INRODUCTION

Hydraulics generally deals with the mechanical features of hydraulics fluids and its behaviour on being pressurized from one cylinder to another and includes the hydraulics uses in different equipments and vehicles. Through hydraulics, the basic result to be achieved is that with little pressure, a great force should be produced. Hydraulic systems use an incompressible fluid, such as oil or water, to transmit forces from one location to another within the flui d. Most aircraft use hydraulics in the braking systems and landing gear. Pneumatic systems use compressible fluid, such as air, in their operation. Some aircraft utilize pneumatic systems for their brakes, landing gear and movement of flaps. The principles of hydraulic technology are not new. In the 18Th. century in London a hydraulic press was built and the Eifel tower was adjusted by water hydraulic jacks. About 200 years BC the Greek already used machines that were driven by water hydrauli cs. In nearly every kind of industry we use hydraulic drive and control techniques. A few examples are:
      

Mechanical Engineering Automobile Manufacturing Agriculture Industry Earthmoving and Mining Industry Ship building Industry Offshore Oil Industry Aerospace Industry

HYDRAULIC SCISSOR LIFT SIMPLE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

HYDRAULIC PRESS

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

PASCALS THEORY:

The pri iple of hydrauli i based on Pascal's famous theory. Pascal's law or the Principle of transmission of fluid -pressure states that "pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure ratio (initial difference) remains the same."

Where P is the hydrostatic pressure (gi en in Pascals in the SI system), or the difference in pressure at two points within a fluid column, due to the weight of the fluid; is the fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter in the SI system); g is acceleration due to gravity (normally using the sea level acceleration due to Earth's gravity in met ers per second squared); h is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the difference in elevation between the two points within the fluid column (in met ers in SI). THE BASIC IDEA: Following Pascals Law in a hydraulic system, force that is applied at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid. The fluid is almost always an oil of some sort. The force is almost always multiplied in the process. The picture shows the simplest possible hydraulic system:

A container, as shown above, contains a fluid. There is an increase in pressure as the length of the column of liquid increases, due to the increased mass of the fluid above. Hence P3 would be the highest value of the three pressure readings, because it has the highest level of fluid above it. If the above container had an increase in overall pressure, that same added pressure woul d affect each of the gauges (and the liquid throughout) the same. For example P1, P2, P3 were originally 1, 3, 5 units of pressure, and 5 units of pressure were added to the system; the new readings would be 6, 8, and 10. Applied to a more complex syst em below, such as a hydraulic car lift, Pascal's law allows forces to be multiplied. The cylinder on the left shows a cross-section area of 1 square cm, while the cylinder on the right shows a cross-section area of 10 square cm. The cylinder on the left has a weight (force) on 1 Newton acting downward on the piston, which lowers the fluid 10 cm. As a result of this force, the piston on the right lifts a 10 Newton weight a distance of 1 cm.

The 1 Newton load on the 1 square cm area causes an increase in pressure on the fluid in the system. This pressure is distribut ed equally throughout and acts on every square cm of the 10 square cm area of the large piston. As a result, the larger piston lifts up a 10 Newton weight. The larger the cross-section area of the second piston, the larger the mechanical advantage, and the more weight it lifts.

The formulas that relate to this are shown below: P1 = P2 (since the pressures are equal throughout). Since pressure equals force per unit area, then it follows that F1/A1 = F2/A2 It can be shown by substitution that the values shown above are correct, 1 N / 1 square cm = 10 N / 10 square cm Because the volume of fluid pushed down on the left side equals the volume of fluid that is lift ed up on the right side, the following formula is also true. V1 = V2 By substitution, A1 D1 = A2 D2
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A = cross sectional area D = the distance moved

r A1/A2= D2/D1 This syst em can be thought of as a simple machine (lever), since force is multiplied. The mechanical advantage can be found by rearranging terms in the above equation to Mechanical Advantage (IMA) = D1/D2 = A2/A1

COMPONENTS OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

HYDRAULIC PUMP:

An exploded view of an external gear pump. Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system develops in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining flow against a load of 5,000 psi. Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by volume). They are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts, or a flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration. Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery applications are;
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Gear pump: cheap, durable, simple. Less efficient, because they are constant (fixed) displacement, and mainly suitable for pressures below 20 MPa (3000 psi ).

EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP

INTERNAL GEAR PUMP

Vane pump: Cheap and simple, reliable (especially in g-rotor form). Good for higherflow low-pressure output. A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted to a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases these vanes can be variable length and/or tensioned to maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates.

ROTARY VANE PUMP

Axial pi ton pump: many designed with a variable displacement mechanism, to vary output flow for automatic control of pressure. There are various axial piston pump designs, including swash plate (sometimes referred to as a valve plate pump) and check ball (sometimes referred to as a wobble plate pump). The most common is the swash plate pump. A variable-angle swash plate causes the pistons to reciprocate a greater or lesser distance per rotation, allowing output flow rate and pressure to be varied (greater displacement angle causes higher flow rate, lower pressure, and vice versa).

AXIAL PISTON PUMP

Radial pi ton pump: A pump that is normally used for very high pressure at small flows. At this pump the working pistons are in radial direction and symmetrically arranged around the drive shaft, in contrast to the axial piston pump. The stroke of each piston is caused by an eccentric drive shaft or an external eccentric tappet (e.g. stroke ring).When filling the workspace of the pumping pistons from "inside" (e.g.

over a hollow shaft) it is called an inside impinged (but outside braced) radial piston pump. If the workspace is filled from "outside" it s called an outside impinged radial piston pump (but inside braced).

INSIDE IMPINGED RADIAL PISTON PUMP

OUTSIDE IMPINGED RADIAL PISTON PUMP

Piston pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life operating at higher pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty cycles. Piston pumps make up one half of a hydrostatic transmission.

CONTROL VALVES: Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a spool inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the housing, intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid based on the spool s position. The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the supply fluid is blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the hydraulic fluid to an actuator and provides a return path from the actuator to tank. Whe n the spool is moved to the opposite direction the supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is allowed to return to neutral (centre) position the actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position. Directional control valves are usually d esigned to be stackable, with one valve for each hydraulic cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack. Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking; spools typically have a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25 m). The valve block will be mounted to the machine s frame with a three point pattern to avoid distorting the valve block and jamming the valve s sensitive components. The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure, or solenoids which push the spool left or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude outside the housing, where it is accessible to the actuator.

The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen by flow capacity and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate proportional to valve position), while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of the most expensive and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.
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Pressure relief valves are used in several places in hydraulic machinery; on the return circuit to maintain a small amount of pressure for brakes, pilot lines, etc... n hydraulic cylinders, to prevent overloading and hydraulic line/seal rupture. n the hydraulic reservoir, to maintain a small positive pressure which excludes moisture and contamination. Pressure regulators reduce the supply pressure of hydraulic fluids as needed for various circuits. Sequence valves control the sequence of hydraulic circuits; to ensure that one hydraulic cylinder is fully ext ended before another starts its stroke, for example. Shuttle valves provide a logical or function. Check valves are one-way valves, allowing an accumulator to charge and maintain its pressure after the machine is turned off, for example. Pilot controlled Check valves are one-way valve that can be opened (for both directions) by a foreign pressure signal. For instance if the load should not be hold by the check valve anymore. ften the foreign pressure comes from the other pipe that is connect ed to the motor or cylinder. Counterbalance valves are in fact a special type of pilot controlled check valve. Whereas the check valve is open or closed, the counterbalance valve acts a bit like a pilot controlled flow control. Cartridge valves are in fact the inner part of a check valve; they are off the shelf components with a standardi ed envelope, making them easy to populate a proprietary valve block. They are available in many configurations; on/off, proportional, pressure relief, etc. They generally screw into a valve block and are electrically controlled to provide logic and automat ed functions. Hydraulic fuses are in-line safety devices designed to automatically seal off a hydraulic line if pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes too high. Auxiliary valves in complex hydraulic systems may have auxiliary valve blocks to handle various duties unseen to the operator, such as accumulator charging, cooling fan operation, air conditioning power, etc. They are usually custom valves designed for the particular machine, and may consist of a metal block with ports and channels drilled. Cartridge valves are threaded into the ports and may be electrically controlled by switches or a microprocessor to route fluid power as needed.

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ACTUATORS:
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Hydraulic cylinder: A basic actuating cylinder consists of cylinder housing, one or more pistons and piston rods, and one or more seals. The cylinder housing contains a polished bore in which the piston operates and one or more ports through which fluid enters and leaves the bore. The piston and rod form an assembly which moves forward and backward within the cylinder bore. The piston rod moves into and out of the cylinder housing through an opening in one or both ends. The seals are used to prevent leakage between the piston and cylinder bore, and between the piston rod and housing. The two major types of actuating cylinders are single -action and doubleaction.

SINGLE ACTION ACTUATING CYLINDER

DOUBLE ACTION ACTUATINGCYLINDER

Swash plates are used in hydraulic motors requiring highly accurate control and also in no stop continuous (360o) precision positioning mechanisms. These are frequently driven by several hydraulic pistons acting in sequence. Hydraulic motor (a pump plumbed in reverse) : Hydraulic motors are installed in hydraulic systems to use hydraulic pressure in obtaining powered rotation. A hydraulic motor does just the opposite of what a power -driven pump does. A pump receives rotative force from an engine or other driving unit and converts it into hydraulic pressure. A hydraulic motor receives hydraulic fluid pressure and converts it into rotative force.

HYDRAULIC MOTOR

RESERVOIR: The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume changes from: cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and contraction, and leaks. The reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid and also work as a heat accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak power is used. Design engineers are always pressured to reduce the si e of hydraulic reservoirs, while equipment operators always appreciate larger reservoirs. Reservoirs can also help separate dirt and other particulate from the oil, as the particulate will generally settle to the bottom of the tank. Some designs include dynamic flow channels on the fluid's return path that allow for a smaller reservoir.

TYPICAL YDRA LIC RESERV IR

ACCUMULATORS: Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store energy by using pressuri ed gas. ne type is a tube with a floating piston. n one side of the piston is a charge of pressuri ed gas and on the other side is the fluid. Bladders are used in other designs. Reservoirs store a syst em's fluid. Examples of accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a shock absorber for the hydraulic circuit.

PISTON ACC LA TOR

BLADDER ACC LA TOR

HYDRAULIC FLUID: Also known as tractor fluid, hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is usually petroleum oil with various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire resistant fluids, depending on their applications. In some factories where food is prepared, either an edible oil or wat er is used as a working fluid for health and safety reasons.

In addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs to lubricate components, suspend contaminants and metal filings for transport to the filter, and to function well to several hundred degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius. FILTERS: Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually produced by mechanical components and need to be removed along with other contaminants. Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filt er may be located between the reservoir and the pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitations and possibly failure of the pump. Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control valves. T his arrangement is more expensive, since the filter housing is pressuri ed, but eliminates cavitation problems and protects the control valve from pump failures. The third common filt er location is just before the return line enters the reservoir. This location is relatively insensitive to blockage and does not require a pressuri ed housing, but contaminants that enter the reservoir from external sources are not filtered until passing through the system at least once.

TYPICAL LINE FILTER ASSEM BLY

TUBES, PIPES AND HOSES: Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for hydraulics. The tubes have standard si es for different pressure ranges, with standard diamet ers up t o 100 mm. The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged. The tubes are interconnected by different types of flanges (especially for the larger si es and pressures), welding cones/nipples (with o-ring seal), several types of flare connection and by cut -rings. In larger si es, hydraulic pipes are used. Direct joining of tubes by welding is not acceptable since the interior cannot be inspected. Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally these are used for low pressure. They can be connect ed by threaded connections, but usually by welds. Because of the larger diameters the pipe can usually be inspected internally after welding. Black pipe is non-galvani ed and suitable for welding. Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses are used when pipes or tubes can not be used, usually to provide flexibility for machine operation or maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber interior is surrounded by multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The exterior is designed for abrasion resistance. The bend radius of hydraulic hose is carefully designed into the machine, since hose failures can be deadly, and violating the hose's minimum bend radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses generally have steel fittings swaged on the ends. The weakest part of the high pressure hose is the connection of the hose to the fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life of rubber which requires periodic replacement, usually at five to seven year intervals. Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are int ernally oiled before the system is commissioned. Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other couplings are used, the paint is removed under the nut, and is a location where corrosion can begin. For this reason, in marine applications most piping is stainless steel. SEALS, FITTINGS AND CONNECTIONS: In general, valves, cylinders and pumps have fema le threaded bosses for the fluid connection, and hoses have female ends with captive nuts. A male-male fitting is chosen to connect the two. Many standardi ed systems are in use. Fittings serve several purposes; 1. To bridge different standards; example. -ring boss to JIC, or pipe threads to face seal, for

2. To allow proper orientation of components, a 90, 45, straight, or swivel fitting is chosen as needed. They are designed to be positioned in the correct orientation and then tightened.

3. To incorporate bulkhead hardware. 4. A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without modification of hoses or valves A typical piece of heavy equipment may have thousands of sealed connection points and several different types:
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Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient an angled fitting correctly without over or under tightening. O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed into a boss and orientated as needed, an additional nut tightens the fitting, washer and o-ring in place. Flare fittings, are metal to metal compression seals deformed with a cone nut and pressed into a flare mating. Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and o-ring are fastened together. Beam seals are costly metal to metal seals used primarily in aircraft. Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged permanently in place. Primarily used in aircraft.

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HYDRAULIC PUMPS
The heart of any hydraulic system is the pump which converts mechanical energy int o hydraulic energy. The source of mechanical energy may be an electric motor, the engine, or the operator's muscle. HAND OPERATED PUMPS: Pumps powered by muscle are called hand pumps. They are used in emergencies as backups for power pumps and for ground checks of the hydraulic system. The double-action hand pump produces fluid flow with every stroke and is the only type used on Army aircraft. Handle to the Right: The double-action hand pump, shown in Figure, consists of a cylinder piston with built -in check valve, piston rod, operating handle, and a check valve built into the inlet port. As the handle is moved to the right, the piston and rod also move to the right. On this stroke, the inlet check valve opens as a result of the partial vacuum caused by the movement of the piston, allowing fluid to be drawn into the left chamber. At the same time, the inner check valve closes. As the piston moves to the right, the fluid in the right chamber is forced out into the system.

DOUBLE ACTION H AND PUMP

Handle to the Left: When the handle is moved to the left, the piston and rod assembly also move to the left. The inlet check valve now closes, preventing the fluid in the left chamber from returning to the reservoir. At the same time, the piston head check valve opens, allowing the fluid to enter the right chamber. Fluid into the System: The pump produces pressure on both strokes because of the difference in volume between the right and left chambers. The piston rod takes up a good share of the space in the right chamber. Therefore, the excess fluid is forced out of the pump and into the hydraulic system, creating fluid pressure. POWER-DRIVEN HYDRAULIC PUMPS: Power-driven pumps receive their driving force from an external power source, such as the aircraft engine. This force is converted into energy in the form of fluid pressure. The four basic types of power-driven hydraulic pumps are gear, vane, diaphragm, and piston. Pumps are coupled to their driving units by a short, splined coupling shaft, commonly called a drive coupli ng. As shown in Figure, the shaft is designed with a weakened centre section called a shear section, with just enough strength to run the pump under normal circumstances. Should some trouble develop within the pump causing it to turn unusually hard, the shear section will break. This prevents damage to the pump or driving unit.

PUMP DRIVE COUP LING

GEAR PUMP: A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. Gear pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump fluid with a certain viscosity. There are two main variations; external gear pumps which use two ext ernal spur gears and internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gear. Gear pumps are positive displacement (or fixed displacement), meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump. As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void and suction which is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the discharge side of the pump, where the meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The mechanical clearances are small in the order of 10 m. The tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid from leaking backwards. The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.

GEAR PUMP

SCREW PUMP: A screw pump is a positive displacement pump that use one or several screws to move fluids or solids along the screw(s) axis. In its simplest form (the Archimedes' screw pump), a single screw rotates in a cylindrical cavity, thereby moving the material along the screw's spindle. This ancient construction is still used in many low-tech applications, such as irrigation syst ems and in agriculturural machinery for transporting grain and other solids. Development of the screw pump has led to a variety of multi-axis technologies where carefully crafted screws rotate in opposite directions or remains stationary within a cavity. The cavity can be profiled, thereby creating cavities where the pumped material is "trapped".

In offshore and marine installations, a three spindle screw pump is often used to pump high pressure viscous fluids. Three screws drive the pumped liquid forth in a closed chamber. As the screws rotate in opposite directions, the pumped liquid moves along the screws spindles. Three-Spindle screw pumps are used for transport of viscous fluids with lubricating properties. They are suited for a variety of applications such as fuel-injection, oil burners, boosting, hydraulics, fuel, lubrication, circulating, and feed and so on. Compared to centrifugal pumps, positive displacements (PD) pumps have several advantages. The pumped fluid is moving axially without turbulence which eliminates foaming that would otherwise occur in viscous fluids. They are also able to pump fluids of higher viscosity without losing flow rate. Also, changes in the pressure difference have little impact on PD pumps compared to centrifugal pumps.

SCREW PUMP

LOBE PUMP: Lobe pumps are used in a variety of industries including pulp and paper, chemical, food, beverage, pharmaceutical, and biotechnology. They are popular in these diverse industries because they offer superb sanitary qualities, high efficiency, reliability, corrosion resistance and good clean-in-place and steam-in-place (CIP/SIP) charact eristics. Rotary pumps can handle solids (e.g., cherries and olives), slurries, pastes, and a variety of liquids. If wetted, they offer self-priming performance. A gentle pumping action minimi es product degradation. They also offer continuous and intermittent reversible flows and can operate dry for brief periods of time. Flow is relatively independent of changes in process pressure, too, so output is constant and continuous Lobe pumps are similar to ext ernal gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows around the interior of the casing. Unlike external gear pumps, however, the lobes do not make contact. Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump shaft

support bearings are located in the gearbox, and since the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location and shaft deflection. 1. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate. 2. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casingit does not pass between the lobes. 3. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.

LOBE PUMP

APPLICATIONS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Hydraulic systems have gained wide scale use and applicability in technologically driven industrial manufacturing process. Although the hydraulic technology is old, it remains a dominant system in modern industrial manufacturing process. The hydraulic system could by adapted for use from small industries to heavy manufacturing. Part of its popularity is that no other system has been found to be as efficient and effective in transferring energy through small tubes or hoses and other hard-to-reach parts. Broadly, the hydraulic products from application angle are classified as under:
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Industrial Mobile Marine Aerospace

The above major segments can be further sub divided into specific categories as follows:

Industrial: Hydraulic systems are widely used in various industries to make many products. Many items that require significant energy and force, such as tool manufacturing, often rely on the hydraulic technology and process. Automobile production assembly lines largely use hydraulic systems and process. Other heavy-duty production machines, such as large-scale publishing and printing, also use hydraulic technology. Some important industries employing hydraulic systems are as follows:
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Plastic Processing machinery Steel making and primary metal extraction industry Machine tool industry Others : cover in general, furnace equipment, rubber machinery, Textile machinery, general mechanical industry, etc.

Mobile/ Construction hydraulics: All types of construction activities use heavy-duty equipment, such as bulldozers folk lifts, rely on hydraulic systems. Caterpillar earth-moving equipment also uses the hydraulic systems for operation. Other construction equipment, such as cranes, used in lifting heavy load and metals, also use hydraulic technology as well.
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Agricultural tractors Earthmoving equipment Material handling equipment Others : cover general areas such as rail equipment , road building and construction machinery, drilling rigs, commercial vehicles, industrial tractors etc.

Marine application: Hydraulic systems are widely used in submarine operations. Before 1945, submarines used electrical power to operate its equipment. Aft er 1945, some submarines were modified to use hydraulic power. The preference of hydraulic submarines was partly related to its efficiency and effectiveness. They are also easier to operate and are self lubricat ed. The submarine uses the hydraulic syst em to operate its ballast tank vents, steering abilities, torpedo tubes, shutter doors and many other controls. Aerospace application: Aircrafts, particularly high-speed crafts, such as jets and military air crafts, rely on hydraulic systems to operate. Hydraulic systems are used in fixed-wing aircraft to perform functions, such as changing the propeller pitch, for the deployment of landing gear. Hydraulic systems are also used in wing flaps and wheel brakes. Airplanes also use hydraulic systems for engine starts, brake operations and clutch system. There are equipment and syst ems, e.g. transmission, rudder control, which are used in aeroplanes, rockets and spaceships.

HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

Hydraulic fracturing or "Hydrofracking" is a process that results in the creation of fractures in rocks. The fracturing is done from a wellbore drilled into reservoir rock formations to increase the rate and ultimate recovery of oil and natural gas. It is one of the versatile applications of hydraulic systems in the oil industry. Hydraulic fractures may be natural or man-made and are extended by internal fluid pressure which opens the fracture and causes it to extend through the rock. Natural hydraulic fractures include volcanic dikes, sills and fracturing by ice as in frost weathering. Man-made fluiddriven fractures are formed at depth in a borehole and extend into targeted formations. The fracture width is typically maintained after the injection by introducing a proppant into the injected fluid. Proppant is a material, such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulates that prevent the fractures from closing when the injection is stopped.

PURPOSE OF HYDROFRACKING: The technique of hydraulic fracturing is used to increase or restore the rate at which fluids, such as oil, gas or water, can be produced from a reservoir, including unconventional reservoirs such as shale rock or coal beds. Hydraulic fracturing enables the production of natural gas and oil from rock formations deep below the earth's surface (generally 5,000-20,000 feet or 1,500-6,100 m). At such depth, there may not be sufficient porosity and permeability to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the rock into the wellbore at economic rates. For example, creating conductive fractures in the rock is essential to produce gas from shale reservoirs because of the extremely low natural permeability of shale. The fracture provides a conductive path connecting a larger area of the

reservoir to the well, thereby increasing the area from which natural gas and liquids can be recovered from the targeted formation. While the main industrial use of hydraulic fracturing is in stimulating production from oil and gas wells, hydraulic fracturing is also applied to:
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Stimulating groundwater wells Preconditioning rock for caving or inducing rock to cave in mining As a means of enhancing waste remediation processes (usually hydrocarbon waste or spills) or spills. Dispose of wast e by injection into suitable deep rock formations As a method to measure the stress in the earth.

METHOD OF HYDROFRACKING: A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping the fracturing fluid into the wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase the pressure down hole to a value in excess of the fracture gradient of the formation rock. The pressure causes the formation to crack, allowing the fracturing fluid to enter and extend the crack farther into the formation. To keep this fracture open after the injection stops, a solid proppant, commonly sieved round sand, is added to the fracture fluid. The propped hydraulic fracture then becomes a high permeability conduit through which the formation fluids can flow to the well. Drilling a wellbore produces rock chips and fine rock particles that may enter cracks and pore space at the wellbore wall, resulting in damage to the permeability at and near the wellbore. The damage reduces flow into the borehole from the surrounding rock formation, and partially seals off the borehole from the surrounding rock. Hydraulic fracturing can be used to mitigate this damage. Hydraulic fracture stimulation is commonly applied to wells drilled in low permeability reservoirs. An estimated 90 percent of the natural gas wells in the United States use hydraulic fracturing to produce gas at economic rates. The fracture fluid can be any number of fluids, ranging from water to gels, foams, nitrogen, carbon dioxide or air in some cases. Various types of proppant are used, including sand, resin-coated sand, and man-made ceramics depending on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. Radioactive sand is sometimes used so that the fracture trace along the wellbore can be measured. The injected fluid mixture is approximately 99 percent water and sand. Micro seismic monitoring is a common met hod for measuring the orientation and approximate size of a hydraulic fracture. Microseismic activity is measured by placing an array of geophones in a nearby wellbore. By mapping the location of small seismic events that are associated with the growing hydraulic fracture, the approximate geometry of the fracture is inferred. Tilt meter arrays, deployed on the surface or down a well, provide another technology for monitoring the fracture geometry.

Typically, hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores and the reservoir zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS: Many environmental and human health concerns possibly associat ed with hydraulic fracturing include the contamination of ground water, risks to air quality, the migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, and the pot ential mishandling of waste. The potential costs associated with possible environmental clean-up processes, loss of land value and human and animal health concerns are undetermined. New technological advances and appropriate state regulations are working to study and safely implement the process.

REFERENCES
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www.wikipedia.org www.hydraulicmania.com www.iahr.org www.grc.nasa.gov www.google.com www.howstuffworks.com