly-built line, up to 1,000 miles in length. For short lines up to, say, 500 feet this may also be used to telephone, but two wires should be used for the_ line and the words should be spoken loud and clear directly into the receiving-transmitter.
ST.
J.
SEMI-WIRELESS- Continued
The _Standard Cabinet, No. 2552, includes the Standard Instrument, No. 2550, and two batteries, all ingeniously mounted in a special stained box with sliding cover. The base of the instrument swings in and out of the box upon pivots, and the outfit is wired and ready for immediate use. This makes a splendid outfit for those who do not care for the telephone part of the system, and we guarantee that the two batteries will furnish power enough to telegraph loud and clear over the longest line you will ever want to build. The Loud-Talking Long-Distance Transmitter, No. 2554, may be added to either No. 2550 or No. 2552 at any time to make a
complete long-distance station for telegraphing and telephoning, connections being made as shown in the Book of Instructions. The of this transmitter construction peculiar makes the results very unusual on all ordinary lines. This transmitter is shown near the No. 2552 top of the Portable Set, No. 2557, mounted upon a frame-work; when sold as No. 2554, however, it is neatly mounted in a separate stained box that can be fastened up just above 'the Standard As we absolutely guarantee this Instrument or the Standard Cabinet. transmitter to give perfect satisfaction over all properly-constructed lines lip to 500 miles in length, you will understand that for all of the ordinary lines that will be put up by amateurs the results will be more than satisfactory; in fact, you will be astonished at the way these peculiar instruments respond to the slightest whisper. The Standard Cabinet and Transmitter Outfit, No. 2556, provides the same instruments as are furnished in the Portable Outfit, only the telegraph and telephone parts are mounted in separate boxes and not in one large box. Our Portable Set, No. 2557, is making a great hit and no wonder. This set is put up in a special stained box with handle and sliding cover, and it It includes the standard instrument, No. 2550, stands over 13 inches high. and the loud-talking transmitter, No. 2554, all neatly mounted and ready You can connect your station to any Semi-Wireless line in one for use. the line-wires minute by passing through the eyeletted holes to the bindingWhen you consider that we have here a complete teleposts at the left. graph and telephone station in one you will see its possibilities. When we tell you that Semi-Wireless messages can be sent loud and clear over lines 1,000 miles in length, we are only hinting at the capabilities of this wonderful invention; so vou need not fear that the line you think of building may be too long. have had official tests made of SemiWireless apparatus the hardest tests that any apparatus could have and we stand ready to prove every claim we make. With its ability to telephone and telegraph loud and clear over the same wire and a small cheap wire without the use of dynamos or other expensive current-supply, we at that
We
You can't blame our customers who already have lines for being enthusiastic. One reports that he can hear conversation distinctly six feet from the receivers, and another says that messages are readable fifty feet
invented.
we would much
We could tell you greater things than this about Semi-Wireless, but rather confine ourselves to things that can be done by anyone having an outfit. Learning Wireless. There are thousands of young men and boys who want to learn wireless and general telegraphy and who can not afford to buy the rather expensive outfits that are needed for such work; and, on the other hand, many young men do buy complete wireless outfits and then find, to their surprise, that they cannot read the messages because they are
away.
sent so fast that
it
requires a great deal
Semi- Wireless is the great teacher that will help just such amateurs. By having several students on the same line and there can be fifty as well as a dozen and by having one good operator to teach them, the whole line can be instructed at the same time and rapid progress can he made by The messages can be sent at any desired speed and, if the operator all.
of practise to
make them
out.
ST.
J.
SEMI-WIRELESS-Om/V
can be made most practical. Think what a blessing such instruction will be to those just learning! A skilled operator can be found in almost every town who will be glad to give this instruction at a fixed price per hour, and when several share the expense it will be very little
for each.
is provided with the leud-talking transmitter, verbal instructions can be given to all at the same time; talks can be illustrated by actual messages; the work
As the messages come flying through every receiver on the line they sound
just the same as wireless, and where the line isn't over a few miles long, they can be heard without placing the receivers to the ears. This system is a great help to students of wireless because it gives just the training that is needed; and to crown the whole thing, SemiWireless talks as well as it telegraphs. You may be getting code one second and talk the next, so what more could be desired? On two- wire or belt lines the "calls" come in so loud that they can be heard all over a large room.
The Greatest Opportunity Ever Offered

No. 2557
t0 StUdCnt8 '
MISCELLANEOUS SEMI- WIRELESS GOODS

LIST No.
HOW TWO
Fifth Edition
BOYS MADE THEIR ELECTRICAL APPARATUS

By THOMAS
fl.
OWN
ST. JOHN, Met. E.
Price, post-paid, *i.oo
This book contains 141 pages, 125 illustrations, and directions for making 152 pieces of apparatus. Size, 5x7^; red
cloth.
CONTENTS: Chapter I. Cells and Batteries. II. Battery Fluids and Solutions. III. Miscellaneous Apparatus and Methods of Construction. IV. Switches and Cut-Outs. V. Binding-Posts and Connectors. VI. Permanent Magnets. VII. Magnetic Needles and Compasses. VIII. Yokes and Armatures. IX. Electro-Magnets. X. Wire-Winding Apparatus. XI. Induction Coils and Their Attachments. XII. Contact Breakers and Current Interrupters. Xin. Current Detectors and Galvanometers. XIV. Telegraph Keys and Sounders. XV. Electric Belte and Buzzers. XVI. Commutators and Current Reversers. XVII. Resistance Coils. XVIII. Apparatus for Static Electricity. XIX. Electric Motors. XX. Odds and Ends. XXI. Tools and Materials.
" The author of this book is a teacher and writer of great ingenuity, and we imagine that the effect of such a book as this falling into juvenile hands must
tions in regard to
all
be highly stimulating and beneficial. It is full of explicit details and instruca great variety of apparatus, and the materials required are within the compass of very modest pocket-money. Moreover, it is systemand entirely without rhetorical frills, so that the student can go right without being diverted from good helpful work that will leaa him to along build useful apparatus and make him understand what he is about. The drawings are plain and excellent. We heartily commend the book." Electrical Engineer.
atic
" Those who visited the electrical exhibition last May cannot have failed to notice on the south gallery a very interesting exhibit, consisting, as it did, of electrical apparatus made oy boys. The various devices there shown, comprising electro-magnets, telegraph keys and sounders, resistance coils, etc., were the instructions given in the book with the above of the most practical little works yet written r, with but a limited amount of mechanical knowledge, and by closely following the instructions given, almost any electrical device may be made at very small expense. That such a book tills a longfelt want may be inferred from the number of inquiries we are constantly receiving from persons desiring to make their own induction coils and other apparatus. "Electricity.
1
At the electrical show in New York last May one of the most interesting exhibits was that of simple electrical apparatus made by the boys in one of the private schools in the city. This apparatus, made by boys of thirteen to fifteen years of age, was from designs by the author of this clever little book, and it was remarkable to see what an ingenious use had been made of old tin tomatocans, cracker-boxes, bolts, screws, wire, and wood. With these simple materials telegraph instruments, coils, buzzers, current detectors, motors, switches, armatures, and an almost endless variety of apparatus were made. In his book Mr. St. John has given directions in simple language for making and using these devices, and has illustrated these directions with admirable diagrams and cuts. The little volume is unique, and will prove exceedingly helpful to those of our young readers who are fortunate enough to possess themselves of a copy. For schools where a course of elementary science is taught, no better text-book in the first steps in electricity is obtainable." The Great Round
World.
"
THOriAS M. ST. JOHN, 848 Ninth
Ave.,
New York
r
j
The Study
Electricity
By
of Elementary
and Magnetism by Experiment

M. ST. JOHN, Met. E.
Price, postpaid, $1.25.
'
THOMAS
7HIRD EDITION.
The book
contains 220 pages
5x7'/2
in.,
and
it
and 168 is bound
illustrations.
It
measures
in green cloth.
CONTENTS:
nets.
Part
UI. Induced Magnetism. IV. netism. Part II. Static Electricity.
Conductors
trification.
VIII.
Magnetism. Chapter I. Iron and Steel. II. MagThe Magnetic Field.-V. Terrestrial MagVI. Electrification. VII. Insulators and Charging and Discharging Conductors. IX. Induced ElecI.
X. Condensation of Electrification XI. Electroscopes. XII. Miscellaneous Experiments. XIII. Atmospheric Electricity. Part III. Current Electricity. XIV. Construction and Use of Apparatus. XV. Galvanic and Batteries. XVI. The Electric Circuit. XVII. Electromotive Force. XVm. Electrical Resistance. XIX. Measurement of Resistance. XX. Current Strength. XXI. Chemical Effects of the Electric Current. XXII. ElecXXV. tromagnetism. XXm. Electromagnets. XXIV. Thermoelectricity. Induced Currents. XXVI. The Production of Motion by Currents. XXVIL Applications of Electricity. XXVIII. Wire Tables. Apparatus List.-Index.
Cells
This
is
want
to take
a text-book for amateurs, students, and others who up a systematic course of electrical experiments at
or in school. It will give a practical and experimental knowledge of elementary electricity, and thoroughly prepare students for advanced work. Full directions are given for
home
TWO HUNDRED EXPERIMENTS.

student
discussions are so planned that the always prepared for what follows. Although the experiments may be performed with the apparatus that is usually found in school laboratories, the author has designed a complete set of apparatus for those who want to have their own outfit.
is
The experiments and
If you want to take up a systematic course of experiments experiments that will build a lasting foundation for your electrical knowledgethis book will serve as a valuable guide,
Electrical Apparatus
For Sale
A COMPLETE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC CABINET FOR STUDENTS, SCHOOLS AND AMATEURS. SOME EXTRAORDINARY OFFERS
This Cabinet of
parts: (A)
Electrical
;
Experiments contains three main

;
Apparatus
(B) Text-Book
(C)
Apparatus
List.
(A) The Apparatus consists of one hundred and five pieces, which are made up of over three hundred separate articles (see "Condensed List"). The outfit is ready for use when received,
a few simple adjustments, perhaps, being necessary.
of apparatus can be used over and over again for years, in every way practical for regular laboratory work.
This set
and
it is
(B)
tricity
The Text-Book called "The Study of Elementary Elecand Magnetism by Experiment" gives full directions for
two hundred experiments. (See Table of Contents.) Price, $1.25. (} The Apparatus List is an illustrated Detail-Book, which is
devoted entirely to this special set of apparatus. These Outfits have been of gradual growth, as they are the result of years of actual work with students. Changes have been recently made in some of the pieces, and in placing the improved apparatus upon the market Mr. St. John feels that he is giving a great deal for the money. If you want to build a lasting foundation for your electrical studies, you will find this course of experiments of the greatest
value.
Offer Offer Offer Offer
Pieces I to 50 No. I No. 4: Pieces 51 to 105, with part (C) No. 5: Pieces i to 105, with part (C) No. 6: Complete Cabinet, parts (A), (B), (C)
:
$1.00
4.00 5.00 6.25
Express charges must be paid by you.
Estimates given.
Special Discount. To those who order the entire outfit at one time (Offer No. 6) the special price of (5.60 will be given. This discount of 65c. will, in most cases, pay the greater part of the
express charges. & " New Special Catalogue," which pertains to the above, will jc mailed upon application.
THOnAS M.
ST. JOHN, 848 Ninth Avenue,
New York
City
THINGS A BOY SHOULD

By THOMAS
The book contains
5
KNOW
1C.
ABOUT ELECTRICITY.
91.
8T.
JOHN,
Met.
180 pages, and 260 illustrations;

in.,
it
measure!
x 7/^
and
is
bound
in cloth.
Fourth Edition
and Magnetism.
Price, post-paid,
!.>
CONTENTS : Chapter I. About Frictional Electricity. II. About Magnets III. How Electricity is Generated by the Voltaic Cell. IV. Various Voltaic Cells. V. About Push-Buttons, Switches and Binding-Posts.VI. Units and Apparatus for Electrical Measurements. VII. Chemical Effects of the Electric Current. VIII. How Electroplating and Electrotyping are Done. IX. The Storage Battery and How it Works. X. How Electricity is Generated by Heat. XI. Magnetic Effects of the Electric Current. XII. How Electricity Is Generated by Induction. XIII. How the Induction Coil Works. XIV. The Electric Telegraph, and How it Sends Messages. XV. The Electric Bell and Some of its Uses. XVI. The Telephone, and How it Transmits Speech. XVII. How Electricity is Generated by Dynamos. -XVIII. How the Electric Current is Transformed. XIX. How Electric Currents are Distributed for Use. XX. How Heat is Produced by the Electric Current. XXI. How Light XXII. How Light is Produced by the is Produced by the Incandescent Lamp. Arc Lamp. XXIII. X-Rays, and How the Bones of the Human Body are Photoand How it Does Work. XXV. Electric Electric Motor The graphed. XXIV. Cars, Boats and Automobiles. XXVI. A Word About Central Stations. XXVII. Miscellaneous Uses of Electricity.
This book explains, in simple, straightforward language, many things about electricity; things in which the American boy is intensely Interested; things he wants to know; things he should
know.
It is free
from technical language and rhetorical
frills,
but
it
things work, and why they work. the best that can be had illusIt is brimful of illustrations trations that are taken directly from apparatus and machinery, and that show what they are intended to show.
tells
how
This book does not contain experiments, or tell how to make apparatus; our other books do that. After explaining the simple principles of electricity, it shows how these principles are used and combined to make electricity do every-day work.
Everyone Should
A.
Know About
Electricity.
VERY APPROPRIATE PRESENT
REAL ELECTRIC TOY-MAKING FOR BOYS

By THOMAS
M. ST JOHN, Met. E.
This book contains 140 pages and over one hundred original drawings, diagrams, and full-page plates. It measures 5 x 7^ in., and is bound in cloth.
SECOND EDITION
Price, post-paid, $1.00
Chapter I. Toys Operated by Permanent Magnets. II. Toys Operated by Static Electricity. III. Making Electromagnets for Toys. IV. Electric Batteries. V. CirVI. Toys Operated by Electromagnets. cuits and Connections. VII. Making Solenoids for Toys. VIII. Toys Operated by Solenoids. IX. Electric Motors. X. Power, Speed, and GearXI. Shafting and Bearings. XII. Pulleys and Windinging. Drums. XIII. Belts and Cables. XIV. Toys Operated by
Electric Motors.
CONTENTS:
XV. Miscellaneous
Electric Toys.
XVI. Tools.
XVII. Materials.
XVIII. Various Aids to Construction.
While planning this book, Mr. St. John definitely decided that he would not fill it with descriptions of complicated, machinemade instruments and apparatus, under the name of "ToyMaking," for it is just as impossible for most boys to get the parts for such things as it is for them to do the required machine
after they have the raw materials. Great care has been taken in designing the toys which are described in this book, in order to make them so simple that any boy of average ability can construct them out of ordinary The author can personally guarantee the designs, materials. for there is no guesswork about them. Every toy was made, changed, and experimented with until it was as simple as possible; the drawings were then made from the perfected models.
work even
As the result of the enormous amount of work and experimenting which were required to originate and perfect so many new models, the author feels that this book may be truly called
" Real Electric Toy-Making for Boys."
Every Boy Should Make Electrical Toys.
Wireless Telegraphy
For Amateurs and Students By THOMAS M. ST. JOHN, Met. E.
172 pages and over one hundred and drawings and photographs; it measures 5x7^ in.; bound in cloth.
fifty
The book contains
SECOND EDITION
Price, post-paid, $1.00

Chapter
I.
Early Methods of Wireless Telegraphy. II. Waves in Solids, Liquids, and Gases. III. Wave-motion. IV. Ether. V. Light and Light-waves. VI. Action of Magnetism through Space. VII. Action of Static VIII. Action of Current ElecElectricity through Space. IX. The Induction-coil. X. Electrictricity through Space. waves. XI. Oscillating Currents. XII. Electric Oscillators. XIII. Production of Electric-waves. XIV. Detection of Electric-waves. XV. Experiments with Coherers. XVI. Experiments with Decoherers. XVII. Electric-wave Experiments. XVIII. Home-made Coherers. XIX. Home-made Autocoherers. XX. Anti-coherers and Other Detectors. XXI. Miscellaneous Apparatus. XXII. Home-made Accessories. XXIV. Aerials and XXIII. Induction-coil Experiments. Grounds. XXV. Miscellaneous Aids.
CONTENTS:
want
is designed especially for students and others who to get a practical and theoretical knowledge of wireless telegraphy, and for those who want to experiment without being
This book
obliged to buy the expensive apparatus usually required. Full details are given for making, at small cost, nearly everything that will be needed. There is nothing more fascinating than wireless telegraphy for those who are interested in scientific subjects, and the young man or boy who takes it up from an experimental standpoint making the greater part of his own apparatus has a great advantage over those who merely have information from books. Any young man who wants to get at the root of the matter and build up a solid foundation of theoretical and practical information will find this book a great help no matter what other books he may have upon the subject. It tells what to make and how to make it; what to use and how to use it; and besides, it u full of practical experiments, directions,
and
discussions.
Electrical
Handicraft
Containing complete directions for making and using nearly one hundred and fifty pieces of electrical apparatus, including various devices and outfits for experimental purposes.
By THOMAS M. ST. JOHN, Met. E. The book contains 252 pages and over 250 original drawings and diagrams. Size, 5x7 }4 inches; bound in substantial cloth.
Price, post-paid, $1.00.
Contents in Brief: Chapter I. Making Permanent MagII. Magnetic Needles and Compasses. III. Current Detectors and Galvanoscopes. IV. Handling Metals. V. Handling Wood. VI. Binding-posts and Connecting Devices. VII. Switches, Contact-points and Cut-outs. VIII. Push-buttons and Strap Keys. IX. Cores, Yokes and Armatures. X. Machines for Winding Electromagnets. XI. Solenoids and Electromagnets. XII. Horseshoe Electromagnets. XIII. Apparatus for Measuring Resistances. XIV. Resistance-boxes and Rheostats. XV. Current-reyersers and Pole-changing Switches. XVI. Small Electric-light XVII. Small Condensers. XVIII. A "Handicraft" Outfits. Workroom. XIX. Miscellaneous Operations. XX. Tools
nets.
Index. Ideas in Apparatus-making. A peculiar system of construction has been invented by the author of "Electrical Handicraft" that gives unusual results and, as this simple plan has been used throughout the whole book, home-made apparatus can now be produced that will be a credit to any laboratory and give new interest in experimental work. Plain Directions. Any one can follow the plain directions, aided by the numerous drawings and diagrams, and make good practical apparatus that is, at the same time, finelooking apparatus; in fact, some who have seen it say that it is home-made apparatus de luxe on account of its elegant appearance and original design. Inexpensive Supplies. The best of it all is this: You can get materials and supplies for making this splendid lot of apparatus for very little money, any single piece costing you but a few cents. Here is the reason: Nearly all of the supplies that are needed for this out-of-the-ordinary apparatus
Supplies.
and
New
are made in large quantities by machinery for the author's various outfits and that is why these carefully chosen materials can be furnished at so low a price. They are made as they should be made metal straps nickel-plated, and is a and so the result like if happy combination you punched that satisfies. It is with much pleasure that the author finally places within easy reach of students, amateurs and schools a line of supplies so complete, so substantial and practical and, at the same time, so inexpensive. Send for "Electrical Handicraft" now, so that you can begin this most fascinating and profitable work at once.
HANDICRAFT TOOL SETS

had a lot of inquiries about tools new ideas in apparatus making; and as the methods of construction are quite unusual in fact, absolutely original we have decided to make up sets of tools that have been found to be most useful. While ordinary tools are needed for the most part, a few special tools are essential.
to go with these
HANDICRAFT TOOL SETS. We've
Time and energy are precious; don't waste either by trying to make apparatus with poor tools or with tools unsuited to the work. You will get the best value if you buy the tools in sets.
Note: can not pay express charges on these sets, owing to the special prices given, but we shall be glad to give you an estimate of the charges to your city upon application.
2. PRICE $2.00. One Steel Punch; polished, flat light Hammer; polished, iron, nickel-plated; hardwood hanIron Clamp; japanned, 2%-in. opening. One Screw-Driver; tempered and polished blade, stained hardwood handle, nickel ferrule. One Vise; full malleable, nicely retinned, lfi-in. jaws, full malleable with screw One File; triangular, good steel. One File Handle; spring. good wood, brass ferrule. One Foot Rule; varnished woor, with English and metric systems. One Soldering Set; contains soldering iron, sol-
We
TOOL SET NO.

One One
end.
dle.
resin and directions. One Center-Punch finely tempered steel, and of the proper size. One "St. J." Special Eyelett inn-Tool does fine work and is invaluable. One "St. J." Special Combination HandDrill and Winding-Machine; takes drills up to and including threesixteenths inch; finely nickeled and finished in every way; strong chuck and hollow handle for holding drills.. One Special Threaded Spindle for Winding-Machine. One Three-SIxteenths-Inch Twist Drill. One Drill-Point for small holes. These straight-shank drills are made of the best steel, properly tempered. One Pair of Compasses; for marking circles on wooden bases, etc. This set contains 16 tools.
der,
TOOL SET NO. 2%', PRICE $2.75. This set contains all that is in No. 1J4 set, together with the following: One Pair of Pliers; 6 in. long, bright steel, flat nose, with two wire-cutters; practically unbreakable and very useful. One Pair of Tinner's Shears; cut 2& in., hardened iron, suitable for light work. One Try-Square; 6 in. blued steel One Anvil; polished top with blade, marked in one-eighth-in. spaces. japanned body; very necessary for rivetting and eyeletting. This set contains 20 tools.
This set contains the same TOOL SET NO. 4 ; PRICE, $3.75. of tools as Set No. 2J4, the difference in price being due to the superior quality of five of the tools which replace those in the cheaper set. These five tools are: (1) Soldering Set, (2) Vise, (3) Tinner's The Soldering Set is larger, Shears, (4) Compasses, (5) Hammer. so the soldering iron holds the heat better than the smaller one, and The Vise is much larger and heavier than the this is a great help. tinned vise, and it is of superior quality, with strong polished jaws and steel screw; body nicely japanned. The Tinner's Shears are made of fine steel, properly tempered; cutting-blades polished, thoroughly The ComSteel shears can be sharpened when they get dull. reliable. passes are adjustable with screw and they lock in place; nickel-plated and of superior quality, with pen, pencil and two sharp points. The Hammer is made of cast steel, weight about one pound. 20 tools.
3y
number
Handicraft Tool Sets
(Continued)
This set is most complete, ; PRICE, $4.75. containing nearly everything that is in the other sets, together with a number of very useful tools. One Steel Punch; polished, flat end.One Steel Punch, for punching larger holes. One Light Hammer, polished, nickel-plated; hardwood handle; proper weight for nailing bases. One Cast Steel Machinist's Hammer; ball pein and of fine quality; proper weight for punching metal straps, etc. One Iron Clamp; japanned, 2^4 in. opening. One Large Iron Clamp. One ScrewDriver; tempered and polished blade, stained hardwood handle, nickel ferrule. One Ratchet Screw-Driver; great help and saves time on some work. One Small Vise; full malleable, nicely retinned, lfi-in. One Large Vise, of superior jaws, full malleable screw with spring. quality for larger work; strong polished jaws and steel screw; body One File; triangular, good steel. One File Handle; nicely japanned. good wood, brass ferrule. One Foot Rule; varnished wood, with English and Metric Systems. One Soldering Set, same as in Set No. 3ft. One Center-Punch; finely tempered steel and of the proper size. One "St. J." Special Eyeletting-Tool ; does fine work and is invaluable One "St. J." Special Combination Hand-Drill and Winding-Machine; takes drills up to and including three-sixteenths in.; finely nickeled and finished in every way; strong chuck and hollow handle for holding drills. One Special Threaded Spindle for winding-machine; greatest One Three-Sixteenths-Inch Twist possible help in winding cores. Drill. One Drill-Point for small holes. One Pair of Pliers; 6 in. long, bright steel, flat nose, with two wire-cutters; practically unbreakable and very useful. One Pair of Tinner's Shears; made of fine steel and properly tempered; cutting blades polished, thoroughly reliaOne Try-Square; 6-in. blued steel ble, sometimes called steel "snips." One Pair of Compasses; same blade, marked in one-eighth-in. spaces. One Anvil; polished top as in Set No. 3 ft, with adjusting-screw, etc. with japanned body; very necessary for ri vetting and eyeletting. One Hollow-Handle Tool Set; the polished hardwood handle holds 10 tools, including gimlet, chisel, brad-awls, etc. One Saw; steel frame, polished pteel blade; useful for sawing off small pieces of wood. One Pair of Shears for cutting paper and cloth for electromagnets, etc. This set contains 28 tools besides those in the hollow-handle tool set.
TOOL SET NO. 4y 4
tools
SPECIAL SIX-TOOL SET; PRICE, $1.35; PREPAID, $1.80. In case you are well supplied with ordinary tools and want only the special needed for this work, the following outfit will be a great help.
This special set contains: One "St. J." Special Eyelettlng-Tool; this tool was devised by Mr. St. John after considerable experimenting to produce a good tool that would be cheap; it positively does as good work as an expensive foot-power machine; simply invaluable. One "St. J." Special Combination Hand-Drill and Winding-Machine; takes drills up to and including three-sixteenths in.; finely nickeled and finished in every way; winds electromagnets splendidly. One Vise for clamping the "St. J." winding-machine to the table; this is the tinned One Special Threaded Spindle, for windingvise with li^-in. jaws. machine; used in winding threaded cores. One Three-Sixteenths-Inch Twist Drill, the size mostly used for handicraft bases. One Drill-Point This special six-tool set will be a splendid addition to for small holes. any laboratory or workshop, and it is well worth the price, $1.35. We will send this set by mail or express, prepaid to any point in the United States for $1.80.
PLEASE SEE DIRECTIONS FOR SENDING MONEY
A MOTOR THAT CAN DO THINGS

The "St. J. Motor No. 1" (List No. 2201) is designed for students and others who want a small motor for experimental purposes as well as for all believe this to be the best of the work that any small motor can do. small motor made, and we know that it can be used in more ways than any other motor of equal cost ever built. It has four binding-posts, making it posand so it can be used sible to energize the field or armature separately, The speed and in circuits with reversers and rheostats for experiments. direction of rotation can be changed at will, thus adapting it for running the are mounted etc. As binding-posts upon the frame, this motor toys, can be taken from the base for remounting and using in many ways, and as it has a three-pole armature it will start promptly in any position. The shaft carries a pulley, and a fan can be added at any time. One cell will give a high speed, and more cells may be added, according to the work it
We
has to do.
Motor No. 1 stands 3% inches high. It is finished in black enamel with strong and well made. With it are furnished three nickel-plated trimmings, nickel-plated connecting-straps, which are to be used for connecting the
No. 2201
and armature in "series" or "shunt." So much can be done with this motor that it is simply impossible to tell it here; in fact, it is used as the basis for a whole book of 60 experiments called "The Study of Electric Motors by Experiment," and, when used in connection with the other parts of the Motor Outfits, it will give a practical knowledge of motors that no other plan can give. These motors and motor outfits have been highly praised by electrical exThey can do everyperts and educators as being invaluable to students. thing the big motors can do, and if used with the rheostats, reversers and other apparatus in the outfits, the student will have a whole motor laborafield
tory.
ments?
Why
doesn't
mean much when
not get a motor that has brains and that can do tricks and experiAny good motor will go when you turn on the power; but that it comes to understanding things.
1,"
If sent
No. 2201 "St. J. Motor No. by mail, postage extra
with
Wiring-Diagrams,
$1.00
.15
These outfits have been designed for students and others who want to do real experimental work with motors, so as to get right down to the bottom of the matter and thoroughly master the foundation principles of the subject. It is simply astonishing to see how much can be learned with one of these outfits, especially if the work be done as fully detailed in "The Study of Electric Motors by Experiment." Every electrical laboratory should have one of these sets, and the more you know about motors the more you will appreciate an outfit of this kind. Don't simply read about motors, get right down to the practical part of it and experiment for yourself. Every experiment will settle an important point in your mind. No. 2224 Electric Motor Outfit, No. \y 2 contains: One "St. J. Motor No. 1," List No. 2201 $1.00 One Five-Point Rheostat, No. 1724 25 One Double-Key Current Reverser, No. 1728 25 02 One Set of Wires for Connections No. 2224 Complete, as above, with wiring-diagrams 1.50 If sent by mail, postage extra 20 Two dry batteries should be used with this outfit, but they are not included. We use our Two-Cell Set, No. 1102, costing 25c., postage extra, lOc.
St. J.
ELECTRIC MOTOR OUTFITS
One One One One One One One One One One
Electric Motor Outfit, No. 2, contains: Motor No. 1" complete, No. 2201 $1.00 Five-Point Rheostat, No. 1724 25 25 Double-Key Current Reverser, No. 1728 10 Simple Current Detector, No. 1501 Two-Point Switch, No. 1062 05 Nickel-Plated Strap Key, No. 1083 06 04 Magnetic Needle, in box, No. 1510 Box Iron Filings, No. 1351 02 02 Set of Wires for Connections of "The 25 of Electric Motors Copy Study by Experiment" No. 2225 Complete Outfit, if sold together, as above $2.00 If sent by mail, postage extra 25 Two dry batteries should be used with this outfit, but they are not included. Our Two-Cell Set, No. 1102, costs 25c.; postage extra, lOc.
No. 2225
"St. J.
No. 2226
One One One One One One One One One One One One One One
Electric Motor Outfit, No. 2y contains: 2 Motor No. 1" complete, No. 2201 Five-Point Rheostat, No. 1724 Eleven-Point Rheostat, No. 1725 Double-Key Current Reverser, No. 1728 Handy Current Detector, No. 1502 Two-Point Switch, No. 1062 Nickel-Plated Strap Key, No. 1083 Set of Wires for Connections Box Iron Filings, No. 1351
,
"St. J.
$1.00 25 35 25
15
05
06 02 02
05 Package of assorted Iron, Steel, etc., 10 pieces, No. 1340 12 Miniature Electric Lamp, No. 2101 05 Miniature Receptacle, No. 2121 04 1510 Magnetic Needle, No. 25 Copy of "The Study of Electric Motors by Experiment" No. 2226 Complete Outfit, if sold together, as above, only $2.50 If sent by mail, postage extra 30 Three dry batteries should be used with this outfit but they are not included. Our Three-Cell Set, No. 1103, costs 35c.; postage extra, 15c.

Sixty Experiments that Bear Directly upon the Construction, Operation and Explanation of Electric Motors, together with Much Helpful This book will Information upon the Experimental Apparatus Required. be a great help to those who want to do real experimental work with moIt contains 10 chapters, 110 pages, over 70 illustrations and diagrams, tors. be without it. not afford to and you can No. R57P The Study of Electric Motors by Experiment, paper cover, $0.25 No. R57C The Study of Electric Motors by Experiment, bound in cloth, .50
contains
RHEOSTATS AND REVERSERS

These ingenious rheostats are made in two sizes for experimental purand they are most useful for regulating the speed of motors, the
change the current too gradually. It is much more fun to have the motors leap ahead a little and sing a different tune at each change of speed, just like the big motors that are used on trolley cars and for power purposes. These instruments are made with nickel-plated brass straps, binding-posts, contact-points, etc., and they make a splendid addition to any electrical
laboratory.
Coses, rilliancy of lamps, etc., etc.
Some
small rheostats are so
made
that they
No. 1728
No. 1725
Rheostat, No. 1724, measures 3j4x4j4 in. It is designed to regulate the speed of our "St. J. Motor No. 1" when running with two
The Five-Point
dry batteries. The Eleven-Point Rheostat, No. 1725, measures 3^x6j4 in. It has more resistance than No. 1724, and it is so designed that it can be used with three cells for our small motors, and also for experimental work with miniaIn connection with our small lighting-plants in ture electric lamp outfits. which the current is generated by one of our Dynamo-Motors, No. 2209,
this rheostat is invaluable.
No. 172-1 No. 172S
Five-Point Rheostat (Postage extra, 4c.)..$0.2S Eleven-Point Rheostat (Postage extra, 5c.) .35
is
This double-key reverser is very useful for experiments with motors, etc., It is, because it is so constructed that it can be used in various ways. really, a key, push-botton, two-point switch and a reverser combined, so it No. 1728 reverser is made with nickel-plated brass extremely handy. mounted a neat all base parts being upon straps, binding-posts, etc.,
3c.) $0.25
measuring 2$4x3*/2 in. No. 1728 Double-Key Current Reverser (Postage extra,
Motor No.
This diagram is one of many contained in the book on motors, and shows 1 shunt-wound and reversible, using rheostat and reverser to
secure one method of speed control.
SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388
Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed.
University of California
19
A 000330184
514
Library
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E STUDY OF

THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES

Motors ; together ivith

M. ST. JOHN, Met.

COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY THOMAS M. ST. JOHN

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

Fancy Bubbles and Films.

Price, 25 cts.; postage extra,

FUN WITH SHADOWS. A

FUN WITH TELEGRAPHY.

for Forty-One Experiments.

Price, postpaid, 75 cts.

With two dry

THINGS A BOY SHOULD

boy wants to know; things he should know.

things about electricity; things a Fourth edition; 180

REAL ELECTRIC TOY-MAKING FOR BOYS

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY FOR AMATEURS AND STUDENTS

drawings. Postpaid, THE STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT

ideas, inexpensive supplies. $1.00.

Cloth; 252 pages; 250

848 Ninth Ave., N. Y.

THE STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT

and repulsions of magnets.

the horseshoe magnet.

Speed Regulation and Direction of

Direct-Current Shunt- Wound

the counter-current flows in a motor.

which direction Exp. 60, Regu86

THE STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT

Laboratory Motors and Dynamos.

motors are the same

most small dynamos can

STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT

shall first take up a few experiunderstanding both machines. The

expected of them; but when you examine them

their proper work.

used in the construction of these wonderful elec-

chines, but in this case

netism for years

just the same, as

doing its part of the by one of the future

the case of iron and steel, however

but a magnetic body

does not need to be discussed here.

the "magnetic the magnet is

with "magnetic lines of force" and

STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT

pass through them.

In the case of the

nothing more than sheet iron covered with

and why iron

any good text-book on the subject, and

north pole of a magnet.

sewing-needle upon one

particular direction. the north.

of a magnet that points to floated or otherwise suspended is

called its "north pole,"

and the other end

pole, and, as the little

also called the "north-seeking" magnet has the power to point, we

STUDY OF ELECTRIC MOTORS BY EXPERIMENT

attract each other.