Cable Testing

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Cable Sheath Test
Insulation Resistance
vLF Testing of Cables
Tan Belta Testing
BC Bipot of Cables
Cable Fault Localization
PB Neasuiement on Cables
Mtehpro Tecbnologies Pvt. Ltd.
B 229, uK -1, LuF, New Belhi
E-mail: infomtekpio.com
Website: www.mtekpio.com
Ph: +91 11 4617SSSS
Cable Testing and Health Monitoring

Mtekpro Technologies Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi
Index
Sr. No. Contents Page Number
1 General 0101
2 SheathTest 0203
3 InsulationResistanceTest 0406
4 VeryLowFrequency(VLF)Test 0712
5 TanDeltaMeasurement 1315
6 DCHipotTesting 1617
7 CableFaultLocalization 1825
8 PDMeasurement 2627

Ntekpio Technologies Pvt Ltu New Belhi
General
It is noted that the insulating qualities of XLPE are very good, and that except in the case of major
insulation damage such as physical puncture by a nail XLPE can withstand many times its rated
voltage without failure (typically > 14 times Uo for new cable).
Most failures of XLPE cable are related to moisture ingress into joints or terminations or incorrectly
applied terminations and joints (both workmanship and materials may be inadequate). One aim of
testing of HV cables is to expose, in controlled conditions, any faults that will result in premature
failure of the cable and associated terminations.
It has been established that DC high voltage testing of deteriorated XLPE cables can accelerate the
deterioration process and lead to a reduction in cable life. DC high voltage testing of new XLPE
cables is not recognized to cause cable deterioration, however in order to adopt a standard approach
VLF AC testing is preferred instead of DC high voltage testing for new and aged XLPE cables.
The cable tests described below are to be carried out after installation and termination has been
completed. In addition to the tests outlined below, a sheath integrity test should be done after
installation and prior to termination to verify that cable damage during installation has not occurred.
As described in later sections, testing of new or aged paper lead or XLPE cables are as per the
following sequence:
Sheath Test;
Insulation Resistance Test;
VLF Testing;
Tan Delta Measurement;
DC Hipot Testing.
PD Measurement
Pre-terminated cables such as transformer leads in padmount substations should be tested as per this
procedure. They are classed as minor radial cables and do not require a high voltage withstand test.
Regarding the use of DC testing such as insulation resistance or leakage measurement during a high
voltage DC withstand, there is a phenomenon called electro endosmosis (evident in older insulation
rather than XLPE) that causes a lower IR reading (higher leakage current) when the positive terminal
is connected to the grounded side of the insulation being tested.

Sheath Test
A sheath integrity test at a voltage of 1000V dc applied for 1 minute should be carried out with
an insulation resistance tester, between the outermost metallic layer and earth. This will identify
if there has been any damage to the sheath during/after installation.
Notes:
1. The screen shall be isolated at both ends and also at any mid circuit bonding for this test.
2. A sheath integrity test should be done after installation (prior to termination) to verify that
cable damage during installation has not occurred, and repeated when terminations are
complete.
3. Some newer cables may have a semi-conductive outer sheath. This is used to provide
improved lightning performance and a more reliable mechanism for detecting sheath faults.
The semiconductive HDPE does not require additional bonding to earth.
The reading for cable sheath resistance should be greater than the acceptance value set out below for
HDPE (High-density polyethylene) sheathed cables.
This test is required for XLPE and paper lead cables.
Data is not presently available for cables larger than the cables specified above; however the
insulation resistance should not be significantly lower than the figures above.
For PVC sheathed cables, the acceptance value is 1 M.
Earth the screen after test for at least 5 minutes.

Where the prescribed values cannot be achieved the connection arrangement should be first checked.
Where applicable the assistance of a high voltage test specialist may be sought and the Asset
Manager must be advised where the value remains low.
The Asset Manager will decide if sheath resistance values lower than the prescribed figures will be
accepted. Cables with a suspected or confirmed sheath fault are not to be energized.
If the cable has two insulated metallic layers (the cable screen & brass tape termite protection) then
the insulation between these layers should be tested as well a further indication of possible cable
damage.
Note that this test is not required if these layers are bonded together, for example at joints. If a
section of new cable is joined to an existing cable, the sheath test should be completed prior to
bonding of the two screens.
A sheath test of the completed cable should also be carried out for reference, but it is not expected
that all aged cables will pass a sheath test.

Insulation Resistance Measurement of Cables
Prior to the high voltage withstand test (if required), the cable shall be tested for insulation
resistance (IR).
For insulation testing, we need to disconnect from panel or equipment and keep them isolated
from power supply. The wiring and cables need to test for each other ( phase to phase ) with a
ground ( E ) cable.
The test voltage used for the core insulation test is specified in the table below.
The core insulation resistance is to be measured A to B+C+E, B to A+C+E, and
C to A+B+E. The insulation resistance shall be recorded 1 minute, and 10 minutes after
application of the voltage.

The Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association (IPCEA) provides the formula to determine
minimum insulation resistance values.
R = K x Log 10 (D/d)
R =IR Value in Ms per 1000 feet (305 meters) of cable.
K =Insulation material constant.( Varnished Cambric=2460, Thermoplastic Polyethlene
=50000, Composite Polyethylene=30000)
D =Outside diameter of conductor insulation for single conductor wire and cable
(D = d + 2c + 2b diameter of single conductor cable)
d Diameter of conductor
c Thickness of conductor insulation
b Thickness of jacket insulation
For very long cables it may take longer than 5 minutes for the resistance value to stabilise in
which case a final reading is taken and the measurement terminated at 10 minutes.
No breakdown of the insulation shall occur.
The reading for IR for new XLPE cables should be greater than the acceptance values set out
below.

Data is not presently available for cables larger than the cables specified above; however the
insulation resistance should not be significantly lower than the figures above.
The IR reading for aged XLPE cables should be greater than 1 Gohm.
The cable screen should be earthed during the above measurement.
Earth the cable conductors after test for at least 5 minutes.
Where the prescribed values cannot be achieved the connection arrangement should be first
checked.
Termination leakage may need to be guarded out of the measurement to ensure accurate results
(refer figure 1).
Where applicable the assistance of a high voltage test specialist may be sought and the asset
manager must be advised where the value remains low.
The Asset Manager will decide if insulation resistance values lower than the prescribed figures
will be accepted or if remedial works will be undertaken.
How to use the Guard Terminal
In cable insulation tests, wind a conductive wire around insulation of the cable under test and
connect it to the Guard Terminal with the Guard Lead as per diagram.
This is to move out the surface leakage resistance of the cable to make the test results accurate.

Note:
One of the cores is used to transfer the guarded leakage at the remote end to the meter so that it
does not impact on the measured insulation resistance.

Very Low Frequency (VLF) Testing
When a voltage stress (proof test) is placed across a cables insulation, partial discharge can
occur in defect locations if the voltage stress is sufficient to initiate the pd, which is the purpose
of a VLF AC voltage stress test. If we know how fast electrical trees grow under a given voltage
stress, then we know how long the voltage must be applied for significant defects that are
triggered into partial discharge to grow to failure during the test. The cable is repaired, retested,
and once passing a VLF test, will deliver years of trouble free service. Proper VLF testing
exposes serious cable defects, thus preventing in-service failures, while not harming healthy
insulation nor aggravating minor defects that will not cause cable failure for many years.
XLPE cable shall be tested with a VLF alternating voltage whose waveform shall approximate a
sinusoidal waveform of frequency 0.1 Hz. Paper lead cables shall be tested with a DC voltage.
VLF Testing with Sine Waveform
The VLF cable test sets provide true sine wave AC output voltages with less than 1 Hz for testing
of cables and capacitive loads. When the local field strength at a cable defect exceeds the
dielectric strength of the insulation, partial discharge starts. The local field strength is a function
of applied test voltage, defect geometry, and space charge.
After initiation of partial discharge, the partial discharge channels develop into breakthrough
channels within the recommended testing time. The voltage shall be increased gradually and
maintained at full value for the specified period. Note that a 30 minute testing period has been
specified for XLPE cables on the basis that 89% of cable failures are likely to occur in the first 30
minutes.
Measurement & VLF Equipment Connection as per IEEE 400

The various VLF test methods described are in commercial use and are accepted as alternative
test methods in international standards. Given below is included as an aid to identifying the
effectiveness of the VLF test for various cable insulation problems which is described in IEEE
400.2.
The Tree growth rate is function of application of applied waveform and Test voltage factor,
which is more economical with sinusoidal test voltage as detailed in above table.
The fastest tree growth is shown in millimeters per hour.

The VLF test set is connected to the cable or cable system to be tested. The test voltage is
regulated to the test voltage level of approximately 3V
0
. VLF testing guides usually
recommended a test time duration of 60 min or less. VLF sets have to have sufficient capacity to
be able to supply and dissipate the total cable system charging energy.
When the cable system passes the VLF voltage test, the test voltage is regulated to zero and the
test set and cable system are discharged and grounded. When a cable fails the test, the VLF test is
turned off to discharge the cable system and test set and the cable fault can then be located with
standard cable fault locating equipment.
The recently published IEEE 400.2 Guide for Field Testing Cables using VLF
Three types of test are listed.
a) Installation test conducted before the installation of accessories such as splices and
terminations.
b) Acceptance test performed after the installation of the accessories before service
energization.
c) Subsequent maintenance tests to assess aging and /or serviceability of the cable system.
The IEEE 400.2 cable testing guide in table below shows the recommended VLF voltage
testing levels for various cable ratings.

VLF testing with cosine-rectangular/bipolar pulse waveform
Measurement and Equipment
In cosine-rectangular and bipolar pulse waveform VLF test sets, a DC test set forms the high
voltage source. A DC-to-AC converter changes the DC voltage to the very low frequency AC test
signal. The converter consists of a high voltage inductor and a rectifier. Changing the polarity of
the cable system being tested every 5 seconds generates a 0.1 Hz bipolar pulse waveform

The cable or cable system to be tested is connected to the VLF test set and the cosine-
rectangular test voltage raised to a value up to that specified in below Table. To cause a failure,
sinusoidal transitions that are in the power frequency range for the 0.1 Hz cosine-rectangular
waveform initiate partial discharges at an insulation defect. These partial discharges may
develop the defect into a breakdown channel within minutes. When testing with a bipolar pulse
waveform similar to that shown in Figure , the test voltages should be the peak voltages in
Table . The root-mean-square (rms) value of the bipolar waveform will depend on the wave
shape and may not be 0.707 of the peak value.
Note:-1 For cosine-rectangular waveform the rms is assumed to be equal to the peak value.
Note:-2 The results of field tests on over 15000 XLPE cable circuits tested showed that ~68% of
the recorded failures occurred within 12 minutes, ~89% within 30 minutes, ~95% after 45
minutes, and 100% after 60 minutes.

The recommended testing time varies between 15 and 60 minutes, although the data in Moh
[B17] suggest a testing time of 30 minutes. The actual testing time and voltage may be defined
by the supplier and user and depend on the testing philosophy, cable system, insulation condition,
how frequently the test is conducted, and the selected test method.
Note:-3For a 0.1 Hz VLF test voltage, the suggested maintenance voltage duration is 15 minutes.
Summary:
To avoid in-service failures following VLF testing, a proper VLF test must be performed. The
test voltage must be high enough and for a long enough time for the instrument to do its job of
growing major defects to failure. Test at 2 - 3Vo for 30+ minutes. If a failure occurs, repair the
cable and re-test for the full duration. Laboratory research and data from thousands of actual
cable tests show that if a cable passes a proper VLF test, there is a better than 95% assurance
there will be no in-service failure for at least 3 5 years.

Tan Delta/Dissipation Factor Measurement
Tan Delta (also referred to as loss angle) is the ratio of the resistive current to the capacitive
charging current flowing in a cable. The resistive current is in phase with the applied voltage but
the capacitive current leads the applied voltage by 90
o
. The vector sum of the two currents is the
total current flowing.
Tan =
= Loss Angle
I
R
= Resistive Current
I
C
= Capacitive charging Current
In the context of cables in good to medium condition, the charging current is many times larger
than the resistive current which translates into small TD ratios. The TD values are dimensionless
and expressed as a percentage (%) or as thousandths (10
-3
). For PILC cables the expected ratios
can be of the order of 50 times higher than that for XLPE cables.
Dissipation factor, leakage current and loss current harmonics measurements may be used to
monitor aging and deterioration of extruded dielectric cable. The 0.1 Hz dissipation factor and
harmonic loss current are mainly determined by degradation due to water trees of the cable
insulation and not by water along conducting surfaces. The measurement of the dissipation
factor and harmonic loss current with a 0.1 Hz sinusoidal waveform offer comparative
assessment of the aging of PE, XLPE, TRXLPE, and EPR type insulation. The test results
permit differentiating between new, defective, and highly degraded cable insulation.
I
R
I
C

Dissipation Factor Tan Delta From IEEE Std 400-2001
The dissipation factor and harmonic loss current with a 0.1 Hz sinusoidal waveform can be used
as a diagnostic test. Cables can be tested in preventive maintenance programs and returned to
service after testing. The measurements at VLF can be used to justify cable replacement or cable
rejuvenation expenditures.
Method
A VLF generator with dissipation factor/and harmonic loss current measurement capability is
connected to the cable under test. Both cable ends must be accessible for the measurement to
ensure that surface leakage currents are kept to a minimum or do not flow through the
measurement circuit. The dissipation factors (DF) at U
0
and at 2U
0
are measured and the
differential dissipation factor DF = DF(2U
0
) DF(U
0
) is calculated. The absolute VLF-DF
and the VLF-DTD values are used as figures of merit or compared to historical data to grade the
condition of the cable insulation as good, defective, or highly deteriorated. If there is a
significant increase in DF with increasing voltage, there is no need to raise the voltage to 2U0,
as there is a danger of initiating electrical trees in severely damaged insulation.

It must be understood that, for different insulation, installations, and cable types, DF figures of
merit can vary significantly from each other. The test works best when comparing present
measurements against established historical figures of merit for a particular cable.
Typical values of dissipation factor (tan) and dielectric constant (K)
If the cables measured tan is less than 2.2 x 10
-3
, the general condition of the insulation is
probably good; however, the cable insulation could have many small defects; in which case, the
cable may operate satisfactorily for many more years. The tan should be monitored regularly,
and upon further deterioration of the dissipation factor, proper action should be taken. However,
the cable could have only a few isolated large defects, which could cause it to fail upon
returning it to service or within days after it has been re-energized. Therefore, if the measured
tan is greater than 2.2 x 10
-3
, it is recommended that a VLF test at 3 V
0
be performed to
identify the large defects, remove them, and repair them.

DC Hi pot Testing
Hipot tests are helpful in finding nicked or crushed insulation, stray wire strands or braided
shielding, conductive or corrosive contaminants around the conductors, terminal spacing
problems, and tolerance errors in cables. Inadequate creepage and clearance distances
introduced during the manufacturing process.
Test method for HIPOT Test
Hipot testers usually connect one side of the supply to safety ground (Earth ground). The
other side of the supply is connected to the conductor being tested. With the supply
connected like this there are two places a given conductor can be connected: high voltage or
ground.
When you have more than two contacts to be hipot tested you connect one contact to high
voltage and connect all other contacts to ground. Testing a contact in this fashion makes sure
it is isolated from all other contacts.
If the insulation between the two is adequate, then the application of a large voltage
difference between the two conductors separated by the insulator would result in the flow of
a very small current. Although this small current is acceptable, no breakdown of either the air
insulation or the solid insulation should take place.
Therefore, the current of interest is the current that is the result of a partial discharge or
breakdown, rather than the current due to capacitive coupling.
Test Voltage for HIPOT Test
When using ac test voltage, the insulation in question is being stressed most when the voltage
is at its peak, i.e., either at the positive or negative peak of the sine wave.
Therefore, if we use dc test voltage, we ensure that the dc test voltage is under root 2
(or 1.414) times the ac test voltage, so the value of the dc voltage is equal to the ac
voltage peaks.
Cables after jointing and terminating are subjected to dc high voltage test. The recommended
values of test voltages are given in Table. The leakage current shall also be measured and
recorded for future reference.

Generally dc test should be preferred as test equipment required is compact, easily portable
and power requirements are low.
The cable cores must be discharged on completion of dc high voltage test and cable should be
kept earthed until it is put into service.
DC test voltage for old cables is 1.5 times rated voltage or less depending on the age of
cables, repair work or nature of jointing work carried out, etc. In any case, the test voltage
should not be less than the rated voltage. Test voltage in these cases should be determined by
the Engineer-in-charge of the work.
It may be noted that frequent high voltage tests on cable installations should not be carried
out. This test should be carried only when essential. During the high voltage test, all other
electrical equipment related to the cable installation, such as switches, instrument
transformers, bus bars, etc, must be earthed and adequate clearance should be maintained
from the other equipment and framework to prevent flash-overs.
In each test, the metallic sheath/screen/armour should be connected to earth.

A cable fault can be defined as any defect, inconsistency, weakness or non-homogeneity that
affects the performance of a cable. All faults in underground cables are different and the success
of a cable fault location depends to a great extent on practical aspects and the experience of the
operator.
Cable Analysis and Insulation Test
In general it is very helpful to start by gathering all available details about the cable network and
the cable itself. The characteristics that are influencing the cable fault procedure can be listed as
following:
9 Cable type what kind of cable sheath?
9 Individually shielded cores in a 3-core cable
9 Is it possible that a core core fault can occur?
9 Type of insulation material PE, XLPE, EPR, PVC or PILC; different pulse velocity v/2
9 Length of the cable under test make sure no further continuing cable section is connected
at the far end!
9 Is the network including T-branch joint arrangements? Do we know their locations and their
individual length?
9 How is the cable laid? Direct buried, pipe/manhole arrangements, laid in enclosed tranches,
how are the tranches designed? Is the cable laid in trays so that it may not be in direct contact
with the soil?
Cable Fault Types
Fault between core-core and/or core - sheath:
Low resistive faults (R < 100 - 200 )
short circuit
High resistive faults (R > 100 - 200 )
Intermittent faults (breakdown or flash faults)
Interruption (cable cuts)
Defects on the outer protective shield (PVC, PE):
Cable sheath faults

Cable Fault Locating Method
Radar Test In this test, short electric voltage impulses are impressed upon the cable. The
impulses are reflected and the reflection from the faults (insulation failure or conductor break)
can be differentiated from those obtained from cable joints, when viewed on the screen, of a
cathode ray tube. From a scrutiny of the image on the screen, the length of the cable involved and
the proportionate distance to the fault can be determined. It is not very essential to have
conductor data for computing results. This test can be used for all types of faults. High ohmic
earth faults, however, have to be burnt down by fault burning.
Fault burning method For obtaining continuous good results in locating cable faults, it is
essential that test conditions are suitable for the methods employed. After initial tests are
completed, the fault conditions can be converted to suit a particular test by fault burning, This
process consists of a judicious application of voltage, which has the effect of lowering the fault
resistance by burning it down. Large ac test sets or in case of higher voltages, rectifiers have been
used for fault burning. But for large currents required for burning down the faults, the size of test
equipment becomes very bulky.
Radar Theor / Pulse Reflection Method / Pulse Echo Method / Time Domain Reflectometry
The TDR method is the most established and widely used measuring method for determination of
the total length of a cable
the location of low resistive cable faults
the location of cable interruptions
the location of joints along the cable
The Time Domain Reflectometer sends a low voltage pulse into the cable under test. The low
pulse (max. 160V) travels through the cable and is reflected positively at the cable end or at
any cable interruption (cable cut). At a short circuit point this low voltage pulse is reflected
negatively. The Time Domain Reflectometer is measuring the time between release and return
of the low voltage pulse. A change of the impedance in the cable, e.g. a joint, will be displayed
on radar. The relevant distances are shown by automatic cursor settings to the significant
locations in the graph.

The Characteristic impedance of a transmission line is important since it affects what types of
discontinuities will show up on the radar. However it can not be measured directly with and
impedance bridge for a finite length of time. It can be calculated from distributed-circuit co-
efficients of the line at any frequency using the following basic equation.
The Equation contains the parameters of resistance, conductance, inductance and capacitance and
is also related to frequency. As the frequency is increased above 1 Mhz, the above equation will
reduce to a simplified equation based on the distributed inductance and capacitance, as follows.
In the case of primary underground cable which acts as a coaxial line we (VON Corp) have the
published equation:

K = Dielectric constant based on the insulation material
r1 = inside radius of insulation
r1 = Outside radius of insulation
Any change in Z
0
along the length of the cable to the fault will cause reflections. The size of the
blip will be based on the reflection coefficient whose maximum value is 1 or -1. The equation for
the reflection coefficient p is:
At the far end terminals with the following impedances:
Thus when the fault impedance exactly equals the cable impedance it will not show up on the
screen. Fortunately this almost never occurs in the field.
Arc Reflection Method
The arc reflection method utilizes the low resistance path to ground (less than 50 ohms) created
at the cable fault by an arc. The arc is provided by a capacitor discharge fault locator (thumper) to
temporarily display the fault on a standard radar. Using the low resistance of an arc overcomes
the main limitation in the past of radars which alone could not see the high resistance faults most
common in underground primary power cable. The arc reflection method does not overcome the
limitations of radar itself.
The operator must become proficient in the use of the radar especially in recognizing faults
near the ends of the cable. On cable with missing neutral, a cable radar may not even show
the far end of the cable. Because of the time it takes for a reflection on the radar to recover
to the zero level, the operator must be skilled when locating faults near discontinuities in the
cable such as splices or the cable terminals. The radar is connected to the faulted cable
through a coupler (filter) and displays the low resistance at the fault as a down blip during the
time of the arc. The coupling system performs three functions:

I
Induce the high frequency radar signal onto the faulted cable through high voltage
isolation required to protect the radar.
Provide a wave trap so the radar does not see the low impedance of the impulse fault
locator with each discharge.
Lengthen the impulse with a large air coil inductor so that it provides current to the arc at
the fault for a longer time so the fault position can show up on the radar. The inductor
keeps the current flowing into the low resistance arc until the charge in the capacitor
bank is dissipated. Increasing the size of the capacitor bank in the impulse fault locator
lengthens the pulse and thus the time of the arc at the fault.
When the radar signal is induced on the cable, all discontinuities in the cable such as splices,
change in cable insulation, change in neutral construction, connected transformers, and ends
show up on the radar screen.
This system:
Reduces the number of thumps required to pinpoint a cable fault.
Uses standard radar so operator training is simplified.
Shows cable ends and splices so that an approximate location can be determined looking
at the screen.
Provides the conductor distance to the fault. Only the conductor distance is displayed.
Actual ground distances are subject to variations caused by the cable route and the cable
depth. The accuracy of any distance determined by the radar is dependent on the correct
velocity of propagation and the operator's skill.
Cable Distance Measurements
The distance provided by a radar is conductor distance not ground distance. Accuracies of
2% of cable length are possible but not often achieved.
All distances provided by a radar are determined using time measurements based on the speed
at which the pulses move up and down the cable. The pulse speed is based on characteristics
of the cable such as conductor size, shielding type, insulation thickness, eccentricity, and
insulation material. The speed changes as the cable insulation ages.
If the neutral shield is solid, the dielectric constant of the insulation is the determining factor
in the velocity of propagation. For maximum accuracy, the speed (or time) must be
determined from a known length of cable with identical characteristics to the cable being

worked upon.
This speed is entered into each radar in several forms. The speed is normally compared to the
velocity of an ideal conductor in free air of 983 feet/microsecond.
Overview of Pulse Velocity v/2 for different cable types:
To determine the true velocity of propagation or velocity of propagation factor of a cable the
following procedure is recommended.
Connect the radar to a cable of known length, size, insulation type, shielding type and
condition. Unburied cable is best since the actual cable length can be measured
accurately. Buried cable lengths are less accurate due to the allowances that must be
made for cable depth and coils of wire put at the ends to handle future expansions.
Use the turn on velocity factor or set the propagation velocity factor to an assumed value
or the value of a similar cable obtained from a chart such as that found in the end of this
section.
Short to the cable neutral at both the near end HV lead connection point and the far end
to identify these points on the radar screen.
Determine the total length to the end of the cable being measured.
To determine the true propagation velocity or propagation velocity factor, multiply the
assumed propagation velocity for propagation velocity factor by the actual cable length
and divide by the measured cable length.

Reset the radar with the True Propagation velocity determined above. Repeat steps 3 and
4 to verify that the measured cable length equals the actual cable length.
The propagation velocity factor is determined by dividing the actual velocity of
propagation in feet/microseconds by 983.
The fault can be located by the following two methods even when the velocity of propagation
is not known.
The comparative method of locating a fault using radar utilizes the fact that an overall length of
the cable is known or a specific distance is known to a splice or landmark such as a transformer.
Determine the distance to the fault with the radar. Then determine the distance to the known
point with the radar. Using the following formula, the actual distance to the fault can be
determined.
The three stake method or two terminal method of locating faults is used when the velocity of
propagation or a specific distance is not known. This method can also be used whenever
maximum accuracy is required.
Take a reading from one end of the cable to the fault. Measure out the distance with a
wheel and drive a stake.
Without changing the propagation velocity on the radar take a reading from the opposite
end of the cable. Again measure out the distance with a wheel and drive a stake.
The fault will lie between the two stakes. By using the following formulas, the fault
location can be determined.


Partial discharge testing
Partial discharge measurement is an important method of assessing the quality of the insulation
of power cable systems, particularly for extruded insulation materials.
A partial discharge is an electrical discharge (formation of a streamer or arc) that does not bridge
the entire space between two electrodes. The discharge may occur in a gas-filled void within the
extruded cable insulation, at the interface between a shield protrusion and the insulation, at a
shield skip, at the boundaries of a contaminant, or at the tip of a well-developed water tree when
a cable is subjected to moderately high voltage. Partial discharges can also occur in a cable
termination, in a joint, in air, or within a cable.
Measurement and equipment
PD measurements to monitor aging and degradation of paper-insulated cables have been
reported. The described method is based on the application of a pure, partial discharge free,
sinusoidal 0.1 Hz wave to the cable system. The applied voltage of up to two times the rms
system line-to-ground voltage may generate partial discharges at insulation defect sites. A
traveling wave method may be used to measure the magnitude of PD, locate, and record the
partial discharges from the various defect locations in the cable, splices, or terminations. VLFPD
measurements are a diagnostic tool used to detect, in a nondestructive manner, the location and
severity of an insulation defect. There may be differences in the PD characteristics measured at
VLF and power frequency.
Method
A transportable, partial discharge free VLF sine wave generator is connected to an isolated cable
system. Usually the VLF-PD is used as a monitoring tool during a withstand test. A more
nondestructive test voltage level, typically of one to two U0, is applied to the test object for less
than 10 minutes. After the initiation of partial discharges (partial discharge inception voltage
PDIV), an electrical tree may form that can develop into a breakdown channel within minutes.

Every partial discharge generated during the testing time is recorded in a computer-based system
by magnitude and location of its origin. The information of all recorded discharges is presented
in a PD Map. The total number, the phase, and the magnitude of the partial discharges
displayed along the cable system route diagram may provide information as to the severity and
location of the various defects.
Recommendations about repair or replacement of cable system sites, cable sections, or complete
cable systems can be made. However, as with all PD diagnostic test methods, it should be noted
that there is insufficient data to allow an accurate interpretation of PD results from either
extruded or PILC cables.

Cable Testing

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