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. Suryanarayana Doolla Department of Energy Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay suryad@iitb.ac.in
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Outline
Review
Topics Covered
Load Frequency / AGC of Power Systems Droop Control in Microgrids (Conventional and Opposite) Feeder Flow Control PQ- Capability Curves for Inverters Sizing of Inductor for Inverters Proportional power/current sharing principle Power Sharing in Distributed networks by various nodes
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Outline
Todays Lecture
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Islanding - Introduction
Islanding-Denition
A system is said to be islanded when one or more DER continues to energize the network even after the connection to rest of the system is lost. This islanding can be can be either intentional or unintentional. IEEE Denition: An island is That part of a power system consisting of one ore more power sources and load that is, for some period of time, separated from the rest of the system.
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Islanding - Introduction
Denition
When a DG is connected to grid in parallel, there can be three modes of operation.
Exporting power Importing power Stand by
It is mandatory to have a grid islanding scheme for DGs (some utilities) to synchronize with main grid
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httpProf. : //Doolla www .larsentoubro .com /lntcorporate /ebg /html /gridi slanding .htm EN 647 : DG and Grids
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Islanding - Introduction
To the DG owner
Due to disturbances in the grid, DG may get damaged due to grid disturbances resulting in heavy repair costs and shut downs. In some cases, the DG which is running may experience a severe jolt when the EB comes back. This may again damage the DG
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Islanding - Introduction
If there is a surplus active power in an island: The speed of the generators will increase The dc link voltage of the inverter will rise If there is a surplus reactive power in an island: The voltage across the shunt capacitor increases Islands with large power imbalance may not survive for a longer period. Islands with proper power balance will survice for a longer period even in absence of voltage and frequency regulators.
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Islanding - Introduction
Grid disturbance
A grid is said to be disturbed when one or more of the following events occur. When there is an over voltage (OV) When there is an under voltage (UV) When there is an over frequency (OF) When there is an under frequency (UF) When there is a signicant rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) When there is a power failure in the grid When there is a fault on the grid.
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Islanding - Introduction
It is possible to detect the grid disturbances by using relays. UV, OV can be detected by using simple electro-mechanical relays Frequency changes can be detected using Numerical relays Numerical relays have capacity to perform mathematical algorithms and hence detection of df/dt is also possible Grid faults are detected using directional earth fault relay and directional over current relay.
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Islanding - Introduction
It is possible to detect the grid disturbances by using relays. Load management system Re-Synchronization system
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Islanding - Introduction
Some synonyms used for islanding detection around the world: Loss of mains protection Loss of grid protection Anti-islanding protection Islanding protection
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Islanding - Introduction
Islanding Detection
Why is it required Safety of maintenance personnel Protection of equipment from damage Load management What are its requirements Dependable - It should detect all islanding events Secure - It should not respond to other disturbances Fast - They should have good response time as per the local grid code
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Grid Code
Grid Code
Grid Code
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Grid Code
Islanding Detection
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Islanding Detection
These techniques are based on monitoring of grid parameters such as voltage, current, frequency and/or their characteristics. Over/under-voltage and over/under-frequency Phase jump detection, Vector Surge detection Voltage and current harmonics based detection State estimators based detection Rate of change of frequency Rate of change of output power
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Islanding Detection
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Islanding Detection
PPV + P = Pload QPV + Q = Qload If the inverter is operating at UPF, the QPV = 0 = Q = Qload The behaviour of the system during islanding depends on the values of P and Q at the instant of opening of the recloser.
Prof. Doolla EN 647 : DG and Grids
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Islanding Detection
If P = 0, then OVP/UVP will detect the change If Q = 0, then load voltage will show a sudden shift in phase. This change can be detected by OFP/UFP. Strength Low cost option Comes with most of the DGs. Weakness Does not work when P = 0 and Q = 0 Presence of non-detection Zone (large).
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Islanding Detection
Strength Easily implemented as PLL is required, in general. Does not eect output power quality. Weakness A load with non-zero phase angle at utility frequency does not produce a phase error when utility is disconnected. The starting of certain loads, particularly motors, often causes transient phase jumps of signicant size, and these will cause nuisance trips of the PV inverter if the thresholds are set too low.
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Islanding Detection
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Islanding Detection
Strength Considered to be highly successful (theoretically) Does not eect output power quality. Weakness Possibility of unwanted tripping of circuit breakers in some cases. Parallel RLC load can exhibit low pass characteristics and hence reduce overall THD Transient over voltages caused by switching of capacitor banks can increase THD may lead to false tripping of CB. It is very dicult to select a THD which meets our requirement.
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Impedance Method
Theorey Impedance oered by electric distribution grid is very low This technique is based on measurement of impedance to detect impedance changes at the output of DG when isolated from main grid. The PV inverter appears as a current source to the utility. iDG = IDG sin(DG t + DG ) (3)
A disturbance added at the output of the inverter lead to change in voltage at PCC, if grid is not available. Variation is monitored by calculating dv/di which represents grid impedance as seen by the inverter.
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Impedance Method
Ideally there is no non detection zone in this method and hence appears to be very attractive. Valid for system whose impedance is higher than grid impedance. Weakness Necessary to establish an impedance threshold to identify when the grid is connected. Exact value of the grid impedance is required which is a parameter initially unknown. Multiple inverters may decrese the eectiveness if not synchronized properly.
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Impedance Method
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It is possible to apply positive feedback to magnitude, frequency and phase. All three options are explored in literature. In SMS method, positive feedback is applied to the phase of voltage as a method to shift the phase Shift in phase indirectly change the short-term frequency.
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Theorey: Normally operation: PV inverters operate at UPF. PLL is tracked to maintain the phase between voltage and current to be zero. SMS: The current/voltage phase angle of the inverter, is made to be a function of the frequency of the PCC voltage. The phase-frequency curve of the inverter is designed to ensure that inverter increases its phase faster than load. When grid is available, the stable operating point is at the line frequency.
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If there is any perturbation of the frequency from nominal, the S-shaped phase response curve (of inverter) increases the phase error instead of decreasing the same.
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M. E. Ropp, M. Begovic, A. Rohatgi, Prevention of islanding in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Volume 7, Issue 1, pages 3959, January/February 1999
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This method also uses positive feedback mechanism to cause instability Due to disturbance, inverter operates at new operating point A or C depending on direction of perturbation.
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Some loads have response curve have high slope than that of inverter characteristics (S shape).
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4 M. E. Ropp, M. Begovic, A. Rohatgi, Prevention of islanding in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications Prof. Doolla EN 647 : DG and Grids 35 / 53
SMS works for the top two loads only. For bottom three loads, the nominal line frequency is a stable operating point and renders SMS ineective These loads have high Q and resonant frequency near the line frequency.
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M. Begovic, et. al , Determining the relative eectiveness of islanding detection methods using phase criteria and nondetection zones IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Volume: 15 , Issue: 3, 2000
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If grid is not available, a phase error appears between the inverter current and the voltage at the PCC. The inverter detects this error and tries to compensate it by increasing the frequency of the generated current. This process continues until the frequency exceeds the limits and is detected by the OFR/UFR
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Strength: This method is relatively easy to implement in inverters. Weakness: A small degradation of the PV inverter output power quality. There would have to be agreement between all manufacturers of inverters in the direction of the frequency bias. Discontinuous current waveforms may cause radiated and conducted radio frequency interference (RFI).
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Where, K is an accelerating gain that does not change direction, fa is the measured frequency of VPCC , and fline is the line frequency
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Strengths: This method is not dicult to implement and has one of the smallest NDZs It appears to provide a good compromise between islanding detection eectiveness, output power quality, and system transient response eects. SFS has been implemented in combination with the Sandia Voltage Shift (SVS) islanding prevention method. This combination has been found to be extremely eective.
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Weakness: Output power quality of the PV inverter be reduced slightly. Instability in the PV inverters power output can cause undesirable transient behavior in the system when a weak utility is connected More severe as the penetration level of PV inverters into the network increased. Have a NDZ for loads with very high value of quality factor Q.
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These detection techniques are based on some kind of communication between the grid and the DG. Impedance insertion Power line carrier communications Signal produced by disconnect Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) They are more reliable than the local techniques, but they are more expensive to implement.
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Impedance Insertion
This method involves the insertion of a low impedance load (bank of capacitors) which is connected to the PCC when the utility breaker opens. The power balance between generation and load is modied A phase change and a sudden variation of the resonance frequency that can be detected by the OUF limits
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Impedance Insertion
Low response time. The banks of capacitors can be used also for reactive compensation. It is expensive to implement and the time needed to insert the capacitor bank after the grid disconnection could not meet certain standards. The impedance value should be sized according to the minimum variation of phase (and therefore the frequency) that can be detected.
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Transmit a continuous low-energy signal between the transmitter (T) located on the side of the grid and receiver (R) located on the side of the DG. When this communication is disrupted, the receiver send a stopping signal to the inverter and/or a switch (included in the receiver) should be opened in order to isolate the load from the DG.
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SCADA systems use a wide communications network and sensors to control and monitor the grid connected equipment, allowing a fast response to contingencies that may arise in the grid, easing islanding detection. When the grid is disconnected, a series of alarms are activated for disconnection of the DGs. This method is highly eective to detect islanding, eliminating the NDZ. Too expensive and requiring a large number of sensors and additional features. It is not feasible in small installations.
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References
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M. Begovic, et. al , Determining the relative eectiveness of islanding detection methods using phase criteria and nondetection zones IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Volume: 15 , Issue: 3, 2000 M. E. Ropp, M. Begovic, A. Rohatgi, Prevention of islanding in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Volume 7, Issue 1, pages 3959, January/February 1999 Kern, G., Bonn, R., Ginn, J., Gonzalez, S., Results of SNL Grid-Tied Inverter Testing, Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference and Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion, Vienna, Austria, Jul 1998 IEEE Std. 929-2000, IEEE Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, Sponsored by IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 21 on Photovoltaics, IEEE Std. 929-2000, Published by the IEEE, New York, NY, Apr 2000.
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