Central Nervous System

Chapter 10
Central Nervous System, Spinal Nerves, and Cranial Nerves
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
End of Chapter 10
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Spinal Cord Structure: Protection and Coverings
Vertebrae Spinal meninges
Three layers of connective tissue

Dura mater Arachnoid mater Pia mater
Continuous with cranial meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Spinal Meninges and Spaces

Epidural space: between vertebrae and dura mater Dura mater- tough ,dense connective tissue
Extends to vertebra S2 (well beyond spinal cord) Extends into subarachnoid space
Arachnoid mater: resembles spiders web
Subarachnoid space
CSF circulates in this space

Adheres to surface spinal cord (and brain) Contains blood vessels
Pia mater: thin, delicate layer

Spinal Meninges and Spaces
Gross Anatomy of Spinal Cord
Extends from medulla of brain to L2 vertebra Cauda equina (horses tail)

Extends inferior to end of spinal cord Consists of roots of lumbar, sacral and coccygeal spinal nerves Anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus Small central canal (filled with CSF) in middle Points of origins of nerves to upper and lower limbs
Left and right halves partially separated by
Enlargements: cervical and lumbar regions
Gross Anatomy of Spinal Cord
Internal Structure of Spinal Cord
Gray matter forms H (or butterfly)
Three horns on each side; sites of cell bodies

Posterior gray horns: contain sensory neurons Anterior gray horns: contain somatic motor neurons Lateral: contain autonomic motor neurons
White matter (surrounds gray H)
Consists of white columns

Posterior, anterior, and lateral columns Contain tracts (bundles of axons)

Sensory tracts: ascending to brain Motor tracts: descending from brain
Internal Structure of Spinal Cord
Spinal Nerves
31 pairs

Named according to level of vertebra C1-C8, T1-T12, L1-L5, S1-S5, 1 coccygeal Emerge from spinal cord through intervertebral foramina Dorsal root: made of axons of sensory neurons
Nerves attached to spinal cord by 2 roots
Dorsal root ganglion: swelling containing cell bodies of sensory neurons Both somatic motor and autonomic motor
Ventral root: composed of axons of motor neurons
Spinal Nerve Composition

Formed by 2 spinal nerve roots Are mixed:
Formed from dorsal root (sensory) and ventral root (motor) root Individual axons wrapped in endoneurium Axons grouped in fascicles wrapped in perineurium Outer covering = epineurium
Connective tissue coverings

Spinal Nerve Composition
Distribution of Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves branch after pass through intervertebral foramina Some join with branches from neighboring nerves to form plexuses Nerve names relate to region innervated Spinal nerves T2-T12 do not form plexuses

Called intercostal nerves Supply abdominal muscles, skin of chest and back, and muscles between ribs.
Plexuses
Cervical plexus
Supplies posterior head, neck, shoulders, and diaphragm Important nerves: phrenic to diaphragm
Supplies upper limbs + some neck and shoulder muscles Important nerves: radial, ulnar, axial, median to arm, forearm, hand
Brachial plexus
Plexuses
Lumbar plexus
Supplies abdominal wall, external genitalia, and part of lower limbs Important nerves: femoral (to anterior thigh: quads)
Supplies buttocks, perineum, and most of lower limbs Important nerves: gluteal, sciatic (to posterior thigh and all of leg and foot)
Sacral plexus
Spinal Cord
Spinal Cord Functions
Pathways for nerve impulses within tracts

Ascending (sensory). Example: spinothalamic Descending (motor). Example: corticospinal
Reflexes: fast, involuntary sequences of actions in response to stimuli
Can be simple (withdrawal) or complex (learned sequence such as driving car) Levels

Spinal (reflex arc): simple Cranial: more complex
Reflex Arc
1. Sensory receptor: responds to stimulus 2. Sensory neuron: through dorsal root ganglion and root posterior horn 3. Integrating center: single synapse between sensory and motor neurons 4. Motor neuron: from anterior horn ventral root spinal nerve 5. Effector: muscle responds
Example of Reflex Arc: Patellar Reflex

1. Sensory receptor is stimulated by tap on patellar tendon 2. Sensory neuron: through dorsal root spinal cord 3. Integrating center: single synapse in spinal cord 4. Motor neuron: through ventral root spinal nerve femoral nerve 5. Effector: quads contract, extend leg
Example of Reflex Arc: Patellar Reflex
Brain: Major Parts
Brain stem: continuous with spinal cord
Medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain Thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal gland Surface covered with gray matter: cortex Deep to cortex is cerebral white matter Means little brain
Diencephalon: superior to brain stem
Cerebrum: largest part and most superior

Cerebellum: posterior and inferior
Cranial meninges: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

Brain: Major Parts
Brain: Major Parts
Brain Blood Supply and Blood-Brain Barrier
Requires 20% of the bodys O2 supply
4 min lack permanent damage
Requires continuous glucose supply Protected by blood-brain barrier
Allows passage of lipid soluble materials: O2, CO2, alcohol, anesthetic agents But controls entry of most harmful materials
Created by tight capillaries and astrocytes

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Formed in the 4 ventricles of brain

Lateral (#1 and 2) 3rd 4th ventricle Formed in choroid plexuses

By filtration and secretion of blood plasma In specialized capillary networks (covered by ependymal cells) in walls of ventricles
Pathway

Through 4 ventricles central canal of spinal cord and within subarachnoid space Reabsorbed through arachnoid villi into blood in superior sagittal sinus
Cushions brain and provides nutrients

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Brain Stem: Medulla Oblongata
Most inferior part of brainstem
White matter connects spinal cord and other parts of brain Cardiovascular center
Contains vital nuclei
Regulates heart rate, blood pressure Adjusts respiratory rhythm
Medullary rhythmicity area
Other sensory and reflex motor areas Cranial nerves VIII-XII attached here
Brain Stem: Pons
Serves as a bridge

Connects medulla to midbrain and above Contains ascending and descending tracts Connects left and right sides of cerebellum
Motor relays from cerebrum to cerebellum Helps control breathing Cranial nerves V-VIII attached here
Contains nuclei

Brain Stem
Brain Stem: Midbrain
Connects pons to diencephalon
Large tracts: cerebral peduncles

Substantia nigra: related to Parkinson disease Red nuclei: help coordinate movements Origin of cranial nerves III and IV (control eye movements) Superior colliculi: nuclei involved in

Nuclei:
Scanning eye movements Responses to visual stimuli
Inferior colliculi: responses to auditory input

Reticular Formation

Netlike arrangement of gray and white matter Contains ascending and descending tracts Ascending part = reticular activating system (RAS)

Carries sensory pathways to cerebral cortex Helps maintain consciousness Helps induce sleep
Reticular Formation
Diencephalon
Thalamus: major sensory relay center
Also motor, autonomic, and consciousness functions Control of pituitary and hormone production Works with ANS regulating many viscera Involved with feelings and behavior patterns Regulation of eating, drinking, fluid levels Control of body temperature Regulation of circadian rhythms, sleep, waking
Hypothalamus: lies inferior to thalamus
Pineal gland: secretes melatonin
Controls sleep, biological clock

Diencephalon
Cerebellum
Location: posterior to medulla and pons, inferior to cerebrum
Attached to brain stem by cerebellar peduncles Two cerebellar hemispheres Cerebellar cortex: gray matter Tree-like appearance (seen in sagittal section) of white matter and gray nuclei
Structure:

Cerebellum
Functions
Receives wide range of sensory input from muscles, joints, tendons, eyes, inner ears Compares actual movements with intended ones Helps produce smooth, coordinated movements Helps execute skilled motor activities Regulates posture and balance
Cerebrum: Structure
Cerebral cortex Internal white mater Deep gray nuclei Surface folds of cerebral cortex: gyri Grooves between gyri: sulci Longitudinal fissure: divides cerebrum into left and right hemispheres Hemispheres connected by corpus collosum
Cerebrum: Structure
Each hemisphere has 4 lobes

Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital Central sulcus separates frontal, parietal Precentral gyrus anterior to sulcus: primary motor area Postcentral gyrus: primary somatosensory area
Globus pallidus, putamen, caudate nucleus
Deep gray nuclei: basal ganglia
Cerebrum
Cerebrum
Limbic System
Ring of structures on inner border of cerebrum and floor of diencephalon Called emotional brain: plays primary role in pain, pleasure, anger, affection and in behavior Involuntary activity related to survival Important in memory development
Limbic System
Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex

Specialized areas in specific regions of cerebral cortex Sensory areas receive input perception Motor areas initiate movements Associative areas complex integration: memory, emotion, reasoning, judgment
Sensory Areas
Primary somatosensory area: postcentral gyrus
Input includes: touch, proprioception, pain, itching, tickle, temperature
Primary visual area: occipital lobe Primary auditory area: temporal lobe Primary gustatory (taste) area: base of postcentral gyrus Primary olfactory (smell) area: medial aspect of temporal lobe
Motor Areas
Located anterior to central sulcus Primary motor area: precentral gyrus Brocas speech area
Interacts with premotor area and primary motor area to regulate breathing and speech muscles Is in left hemisphere in 97% of persons
Association Areas

Adjacent to sensory and motor areas and connected via association tracts Integrate and interpret information Examples
Somatosensory association area

Posterior to primary somatosensory area Integrates sensation: exact shape and texture of object compared with stored memories Interprets meaning of speech: words thoughts Right hemisphere adds emotional content
Wernikes area: left temporal, parietal lobes

Cerebrum: Functional Areas
Somatic Sensory Pathways

Relay sensory information from periphery to cerebral cortex 3 neurons in each pathway

Cell body #1 in dorsal root ganglion Cell body #2 in spinal cord or brain stem Cell body #3 in thalamus; axon extends to cerebral cortex (somatosensory area in postcentral gyrus)
Most sensory input to right side of body reaches left side of brain (and vice versa)
Posterior column - medial lemniscus pathway senses

Fine touch: body location, texture, size Proprioception: position and motion of body parts Vibrations: fluctuating touch stimuli
Spinothalamic pathways

Anterior and lateral spinothalamic tracts Relay impulses for pain, tickle, itch, hot, and cold sensations
Somatic Motor Pathways
Signals come from

Upper motor neurons: via corticospinal tracts Basal ganglia: help with muscle tone Cerebellum: coordination Sensory neurons or interneurons via reflexes Cell bodies in anterior gray of spinal cord Axons ventral root spinal nerve muscle voluntary movements
Impulses activate lower motor neurons

Somatic Motor Pathways
Somatic Sensory and Motor Pathways

Interactions Animation
Somatic Sensory and Motor Pathways
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Lateralization
Brain controls opposite side of the body: all sensory and motor pathways cross in CNS

Left side of the brain controls right side of body Right side of brain controls left side of body
Left hemisphere important for spoken and written language, numerical and scientific skills, and reasoning Right side more involved with spatial and pattern recognition and emotional content
Memory
Process for storing and retrieving information Involves structural and functional changes Involves association areas, parts of limbic system, and diencephalon Skill memory also involves cerebellum and basal ganglia
Cranial Nerves (Table 10.2)

I. Olfactory: special sensorysmell II. Optic: special sensoryvision III. Oculomotor: motorcontrol of eye movements IV. Trochlear: motorcontrol of eye movements V. Trigeminal: mixed
General
sensory: touch, pain, pressure, hot, cold in face Motor: to muscles used for chewing
Cranial Nerves
VI. Abducens: motorcontrol of eye movements VII.Facial: mixed

Special sensory (taste) from anterior of tongue Motor to muscles of facial expression, tear glands, and some salivary glands
VIII.Vestibulocochlear: special sensoryear
Cranial Nerves
IX. Glossopharyngeal: mixed
Sensory for posterior of tongue, pharynx, and palate; blood pressure Motor to pharyngeal muscles (swallowing), salivary gland (parotid
Cranial Nerves
X. Vagus: mixed (the major parasympathetic nerve)
Sensory from pharynx, ear, diaphragm, visceral organs in thoracic and abdominal cavities Motor to palatal and pharyngeal muscles (swallowing and voice); to viscera in thoracic and abdominal cavities
Cranial Nerves
XI. Accessory: motor to voluntary muscles including sternocleidomastoid and trapezius (move head, shoulders) XII.Hypoglossal: motor to tongue (swallowing and speech)
Aging
Rapid brain growth during first few years of life
Due to increase in size of neurons and proliferation of neuroglia Increase in development of dendritic branches and synaptic contacts Decline in brain mass Fewer synaptic contacts brain function Some decrease in brain function
From early adulthood through old age:

Central Nervous System

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Chapter 10

Central Nervous System, Spinal Nerves, and Cranial Nerves

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Spinal Cord Structure: Protection and Coverings

Vertebrae Spinal meninges

Three layers of connective tissue

Dura mater Arachnoid mater Pia mater

Continuous with cranial meninges

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Spinal Meninges and Spaces

Arachnoid mater: resembles spiders web

CSF circulates in this space

Pia mater: thin, delicate layer

Spinal Meninges and Spaces

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Gross Anatomy of Spinal Cord

Extends from medulla of brain to L2 vertebra Cauda equina (horses tail)

Left and right halves partially separated by

Enlargements: cervical and lumbar regions

Gross Anatomy of Spinal Cord

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Internal Structure of Spinal Cord

Gray matter forms H (or butterfly)

Three horns on each side; sites of cell bodies

White matter (surrounds gray H)

Consists of white columns

Posterior, anterior, and lateral columns Contain tracts (bundles of axons)

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Internal Structure of Spinal Cord

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nerves attached to spinal cord by 2 roots

Ventral root: composed of axons of motor neurons

Spinal Nerve Composition

Formed by 2 spinal nerve roots Are mixed:

Connective tissue coverings

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Spinal Nerve Composition

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Spinal Cord Functions

Pathways for nerve impulses within tracts

Ascending (sensory). Example: spinothalamic Descending (motor). Example: corticospinal

Reflexes: fast, involuntary sequences of actions in response to stimuli

Spinal (reflex arc): simple Cranial: more complex

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Example of Reflex Arc: Patellar Reflex

Example of Reflex Arc: Patellar Reflex

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Brain: Major Parts

Brain stem: continuous with spinal cord

Diencephalon: superior to brain stem

Cerebrum: largest part and most superior

Cerebellum: posterior and inferior

Cranial meninges: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

Brain: Major Parts

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Brain: Major Parts

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Brain Blood Supply and Blood-Brain Barrier

Requires 20% of the bodys O2 supply