DETAILED STUDY SCHEME

Introduction to Linear ICs and Systems: I. List a number of ways that linear ICs are currently being used in industry and the home. II. Define the following: Discrete component Integrated circuit Linear Circuit

Operational Amplifiers: I. Define Op-amp II. Draw: 1. Op amp schematic symbol and identify the power supply lines and the signal lines 2. Some common op-amp circuits III. Describe: 1. Op-amps and why they are used. 2. Effects of negative feedback on an op-amp circuit 3. Ways to compensate for bias currents and offset voltage IV. Discuss op-amp parameters and use data sheets to determine them V. Calculate the gain for a inverting, non-inverting, and voltage-follower op-amp circuits VI. Define: Frequency Response Pole Roll-Off Rate Bandwidth Open loop gain Closed loop gain Gain-bandwidth product Feedback Positive feedback Negative feedback Stability Compensation

VII. Calculate: Open loop gain Closed loop gain Open loop bandwidth Closed loop bandwidth

VIII. Analyse op-amp frequency response

Basic Op-amp Applications: I. Define, draw, label, and discuss the following circuits: Comparators Summing amplifiers Integrators Differentiators Peak Detectors

II. Analyse the following op-amp circuits: Comparators Summing amplifiers Integrators Differentiators Window comparators Peak detectors

III. Troubleshoot an op-amp circuit

Active Filters: I. Describe, draw, and analyse the following active filters and explain why they are used Low pass High pass Band pass Band stop (notch)

II. Describe the shape of several filter frequency response curves III. State the difference between "active" and "passive" filters IV. Describe several system applications for active filters V. Calculate the centre frequency, bandwidth, and Q for active filters

Oscillators: I. Define the following: Sinusoidal oscillator Non-sinusoidal oscillator

II. Explain the conditions required for oscillation III. Discuss the following: Why oscillators are used Where oscillators are used Basic types of oscillators, including RC, LC, crystal, and voltage controlled The benefits of each type of oscillator IV. Identify and analyze Wien-bridge oscillator Phase-shift oscillator Colpitts oscillator Hartley oscillator Crystal controlled oscillator

V. Calculate the operating frequency for oscillator circuits

555 Timer Circuits: I. Build and analyze the following circuits: Monostable Pulse Generator Astable Oscillator

II. Discuss the applications of a 555 Timer IC

Voltage Regulators: I. Define: Voltage regulation Line regulation Load regulation

II. Describe what voltage regulators are and why they are used.

III. Analyze the operation of each of the following regulator circuits: Series Shunt Switching IC regulators

IV. Describe several system applications for IC regulators Fixed positive Fixed negative Adjustable Dual-tracking

V. Calculate the following: Line regulation Load regulation Maximum load current Maximum input voltage

EXPERIMENTS

List of Experiments: 1. To study differential amplifier configurations. 2. To measure the performance parameters of an Op amp. 3. Application of Op amp as Inverting and Non Inverting amplifier. 4. To study frequency response of an Op Amp. 5. To use the Op-Amp as summing, scaling & averaging amplifier. 6. To use the Op-Amp as Instrumentation amplifier. 7. Design differentiator and Integrator using Op-Amp. 8. Application of Op Amp as Log and Antilog amplifier. Design Low pass, High pass and Band pass 1st order butterworth active filters using Op Amp. 9. Design Phase shift oscillator using Op-Amp. 10. Design Wein Bridge oscillator using Op-Amp. 11. Application of Op Amp as Sawtooth wave generator. 12. Application of Op Amp as Zero Crossing detector and window detector. 13. Application of Op Amp as Schmitt Trigger. 14. Design a series regulator with an error amplifier to provide an output voltage of 5 volt at a load current of 1.5 Amp. Use a 741 Op-Amp and specify the Zener voltage necessary transistor gain and the maximum power dissipation of the transistor. 15. Design a delay circuit using 555. 16. To examine the operation of a PLL and to determine the free running frequency, the capture range and the lock in range of PLL. 17. Verification of hardware results obtained using SPICE.

STUDY OF OP-AMP
An operational amplifier or op-amp is a linear integrated circuit that has a very high voltage gain, high input impedance and low output impedance. Op-amp is basically a differential amplifier whose basic function is to amplify the difference between two input signals.

Op-amp has five basic terminals, that is, two input terminals, one o/p terminal and two power supply terminals. Pin2 is called the inverting input terminal and it gives opposite polarity at the output if a signal is applied to it. It produces a phase shift of 180o between input and output. Pin3 is called the non-inverting terminal that amplifies the input signal without inversion, i.e., there is no phase shift or i/p is in phase with o/p. The op-amp usually amplifies the difference between the voltages applied to its two input terminals. Two further terminals pins 7 and 4 are provided for the connection of positive and negative power supply voltages respectively. Terminals 1 and 5 are used for dc offset. The pin 8 marked NC indicates No Connection.

The block diagram of op-amp shows 2 difference amplifiers, a buffer for less loading, a level translator for adjusting operating point to original level and o/p stage. An ideal op-amp should have the following characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Infinite bandwidth Infinite input resistance Infinite open loop gain Zero output resistance Zero offset.

Op-amps have two operating configurations; open loop and closed loop. In open loop configuration, it can operate as a switch but gain is uncontrolled. In closed loop configuration, gain can controlled by feedback resistance Rf and input resistance Rin.

Experiment No. 1
AIM: To design and test the operation of Differential amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

DESIGN: Gain = 100, & Let R1 = 1 KW AD = R2 / R1 So R2 = AD * R 1 R2 = 100 * 1KW = 100KW.

THEORY: A Circuit that amplifies the difference between two signals is called a differential amplifier. This type of amplifier is very useful in instrumentation circuits. For differential amplifier, though the circuit is not symmetric, but because of the mismatch, the gain at the output with respect to positive terminal is slightly different in magnitude to that of negative terminal. So even with the same voltage applied to both the inputs, the output is not zero.

PROCEDURE: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set the input Voltages V1 = 50mV & V2 =40mV. 3. Note down the Output Voltage 4. Vary the input Voltages and note down the output voltages. 5. Calculate the gain & Compare it with the Theoretical gain.

RESULT: Thus the Differential amplifier is designed & tested.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: DIFFERENTIATOR:

INTEGRATOR:

SPECIFICATION FOR IC741: +Vcc = +15V, - Vcc = -15V Ambient Temparature : 250 C Input offset voltage : 6 mV(Max) Input offset current : 200nA(Max) Input bias current : 500nA(Max) Input resistance : 2MW Output resistance : 75W Total Power dissipation : 85mW.

Experiment No. 2
AIM: To design amplifiers using IC 741 in the inverting and non-inverting modes.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

DESIGN: INVERTING AMPLIFIER:

NON- INVERTING AMPLIFIER:

THEORY: The basic equation for the op-amp is Ae = V0 where A is open loop gain of the Op-amp at an operating frequency f and is positive. e is measured as per the arrow direction shown in the fig 1. This equation is valid for the open loop condition and closed loop condition [only for negative feedback]. Using the above formula all the gain equations for the different amplifier configuration can be derived. It is very important to note that A varies with frequency.

A is of the order of 105 to 106 at 5 Hz Hence e = 0 for range of frequencies. This implies that the non-inverting terminal voltage follows the inverting terminal voltage or the inverting terminal voltage follows the non-inverting terminal voltage. In other words the potential difference between the inverting and non-inverting terminal is zero volt at a specified frequency the above condition will not be valid.

PROCEDURE: 1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagrams. 2. The input voltage is given and the output voltage is noted. The maximum input voltage that can be given to the circuit is VI[max]. 3. In all the config when VI = 0, V0 = 0. 4. The close loop gain is calculated for each input voltage and transfer characteristics is drawn for each configuration. 5. The slope of the characteristics between input and output voltage gives the small signal AC closed loop gain as represented in model graph.

RESULT: Slope of the DC characteristics between input and output voltage gives the small signal AC closed loop gain provided the condition outlined in theory regarding open loop gain with frequency is maintained.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Experiment No. 3
AIM: To construct the Instrumentation amplifier using IC-741. APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY: The output of the transducer has to be amplified to drive the indicating or driving system. This function is performed by instrumentation amplifier. The important features are: 1) High gain accuracy, 2) High Common mode rejection ratio, 3) High gain stability with low temperature coefficient, 4) Low DC offset, 5) Low output impedance. PROCEDURE: 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set the DC input voltage as 1 mV. 3. Note down the output voltage. 4. Calculate the gain and compare it with theoretical gain. 5. Repeat it for different input values.

RESULT: Thus the Instrumentation amplifier was constructed & verified.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC741:

SPECIFICATION FOR IC741: +Vcc = +15V, - Vcc = -15V Ambient Temperature: 250 C Input offset voltage: 6 mV(Max) Input offset current: 200nA(Max) Input bias current: 500nA(Max) Input resistance: 2MW Output resistance: 75W Total Power dissipation: 85mW.

Experiment No. 4
Aim: To design the Wein Bridge Oscillator using op-amp.

Components Required: S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 7 Components Op-amp Dual trace supply Function Generator Resistors Capacitors CRO Probes Range IC 741 (0-30) V (0-2) MHz Quantity 1 1 1

(0-30) MHz --

1 --

Equations Related to the Experiment: Wein Bridge Oscillator Closed loop gain Av = (1+Rf/R1) = 3 Frequency of Oscillation fa = 1/(2RC)

Design: Gain required for sustained oscillation is Av = 1/ = 3 (PASS BAND GAIN) (i.e.) 1+Rf/R1 = 3 Rf = 2R1 Frequency of Oscillation fo = 1/2 R C Given fo = 1 KHz Let C = 0.05 F R = 1/2 foC R = 3.2 K Let R1 = 10 K Rf = 2 * 10 K

Model Graph:
VO

+ Vp

Vp

Procedure: 1. Connect the components as shown in the circuit 5.1 Circuit 5.1:
R1=10 k Rf =20 k

+10V 7 ICY41 + 4 -10V CRO VO 6

2 3

R = 3.2k

C 0.05f

3.2k R

C 0.05 f

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Switch on the power supply and CRO. Note down the output voltage at CRO. Plot the output waveform on the graph. Redesign the circuit to generate the sine wave of frequency 2KHz. Compare the output with the theoretical value of oscillation.

Observation: Peak to peak amplitude of the output = Frequency of oscillation =

Volts. Hz.

Result: Thus wien bridge was designed using op-amp and tested.

Experiment No. 5
Aim: To design the Phase Shift Oscillator using op-amp. Components Required: S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 7 Components Op-amp Dual trace supply Function Generator Resistors Capacitors CRO Probes Range IC 741 (0-30) V (0-2) MHz Quantity 1 1 1

(0-30) MHz --

1 --

Equations Related to the Experiment: RC Phase shift Oscillator: Gain Av = [Rf/R1] = 29 Frequency of oscillation fa = 1 6 * 2 * * RC Design:
Frequency of oscillation fo = 1/(6*2**RC) Av = [Rf/R1] = 29 R1 = 10 R Rf = 29 R1 Given fo = 200 Hz. Let C = 0.1F

R =1 /

( = 1/ (

6 * 2 * fo * C

) )

6 * 2 * * 200 * 0.1*106

= K To prevent the loading of amplifier by RC network, R1 10R R1 = 10 * = K Since Rf = 29R1 Rf = 29 * = M

Model Graph:

VO

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuits as shown in the circuit 5.2 2. Switch on the power supply. Circuit 5.2:
R1 1 m DRB

33k

Rf +10V 7 IC741 + 4 -10V 0.01f C CRO VO 6

32k

2 3

0.01f

0.01f

3.3k

3.3k R

3.3k

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Note down the output voltage on the CRO. Plot the output waveforms on the graph. Redesign the circuit to generate the sine wave of 1 KHz. Plot the output waveform on the graph. Compare the practical value of the frequency with the theoretical value.

Observation:

Peak to peak amplitude of the sine wave = Frequency of Oscillation (obtained) =

Volts Hz.

Result:
Thus RC Phase shift oscillator was designed using op-amp and tested.

Experiment No. 6
Aim: To Design differentiator and Integrator using Op-Amp. Apparatus required:

S.No
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6

Components
Op-amp Dual trace supply Function Generator Resistors Capacitors CRO

Range
IC 741 (0-30) V (0-1) MHz

Quantity
1 1 1

(0-30) MHz

Differentiator: Design:

Step1: Select fa equal to the highest frequency of the input signal to be differentiated. Then assuming a value of C1 < 1F. Calculate the value of Rf. Step2: Choose fb = 20 fa and calculate the values of R1 and Cf so that R1C1 = Rf Cf. fa = KHz ; fb = KHz ;C1 = 0.1 f; RCOMP = Rf ; RL = 10K

fa = 1/ [2RfC1]; Rf = 1/2 C1 fa ; fb = 1/ [2R1C1];R1 = 1/2 C1 fb;R1C1 = Rf Cf; Cf = R1C1/ Rf

Circuit Diagram

Cf

R1

C1

Rf

+12V Vin 2 3 + 4 7

6 IC 741

Vo = -Rf C1[dVin/dt]

RCOMP
Rom

RL -12V

Observation:
For sine wave input: Peak to peak amplitude of the input = Frequency of the input = volts. Hz volts. Hz

Peak to peak amplitude of the output = Frequency of the output For square wave input: Peak to peak amplitude of the input = Frequency of the input = =

volts. Hz volts. Hz

Peak to peak amplitude of the output = Frequency of the output =

Model Graph:
Vin
Model graph Vin IV

Model graph

IV

t
t

-IV
-IV

Vo 2V
Vo

t
t

-2V

Integrator: Design:
Generally the value of the fa and in turn R1Cf and Rf Cf values should be selected such that fa < fb. From the frequency response we can observe that fa is the frequency at which the gain is 0 db and fb is the frequency at which the gain is limited. Maximum input signal frequency = 1 KHz. Condition is time period of the input signal is larger than or equal to Rf Cf (i.e.) T R1Cf fb = KHz ; fa = fb/10; Rf = 10R1; RCOMP = R1; RL & R1 = 10K

fa = 1/ [2RfCf];

Rf Cf = 1msec &; Cf = 1msec/100K

Circuit Diagram:
Cf

Rf R1

+12V Vin 2 3 + 4 7

6 IC 741

VO = - [1/R1Cf] Vin dt
RL

RCOMP
Rom = R1

-12V

Observation:
For sine wave input: Peak to peak amplitude of the input = Frequency of the input = volts. Hz volts. Hz

Peak to peak amplitude of the output = Frequency of the output For square wave input: Peak to peak amplitude of the input = Frequency of the input = =

volts. Hz volts. Hz

Peak to peak amplitude of the output = Frequency of the output =

Model Graph:
Vin Model graph

t
t

Vo

t
t

Procedure:

1. Connect the components as per the circuit diagram. 2. Set the input voltage using {F.G [for 1 to 5]. and DC Supply [for 6 & 7]}observe the output waveform at Pin no.6 3. Connect CRO at Pin no.6 and measure 0/p voltage and note it down. 4. Plot the output waveforms

Result:

Thus Differentiator & Integrator using op-amp was designed and tested.

Experiment No. 7
Aim: To Design Crossing detector and window detector using Op-Amp. Apparatus Required.

S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Component Op amp F.G Resistors CRO DTS Diode

Range IC 741 (0-1) MHz

Quantity 1 1

(0-30) MHz (0-30) V 1N4007

1 1 2

1) Zero Crossing Detector: [Sine wave to square wave converter]

+12V 7 2 D1 Vin 5V/1KHz 1K D2 3 + 4 1K

6 IC 741

Vo

-12V

10K

Model Graph:

2) Window Detector: Condition

VTL < Vi > VTH Vi > VTH OR Vi < VTL

Output
VO= VCC VO = 0

Circuit Diagram:
+12V 1K

VTH

1K

3 +

6 LM339 -

Vi

1K

0
5 3 +12V LM339 1K 4 10K 12 2 Vo

VTL

12

Model Graph:

Observation:

S.No
1 2 3

VTH
6V 3V 0V

VTL
3V 0V 6V

Vi
5V/1KHz 5V/1KHz 5V/1KHz

Vo

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit 2. Set the input voltage as 5V (p-p) at 1KHz. (Input should be always less than Vcc) 3. Note down the output voltage at CRO 4. To observe the phase difference between the input and the output, set the CRO in dual Mode and switch the trigger source in CRO to CHI. 5. Plot the input and output waveforms on the graph.

Observation:
Peak to peak amplitude of the output = Frequency = Upper threshold voltage = Lower threshold voltage = Volts. Hz. Volts. Volts.

Result:
Thus crossing detector and window detector using op-amp was designed & tested.

Experiment No. 8
Aim: To Design Schmitt trigger using Op-Amp.

Apparatus Required.

S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Component Op amp F.G Resistors CRO DTS Diode

Range IC 741 (0-1) MHz

Quantity 1 1

(0-30) MHz (0-30) V 1N4007

1 1 2

Schmitt Trigger: Design

VCC = 12 V; VSAT = 0.9 VCC; R1= 47K; R2 = 120 VUT = + [VSAT R2] / [R1+R2] & VLT = - [VSAT R2] / [R1+R2] & HYSTERSIS [H] = VUT VLT

Circuit Diagram

+12V 7 2 3 + 4

Vin R1

-12V

R2

RL = 10K

Model Graph

Observation:

S.No
1 2 3

VTH
6V 3V 0V

VTL
3V 0V 6V

Vi
5V/1KHz 5V/1KHz 5V/1KHz

Vo

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit 2. Set the input voltage as 5V (p-p) at 1KHz. (Input should be always less than Vcc) 3. Note down the output voltage at CRO 4. To observe the phase difference between the input and the output, set the CRO in dual Mode and switch the trigger source in CRO to CHI. 5. Plot the input and output waveforms on the graph.

Observation:
Peak to peak amplitude of the output = Frequency = Upper threshold voltage = Lower threshold voltage = Volts. Hz. Volts. Volts.

Result:

Thus Schmitt trigger using op-amp was designed & tested.

VIVA Questions

1. What is an op-amp? 2. Give the characteristics of an ideal op-amp: 3. How a non-inverting amplifier can be courted into voltage follower? 4. What is the necessity of negative feedback? 5. What are 4 building blocks of an op-amp? 6. What is the purpose of shunting Cf across Rf and connecting R1 in series with the input signal? 7. What are the applications of Differentiator? 8. What do you mean by unity gain bandwidth? 9. What did you observe at the output when the signal frequency is increased above fa? 10. How would you eliminate the high frequency noise in integrator? 11. What are the main applications of the Integrator? 12. Is it possible to design an analog computer using integrator and differentiator? 13. What happens to the output of integrator when input signal frequency goes below fa? 14. What is Hysteresis? What parameter determines Hysteresis? 15. How would you recognize that positive feedback is being used in the Op-amp circuit? 16. What do you mean by upper and lower threshold voltage in Schmitt Trigger? 17. What is the difference between a basic comparator and the Schmitt trigger? 18. What is a sample and hold circuit? Why is it needed? 19. What is a voltage limiting, and why is it needed? 20. What is the name of the circuit that is used to detect the peak value of the Nonsinusoidal input waveforms? 21. How will you produce, definite Hysteris in a Schmitt trigger using op-amp? 22. What is other name for Astable Multivibrators? 23. How an Op-amp is used to generate square wave? 24. What are the changes to be done in a symmetric square wave generator to generate asymmetric square wave? 25. What are the features of 555 timer? 26. What are the applications of 555 timer? 27. Define duty cycle ratio. 28. What are the applications of monostable Multivibrators?

29. What is meant by quasi stable state? 30. What should be the amplitude of trigger pulse? 31. State the two conditions for oscillations. 32. Classify the Oscillators? 33. Define an oscillator? 34. What is the frequency range generated by Wein Bridge Oscillator? 35. What is frequency stability? 36. What is the frequency range generated by RC phase shift Oscillator? 37. In RC phase shift oscillator how the total phase shift of 180 around the loop is achieved?

Assignment No. 1
1. What are the advantages of Integrated circuits?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Miniature size and hence increases equipment density Cost reduction due to batch processing Increased system reliability due to the elimination of soldered joints. Reduction in power consumption Increasing operation speed Improved functional performance.

2. Classify the types of ICs.

Integrated Circuits can be classified based on:

(i)

Based on Mode of operation (a) Digital I.C. (b) Analog I.C. (Linear IC) Based on fabrication (a) Monolithic I.C. (b) Hybrid I.C. Based on Integration level (a) SSI: Small Scale I.C. (b) MSI: Medium Scale I.C. (c) LSI: Large Scale I.C. (d) VLSI: Very Large Scale I.C.

(ii)

(iii)

3. What are the characteristics of Ideal OP-Amp?

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Infinite Voltage gain A. Infinite input Impedance. Zero Output Impedance. Zero Output Voltage Infinite Bandwidth. Infinite Common-mode Rejection ratio. Infinite slew rate.

4. What is the Basic op amp applications?

1. Scale changer inverter 2. Summing amplifier 3. Inverting summing amplifier 4. Non inverting summing amplifier 5. sub tractor 6. Adder subtractor 7. Comparator 8. Oscillators 9. Detectors 10. Multi-vibrator

5. What are the basic requirements of the input stage of Op-amp?

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. High voltage gain. High input impedance Two input terminals. Small input offset voltage. Small input offset current. High CMRR. Low input bias current.

6. What are the basic requirements of the output stage of Op-amp?

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Large output voltage swing capability. Large output current swing capability. Low output impedance. Low quiescent power dissipation. Short circuit protection

Assignment No. 2
1. Explain Op-amp as Differentiator.

2. Explain Op-amp as Integrator.

3. In the following circuit for the non inventing amplifier R1 = 1 K and Rf = 10K.Calculate the maximum output offset voltage due to Vos and IB.The op amp is LM 307 quirt Vos = 10 mv and IB=300nA, Ios = 50 nA.

4. A non inventing amplifier with a gain of 100 is mulled at 25 C. What will happen to the output voltage if the temperature rises to 500C for an offset voltage drift of 0.15 V/C?

Assignment No. 3
1. Discuss about clamper circuits.

2. Name the important features of an Instrumentation amplifier? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. High gain Accuracy High CMRR High gain stability Low dc offset Low O/P impedance Low power loss High output Impedance

3. List the applications of Instrumentation Amplifier? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Temperature Indicator Temperature controller water flow meter Thermal conductivity meter Analog weight scale.

4. What is common mode rejection ratio. The relative sensitivity of an op amp to a difference signal as compared to a common mode signal is called common mode rejection ratio.

5. What are the methods to improve slew rate?

Assignment No. 4
1. What is an Op amp? An operational Amplifier is a direct-coupled high-gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential amplifiers and usually followed by a level translator and an output stage.

It is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals.

2. Draw block diagram of a typical OP-Amp.

3. Design an amplifier with a gain of -10 and Input resistance equal to 10 K .

4. What you mean by balanced and unbalanced output? The differential amplifier uses two transistors in CE configuration. If the output is taken across the two collectors, it is called balanced output or double ended output. If the output is taken across one of the collectors with respect to ground it is called unbalanced output or single ended output

5. What is loading effect? How can you reduce it? In an amplifier only a particular percentage of output voltage (V0) will be available to the load as load voltage (VL). This is because of the drop across the output resistance (R0) of the amplifier. Such an effect is called loading effect. To reduce the loading effect the output resistance (R0) must be as low as possible. So we can get load voltage almost same as output voltage.

6. What is active load? Where it is used and why? The requirement to increase the gain is same that the collector resistance (RC) should not disturb d.c conditions while it must provide large resistance for a.c purposes. The current mirror which has very low d.c resistance (dV/dI) and higher a.c resistance (dv/di) can be used as a collector load instead of RC. Such a load is called as active load.

7. What is thermal drift? In an op-amp the bias current, offset current and off set voltage changes with change in temperature. Offset current drift is measured in nA/ 0C and offset voltage drift is measured in mV/ 0C. These indicate the change in offset current or voltage for each degree Celsius change in temperature. Forced air cooling may be used to stabilize the ambient temperature Input offset voltage drift = Vos/T Input offset current drift = Ios/T

Assignment No. 5
1. Define gain margin and phase margin Gain margin: The gain measured at phase cross over frequency is called gain margin. Gain margin in dB = -20 log G (j) where =pc Phase margin: The phase margin is the amount of additional phase lag at gain cross over frequency gc required to bring the system to the very large instability. Phase margin = 180 + gc Where gc = [G (j)/ ] = gc For negative values of phase margin and gain margin the system becomes unstable

2. Discuss in detail about comparator. Comparator as its name implies, compares a signal voltage on one input of an op-amp with a known voltage called a reference voltage on the other input. Comparators are used in circuits such as, Digital Interfacing Schmitt Trigger Discriminator Voltage level detector and oscillators
1. Non-inverting Comparator:

A fixed reference voltage Vref of 1 V is applied to the negative terminal and time varying signal voltage Vin is applied to the positive terminal.When Vin is less than Vref the output becomes V0 at Vsat [Vin < Vref => V0 (Vsat)]. When Vin is greater than Vref, the (+) input becomes positive, the V0 goes to +Vsat. [Vin > Vref => V0 (+Vsat)]. Thus the V0 changes from one saturation level to another. The diodes D1 and D2 protect the op-amp from damage due to the excessive input voltage Vin. Because of these diodes, the difference input voltage Vid of the op-amp diodes are called

clamp diodes. The resistance R in series with Vin is used to limit the current through D1 and D2 . To reduce offset problems, a resistance Rcomp = R is connected between the (-ve) input and Vref.
Input and Output Waveforms:

2. Inverting Comparator:

This fig shows an inverting comparator in which the reference voltage Vref is applied to the (+) input terminal and Vin is applied to the (-) input terminal. In this circuit Vref is obtained by using a 10K potentiometer that forms a voltage divider with dc supply volt +Vcc and -1 and the wiper connected to the input. As the wiper is moved towards +Vcc, Vref becomes more positive. Thus a Vref of a desired amplitude and polarity can be obtained by simply adjusting the 10k potentiometer.

3. Explain Full wave Rectifier using Op-amp. The Full wave Rectifier circuit commonly used an absolute value circuit is shown in figure. The first part of the total circuit is a half wave rectifier circuit considered earlier in figure. The second part of the circuit is an inverting

For positive input voltage Vi > 0V and assuming that RF =Ri = R, the output voltage VOA = Vi . The voltage V0 appears as (-) input to the summing op-amp circuit formed by A2 , The gain for the input V0 is R/(R/2), as shown in figure. The input Vi also appears as an input to the summing amplifier. Then, the net output is V0 = -Vi -2V0 = -Vi -2(-Vi ) = Vi Since Vi > 0V, V0 will be positive, with its input output characteristics in first quadrant. For negative input Vi < 0V, the output V0 of the first part of rectifier circuit is zero. Thus, one input of the summing circuit has a value of zero. However, Vi is also applied as an input to the summer circuit formed by the op-amp A2 . The gain for this input id (-R/R) = -1, and hence the output is V0 = -Vi . Since Vi is negative, v0 will be inverted and will thus be positive. This corresponds to the second quadrant of the circuit. To summarize the operation of the circuit, V0 = Vi when Vi < 0V and V0 = Vi for Vi > 0V, and hence V0 = |Vi | It can be observed that this circuit is of non-saturating form. The input and output waveforms are shown in the figure.

Assignment No. 6
1. Explain Positive and Negative clippers. Positive Clipper: A Circuit that removes positive parts of the input signal can be formed by using an op-amp with a rectifier diode. The clipping level is determined by the reference voltage Vref, which should less than the i/p range of the op-amp (Vref < Vin). The Output voltage has the portions of the positive half cycles above Vref clipped off. The circuit works as follows: During the positive half cycle of the input, the diode D1 conducts only until Vin = Vref. This happens because when Vin <Vref, the output volts V0 of the op-amp becomes negative to device D1 into conduction when D1 coonducts it closes feedback loop and op-amp operates as a voltage follower. (i.e) Output V0 follows input until Vin = Vref. When Vin > Vref => the V0 becomes +ve to derive D1 into off. It open the feedback loop and op-amp operates open loop. When Vin drops below Vref (Vin<Vref) the o/p of the opamp V0 again becomes ve to device D1 into conduction. It closed the f/b. (o/p follows the i/p). Thus diode D1 is on for vin<Vref (o/p follows the i/p) and D1 is off for Vin>Vref. The op-amp alternates between open loop (off) and closed loop operation as the D1 is turned off and on respectively. For this reason the op-amp used must be high speed and preferably compensated for unity gain.

Ex: for high speed op-amp HA 2500, LM310, A 318. In addition the difference input voltage (Vid=high) is high during the time when the feedback loop is open (D1 is off) hence an op-amp with a high difference input voltage is necessary to prevent input breakdown. If Rp (pot) is connected to VEE instead of +Vcc, the ref voltage Vref will be negative (Vref = -ve). This will cause the entire o/p waveform above Vref to be clipped off. Negative Clipper:

The positive clipper is converted into a ve clipper by simply reversing diode D1 and changing the polarity of Vref voltage. The negative clipper -> clips off the ve parts of the input signal below the reference voltage. Diode D1 conducts -> when Vin > -Vref and therefore during this period o/p volt V0 follows the i/p volt Vin. The Ve portion of the output volt below Vref is clipped off because (D1 is off) Vin<-Vref. If Vref is changed to Vref by connecting the potentiometer Rp to the +Vcc, the V0 below +Vref will be clipped off. The diode D1 must be on for Vin > Vref and off for Vin.

2. Discuss the advantages of active filter over Passive filters and list commonly used filters. 1. Gain and Frequency adjustment flexibility: Since the op-amp is capable of providing a gain, the i/p signal is not attenuated as it is in a passive filter. [Active filter is easier to tune or adjust]. 2. No loading problem: Because of the high input resistance and low o/p resistance of the op-amp, the active filter does not cause loading of the source or load. 3. Cost: Active filters are more economical than passive filter. This is because of the variety of cheaper op-amps and the absence of inductors. The most commonly used filters are these: 1. Low pass Filters 2. High pass Filters 3. Band pass filters 4. Band reject filters 5. All pass filters.

3. Discuss in PLL in detail with help of well labeled diagram. PHASE LOCKED LOOP

The PLL consists of i) Phase detector ii) LPF iii) VCO. The phase detector or comparator compares the input frequency fIN with feedback frequency fOUT. The output of the phase detector is proportional to the phase difference between fIN & fOUT. The output of the phase detector is a dc voltage & therefore is often referred to as the error voltage. The output of the phase detector is then applied to the LPF, which removes the high frequency noise and produces a dc level. This dc level in turn, is input to the VCO. The output frequency of VCO is directly proportional to the dc level. The VCO frequency is compared with input frequency and adjusted until it is equal to the input frequencies. PLL goes through 3 states, i) free running ii) Capture iii) Phase lock.

(a) Phase Detector: Phase detector compares the input frequency and VCO frequency and generates DC voltage i.e., proportional to the phase difference between the two frequencies. Depending on whether the analog/digital phase detector is used, the PLL is called either an analog/digital type respectively. Even though most monolithic PLL integrated circuits use analog phase detectors. (b) Low Pass filter: The function of the LPF is to remove the high frequency components in the output of the phase detector and to remove the high frequency noise. LPF controls the characteristics of the phase locked loop. i.e, capture range, lock ranges, bandwidth Lock range(Tracking range): The lock range is defined as the range of frequencies over which the PLL system follows the changes in the input frequency fIN.

Capture range: Capture range is the frequency range in which the PLL acquires phase lock. Capture range is always smaller than the lock range. Filter Bandwidth: Filter Bandwidth is reduced, its response time increases. However reduced Bandwidth reduces the capture range of the PLL. Reduced Bandwidth helps to keep the loop in lock through momentary losses of signal and also minimizes noise.

(c) Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO): The third section of PLL is the VCO; it generates an output frequency that is directly proportional to its input voltage. The maximum output frequency of NE/SE 566 is 500 Khz.

Feedback path and optional divider: Most PLLs also include a divider between the oscillator and the feedback input to the phase detector to produce a frequency synthesizer. A programmable divider is particularly useful in radio transmitter applications, since a large number of transmit frequencies can be produced from a single stable, accurate, but expensive, quartz crystalcontrolled reference oscillator.