Clark Hess1

COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
K E N N E T H K. CLARKE D O N ALD T. H ESS C lark e-H ess C o m m u n icatio n s R esearch C o rp o ra tio n F o rm e rly : P o lytechnic In s titu te o f B ro o k ly n
A
A D D ISO N -W E SL E Y P U B L IS H IN G C O M P A N Y R eading, M assach u setts M en lo P a rk , C alifo rn ia L o n d o n D o n M ills, O n ta rio
This book is in the

ADDISON-W ESLEY SERIES IN ELECTRICA L E N G IN EE R IN G
C o n su ltin g E d ito rs DAV ID K. C H EN G LEO N A R D A. G O U LD FR ED K . MANASSE
Copyright 1971 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Philippines copyright 1971 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved. N o p art o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transm itted, in any form o r by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, w ithout the prior written permission o f the publisher. Printed in the United States o f America. Published simultaneously in Canada. Library o f Congress Catalog C ard N o. 78-125610.
To our wives , Nona and Carole
PREFACE
This book has been w ritten on the basis o f a com bined experience o f m ore than thirty years o f teaching ab o u t and w orking with electronic circuits o f the type used in present-day com m unications and control systems. In this book we deal neither with sem iconductor o r vacuum tube m anufacture nor with overall system design, b u t with the understanding and use o f devices and configurations o f devices th at bridge the gap betw een these two disciplines. A lthough we do n o t deal particularly with the problem s o f integrated circuits, m any o f our results are indeed directly applicable to circuits in integrated form . C hap ter 1 offers a preview o f things to come. C hapters 2 and 3 may be considered as a review o f linear system concepts. A lthough the m aterial stressed in these chapters ought to be presented in linear systems courses or textbooks, it has been our experi ence th a t the viewpoints th a t we find useful are often som ewhat slighted there. C hapters 4 and 5 provide the foundation for the rest o f the book. Essentially they provide a reasonably rigorous but (we hope) intelligible account o f both the smallsignal and large-signal operation o f both the single devices and the basic multiple device configurations th a t serve as the building blocks for all later circuits. These devices and configurations include the bipolar and field effect transistor, the differ ential pair, and the com bination o f resistance and reactance with these devices. The ap proach taken allows one to m ake both large-signal and small-signal cal culations w ithout any am biguity as to the resultant distortions or nonlinear by products. W hile we did n o t invent all the results here, we have been using them and teaching them for some years. T o our knowledge this is the first tim e th a t they have been coordinated and m ade available in one place. C hap ter 6 uses the vehicle o f the sinusoidal oscillator to tie together all o f the previous m aterial. The techniques presented allow one to calculate the actual am pli tude frequency and distortion o f real oscillators rath er than ju st to catalog a num ber o f circuits. The squegging phenom enon in oscillators is treated in a unique and readily usable m anner. C hapter 7 considers the deliberate use o f the device non-linearity to produce mixers and frequency converters. It explores the am plitude lim itations upon linear mixing and the effect of deliberate or accidental series resistance upon the mixing process. This chapter also examines the feedthrough and the feedback problem s involved in small signal R F amplifiers and A G C systems. C hap ter 8 is concerned with multipliers and am plitude m odulators. It presents a step-by-step analysis o f the popular G ilbert integrated four-quadrant m ultiplier as vii
v iii
PREFACE
well as a num ber o f other useful circuits. C h apter 9 discusses all types o f pow er am plifiers from linear b ro ad b an d Class A types through b o th tuned and broadband Class D types. C hap ter 10 explores the am plitude dem odulation problem in detail. I t presents useful design results fo r the com m on narrow band peak envelope detector, w hich is usually used in circuits b u t rarely discussed in textbooks. C hapters 11 and 12 present a large am o u n t o f new m aterial in their com plete coverage o f F M generation an d detection. Because the general principles o f the first five chapters are applicable in som e form to m ost o f the circuits in the rest o f the book, a unity is achieved th a t has often n o t been ap p aren t in p ast books in this field. T hus instead o f considering a seemingly endless variety o f apparently different oscillators o r detectors, one is able to group circuits in to rath er b ro ad classes and show straightforw ard design o r analysis p ro cedures applicable to all o f them . Some o f the early versions o f this m aterial were originally p u t into riote form in 1962. A ll o f it, except o u r last-m inute revisions, has been used in various graduate an d senior year courses a t the Polytechnic Institute o f Brooklyn. I t is n o t reasonable to try to cover all this m aterial in a one-sem ester course. W ell-grounded students w ho can handle C hapters 2 and 3 by themselves, and w ho can absorb C hapters 4 an d 5 in say three weeks, should be able to cover selected m aterial from the rem aining chapters w ithout undue difficulty in a semester. A num ber o f selections o f coherent groups o f m aterial are possible. M ost instructors should have no problem picking o u t a set th a t is b o th interesting to them and instructive to their students. H om ew ork problem s are included a t the end o f each chapter. Illustrative examples are w orked o u t in m ost chapters. O u r form er colleagues an d students a t the Polytechnic Institute o f B rooklyn deserve o u r th an k s for their m any stim ulating criticisms and observations. Professors G erald Weiss, R onald Juels, and M arvin Panzer were particularly helpful in pointing o u t errors o r areas in need o f clarification. A special debt o f gratitude is due to the various people w ho struggled w ith the typing and the draw ings for the m anuscript an d the various sets o f notes th a t preceded it. A s D epartm en t H ead th ro u gh m uch o f the period th a t the b o o k was in preparation, P rofessor E dw ard J. Sm ith and the rest o f the adm inistration o f the Polytechnic were m ost kind in extending the use o f various typing and reproduction facilities. W hile b o o k w riting is never really a pleasure, it is exciting to find a simple way to solve a heretofore difficult problem . W e have had m any such exciting m om ents in preparing this b o o k an d we hope th a t the reader will be able to share some o f our excitem ent as he uses it. New York M a y 1971 K . K . C. D . T. H.
CONTENTS
C h ap ter
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Preview 1 B asic circ u it b i a s i n g ............................................................................................. W id eb an d am plifier lim its o n sm all-signal o p e r a t i o n .......................... 3 N a rro w b a n d am plifiers an d l i m i t e r s .................................................................. 6 F req u en cy m u l t i p l i e r s .............................................................................................. 8 M i x e r s ........................................................................................................................ 8 Sine-w ave o s c i l l a t o r s ..................................................................................................... 10 C o n c lu s i o n s ..........................................................................................................................13 B roadband and N arrow band T ransform erlike Coupling N etw orks B ro a d b a n d tra n sfo rm e r c o u p l i n g ................................................................................. 16
C hap ter 2 2.1
2.2
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Parallel R L C c i r c u i t ..........................................................................................25
P arallel L C circu it w ith series l o s s .......................................................................... 32 P arallel re so n a n t tran sfo rm e rlik e n e t w o r k s ......................................................38 P arallel re so n a n t t r a n s f o r m e r s ......................................................................... 48 T hree-w in d in g p arallel re s o n a n t t r a n s f o r m e r ......................................................54 A p p en d ix to C h a p te r 2: T ran sfo rm e r E q u iv alen t C ir c u i ts ...................................62 T ransm ission o f S ignals T hrough N arrow band F ilters L ow -pass eq u iv alen t n etw o rk s fo r sym m etrical b an d p a ss n etw o rk s . 65 Im p u lse a n d step r e s p o n s e .............................................................................................. 70 N a rro w b a n d n etw o rk s w ith m o d u la te d i n p u t s ...................................................... 72 N a rro w b a n d n etw o rk s w ith p erio d ic i n p u t s .............................................................78 T o ta l h a rm o n ic d i s t o r t i o n .............................................................................................. 82 A p p en d ix to C h a p te r 3 : H ig h -Q F ilte r M e a s u re m e n ts ................................. . 88
C h ap ter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
Chapter 4
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
Nonlinear Controlled Sources

G en eral c o m m e n t s ............................................................................................................ 9C Piecew ise-linear so u rce, single d is c o n tin u ity ............................................................. 91 M ultip le-seg m en t piecew ise-linear s o u r c e s .............................................................94 S quare-law c h a r a c te r is tic s ...............................................................................................98 T h e ex p o n en tial c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ............................................................................... 104 T h e differential c h a r a c t e r i s ti c ...................................................................................... 114 O th er g rad u a l n o n lin earities p e n t o d e s ............................................................ 120 E ffect o f series resistance o n th e ex p o n en tial ch aracteristic . . . . 123 C lam p -b iased square-law d e v i c e ................................................................................131 A ppendix to C h a p te r 4 : F o u rie r E x p a n s i o n s .....................................................144
ix
CONTENTS
Chapter 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
Reactive Element and Nonlinear Element Combinations Capacitive coupling to nonlinear l o a d ...........................................................149 Transient build-up to steady s t a t e ................................................................ 159 Capacitively coupled transistor amplifierconstant current bias . . . 162 Capacitively coupled transistor amplifierresistor b i a s ..............................169 Nonlinear loading of tuned c i r c u i t s ................................................................ 181 Transfer function for low-index AM i n p u t .................................................... 195
Chapter 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12
Sinusoidal Oscillators Operating frequency and minimum gain conditions for linear-feedback o s c i l l a t o r s .......................................................................................................... 205 Amplitude-limiting m e c h a n is m s ...................................................................... 212 Frequency sta b ility .............................................................................................. 216 Self-limiting single-transistor o s c illa to r .............................. 222 Self-limiting differential-pair o s c i l l a t o r ........................................................... 236 Self-limiting junction field effect transistor o sc illa to rs................................... 241 Crystal o s c illa to r s .............................................................................................. 243 S q u e g g i n g .......................................................................................................... 255 Bridge o s c i l l a t o r s .............................................................................................. 261 The one-port approach to o s c i l l a t o r s .......................................................... 268 The phase plane a p p ro ach.................................................................................. 273 The distortion-operating frequency r e l a t i o n s h i p ........................................ 279
Chapter 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9
M ixers; RF and IF Amplifiers The superheterodyne c o n c e p t............................................................................ 293 Mixer t e c h n i q u e s ...............................................................................................295 Series resistance in m ix e rs.................................................................................. 302 Practical mixer circuits........................................................................................ 305 Semiconductor converter c irc u its ...................................................................... 311 Tuned narrowband small-signal a m p lif ie r s .................................................... 314 Stages with double-tuned circuits ...............................................328 Gain control c i r c u i t s ........................................................................................ 331 Noise, distortion, and cross modulation .................................................... 336 Appendix to Chapter 7: Comparisons of ^-Parameters for Bipolar Tran sistors: Single-Ended, Differential-Pair, and Cascode ...................................345
Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
Amplitude Modulation Amplitude modulation s i g n a l s ...................................................................... 347 Amplitude modulation t e c h n i q u e s ................................... 353 Practical analog modulators and m u l t i p l i e r s ...............................................362 Practical chopper m o d u lato rs............................................................................ 376 Square-law m o d u la to r................................... 384 Tuned-circuit m o d u la to rs ............................................................................. 387
CONTENTS
XI
C h ap ter 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9
P ow er Amplifiers Id e a l p o w er am plifiers class A , s i n g l e - e n d e d ...............................................401 C lass B lin ear R F a m p l i f i e r s ......................................... 405 C lass C lin e a r a m p l i f i e r s .......................................................................................408 R F class C a m p l i f i e r s .................................................................................................... 410 N a rro w b a n d class D p o w er a m p l i f i e r s ...................................................................415 B ro a d b a n d class B a m p l if ie r s .......................................................................................421 B ro a d b a n d class D p o w er a m p lif ie r s ................................................................... 426 P ractical p o w er a m p lif ie r s ............................................................................................. 432 H igh-level am p litu d e m o d u l a ti o n ................................................................................ 447 A p p en d ix to .C h a p te r 9 : Pulse T ra in E x p a n s i o n s ..............................................454
Chapter 10 Amplitude Modulators

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Chapter 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 A m p litu d e d e m o d u la tio n te c h n iq u e s ......................................................................... 457 P ractical average envelope d e t e c t o r s ......................................................................... 468 N a rro w b a n d p e a k envelope d e t e c t o r ......................................................................... 478 P ractical n a rro w b a n d p eak envelope d e t e c t o r ..................................................... 496 B ro a d b a n d p eak envelope d e te c to r . 498 Generation o f F M Signals F req u en cy -m o d u lated s i g n a l s .......................................................................................509 T ran sm issio n o f F M signals th ro u g h n o n lin e ar n e t w o r k s ........................ 515 T ran sm issio n o f F M signals th ro u g h lin ear f i l t e r s ......................................521 F req u en cy m o d u la tio n techniques th e F M differential e q u a tio n . . 526 Q u asi-static frequency m o d u l a t i o n ......................................................................... 532 T rian g u lar-w av e frequency m o d u l a t i o n ...................................................................542 P ractical square-w ave frequency m o d u l a t i o n ..................................................... 553 M iscellaneous frequency m o d u la to rs th e A rm stro n g m e th o d . . . 559 F req u en cy stab ilizatio n o f frequency m o d u l a t o r s ...............................................562
Chapter 12 FM Modulators
12.1 L im ite r s .................................................................................................................571

12.2 F req u en cy -d em o d u latio n t e c h n i q u e s ......................................................................... 577 12.3 D ire ct d ifferen tiatio n th e C lark e-H ess frequency d e m o d u la to r . . . 586 12.4 F req u en cy -d o m ain d ifferen tiatio n th e slope d e m o d u la to r . . . . 593 12.5 T im e-delay differen tiato r, tim e-delay d em o d u la to r, F oster-Seeley d e m o d u la to r, a n d ra tio d e te c to r ...................................................................................... 602 12.6 P u lse-co u n t frequency d e m o d u l a t o r ......................................................................... 618 12.7 M o re ex o tic F M d etec to rs th e phase-lo ck ed loop, th e frequency-locked lo o p , a n d th e frequency d e m o d u la to r w ith f e e d b a c k ....................................... 623
Appendix: Modified Bessel F unctions................................................................ 636

Answers to Selected P r o b le m s ......................................................................................645
Index
................................................................................................................ 651
CHAPTER 1
PREVIEW
T h e purp o se o f th is ch ap ter is n o t to reduce the excitem ent o f the b o o k by revealing th e p lo t. W e wish rath er, by using one particu lar circuit as a vehicle, both to indicate a n u m b er o f the techniques th a t we will explore later in detail an d to d em onstrate to the reader th e po w er o f these m ethods. W e will show how we m ay ra th e r easily get a clear insight in to th e design o f such app aren tly diverse circuits as w ideband smallsignal am plifiers, large-signal n a rro w b an d am plifiers, frequency m ultipliers, active lim iters, active m ixers, a n d tu n ed-circuit sine-wave oscillators. By doing so, we hope to provide a fram ew ork for the general developm ents th at follow an d to share with oth ers th e enthusiasm th a t com es from being able to solve m any heretofore difficult design an d analysis problem s. In this chapter, because o f its n ature, we can n o t develop all results o r answ er all questions. W e tru st th a t th e unansw ered questions will receive adequate treatm ent at a later point.
1.1 BASIC CIRCUIT BIASING
T he circuit th a t we shall use as a skeleton upon which to co n stru ct o u r various exam ples is show n in F ig 1.1-1. T his circuit is show n in the m anner in which it m ight be constructed in integrated form. T h e sole p u rp o se o f th e low er tw o transistors is to provide a constant current
Fig. 1.1-1
Basic ju n ctio n
transistor amplifier.
PREVIEW
1.1
bias source for tran sisto r 1. (T ransistor 3 m ight be viewed as a d io d e; however, in integrated circuits diodes are norm ally constructed as transistors.) O u r key assum ption is th a t the em itter cu rrent and the base-em itter voltage of the tran sisto rs are related by Eq. ( l . l - l ) t : iE = l ESe ^ lkT, vBE = 1 1
kT i
(1. 1- l a ) (1. 1- l b )
hs
where k = 1.38 x 10~23.//oK is B o ltzm anns constant, q = 1.6 x 1 0 ~ 19C is the electronic charge, an d ES is the em itter satu ratio n current. Let us m ake a furth er set o f assum ptions: th a t ic = < xiE and iB = (1 a )iE, and th a t a is b o th close to unity and independent of iE. (The assum ption of a constant alp h a is rarely tru e if iE varies over a wide range; how ever, if alp h a approaches unity, then this v ariatio n is norm ally a second-order effect.) Since I ES is o f the o rd er o f 2 x 10 16 A for small silicon integrated circuit transisto rs an d since k T / q % 26 mV at norm al room tem peratures (T = 300K), Eq. (1 .1 -lb ) m ay be em ployed to determ ine the required values o f vBE (or for the case of a bias voltage) to p roduce various values of iE (or I E). Several values of Vbe vs. I E are presented in T able 1.1-1. It is a p p aren t th at varies only slightly for large variations in 1E ; hence in m any applications VBE m ay be approxim ated by a co n stan t of approxim ately f V.
Table 1.1-1 Value o f VBE required for various values of I E VBE,mV 700 760 820 880 / E,m A 0.1 1 10 100
As connected in Fig. 1.1-1, tran sisto rs 2 an d 3 m ust have the sam e value for vBE (or VBE).If they occupy the sam e area and are on the sam e chip, they will have alm ost identical values f o r / ES. Therefore, iE2 = iE3 or, for biasing purposes, 1F2 = I E3. N ow I = (VEE Vbe) / R b . If VBE is ap p ro x im ated by 3/4 V (so long as Vee Vbe this is reasonable), then IRb is know n. H ow ever, l Rg = 1E3 + (1 a)IE2 or , _ Vee ~ 0-75 _ VEE - 0.75 (2 - , ] R . --------- R ,
t A som ew hat m ore accurate representation w ould be
< U - 2)
< E = es e9yVBBlkT,
where j < y < 1 depending on the tran sisto r m aterial, i.e., germ anium o r silicon. In any situation which w arrants it y m ay be included w ithout affecting any o f the derived results.
1.1
BASIC CIRCUIT BIASING
an d thus
So long as Z E co n tain s a series cap acito r (no dc path), then I E1 = I C2 and the u pper tran sisto r is biased at a constant current level. 1.2 WIDEBAND AMPLIFIER LIMITS ON SMALL-SIGNAL OPERATION Let us first consider the case where Z L is a resistor R L, Z E is a capacitor C E, vt = Vl cos cut, l/a>CE appro ach es an ac short circuit, an d o is low enough so th a t transistor reactances m ay be ignored. W e assum e th at Vcc and are large enough so th at the collector-base ju n c tio n s o f b o th tran sisto rs 1 and 2 always stay reverse biased. Since C E is an ac sh o rt circuit, appears directly across the em itter-base junction o f tran sisto r 1. In a d d itio n , any dc voltage K.C which is developed across C E appears across the ju n c tio n ; hence vBEi = v, 4- Vdi;. W hen vt is zero, iE is forced to be equal to I c 2 ; hence
(The subscript Q denotes the quiescent value of a param eter.) F o r the case w here u, is n o t equal to zero, Eq. (1 .1 -la ) m ay be em ployed to obtain
_ [ Es[ev<'^kr]e{v ,qlkl) cos

= I ES[eVa:q|kT]excoso,,,
( 1.2 - 1)
where x = V, q/k T to norm alize the drive voltage. N ow from a know n F o u rier series expansion,
00
excosm = I 0(X) + 2 In{x) cos mot,
(1-2- 2)
w here I(x) is a m odified Bessel function o f the first kind, of o rd er n and argum ent x. (P roperties o f these tab u lated functions as well as further references concerning them will be found in th e A ppendix a t the back o f the book.) The m odified Bessel functions are all m o n o to n ic a n d positive for x > 0 and n > 0 ; / 0(0) is unity, w hereas all higher o rd er functions sta rt a t zero. As x -> 0,
when n is a positive integer. C om bining Eqs. (1.2-1) an d (1.2-2), we obtain
PREVIEW
1.2
It is a p p a re n t from Eq. (i.2 -3 ) th a t the average (or dc) valoe o f iE is given by iE = I ESey<icq,kT10(x) (1-2-4)
H ow ever, th e biasing circuitry dem ands th a t iE I c 2 ; hence iE m ay be w ritten in the simplified form (1.2-5) In addition, K dc m ay be o b tain ed from Eq. (1.2-4) to be of the form kT, I C2 k T I C2 kT
Q
V <* = ln T 7 n = ln 7^ <7 Ie s I o M <1 Ie s

kT, KicQ In I oM-
ln Ioix)
( 1.2- 6 )
T able 1.2-1 presents several sets o f d a ta concerning the m odified Bessel functions th a t will be o f interest to us. F ro m the first colum n of this table we see th a t if -260 mV, so th a t x = 10, then the dc voltage shifts by 206 m V from its g -p o in t value. W e can also see from the o ther colum ns th at the peak value of the fundam ental com ponent o f the collector cu rrent o f tran sisto r 1 is 1.9/c2, while the percentage second-harm onic d isto rtio n in this cu rren t is 85% .
T able 1.2-1 2 / 1(x) /(*) 0 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 0.000 0.062 0.236 0.823 3.30 7.93 17.6 0.000 0.485 0.893 1.396 1.787 1.897 1.949 i(x) /,(x ) 0.000 0.124 0.240 0.433 0.719 0.854 0.926
l n / 0(x)
A pparently a 260 mV peak sinusoidal signal is n o t a sm all signal at all from the view point o f this amplifier. T he lim its of sm all-signal o p eratio n are m ade clearer by a study of Figs. 1.2-1 an d 1.2-2. Figure 1.2-1 show s th at the o u tp u t fundam ental is only roughly linearly p ro p o rtio n al to the in put voltage, or equivalently x, for x < 1. H ow ever, to keep / 2(x)//i(x), w hich is the percent second-harm onic distortion, below .025 (2j % distortion), it is necessary to keep x below 0.1.f C onsequently, for sm all-signal o p eratio n Vl < 2.6 mV or equivalently It^l ^ 2.6 mV. It is a p p aren t from Eq. (1.2-1) th at the em itter current and, in turn, the collector cu rren t of tran sisto r 1 are p ro p o rtio n al to excm,/ex for any fixed value of x. (We
t F o r sm all values of x, l 2(x)/I i(*) * x/4 [cf. Eq. (A -2) in the A ppendix a t the back o f the book].
1.2
WIDEBAND AMPLIFIER LIMITS ON "SMALL-SIGNAL OPERATION
x=Vxq!kT
Fig. 1.2 -1 F unctions o f m odified Bessel functions vs. the norm alized p aram eter x.
Fig. 1.2 2
mt N orm alized collector currents vs. angle for exponential ju n ctio n driven by sine wave.
in co rp o rate the ex term in the d en o m in ato r for norm alization purposes only.) C onsequently, the p lo t o f excmm/ex show n in Fig. 1.2-2 yields a norm alized picture of the collector cu rren t as a function of tim e over one cycle of the input voltage i;, = Vl cos u>t. C learly by th e tim e x = 10, the collector current is flowing in narrow pulses approxim ately { cycle w id e ; hence the o p eratio n of the am plifier is certainly n o t linear. In fact, as x increases above one, the overall current w aveshape rapidly ceases to be cosinusoidal. F o r larger values of x the dc bias shift effectively aids the signal in holding th e base-em itter ju n ctio n off for a good portion o f the cycle. W ith |u,| < 2.6 mV the o u tp u t voltage o f the am plifier takes the form vo(0 Vcc ~ c^-l ~ Vcc ~
c i R-l
r 2 /i( x )
<*ic2R L - r r v cos 0)1 /o M
(1.2-7)
PREVIEW
1.3
F o r sm all values o f x, how ever, 2 / 1(x )//0(x) x = V^q/kT ; consequently,

V o ( t) = V CC * l Cl R L g m Q R L V l CO S CO t,
( 1 .2 - 8 )
w here gmQ = < xIC2q / k T is defined as the tran sco n d u ctan ce o f the transistor. N ote th a t the value o f gm is exactly th a t value w hich w ould be obtain ed as the increm ental ra tio o f collector c u rre n t to base-em itter voltage evaluated a b o u t the Q -point ; th at is.
d ir
dvn C-0-C2
= ctdv B E E IC2
d iF
kT
mQ>
(1.2-9)
w here iE = I ESeVBEqlkT. T h u s for |t>;| < 2.6 mV, classical sm all-signal analyses may be em ployed. As we shall see in a later chapter, one way to extend the b ro a d b a n d linear signal h andling capacity o f a tran sisto r am plifier is to include an unbypassed em itter resistor. In the circuit u n d er discussion this resistor R E w ould be placed in series w ith C E. Such a resistor reduces the fundam ental gain o f the stage by a factor of 1 1 + R ^ J C2q lk T ) 1 1 + g mQR E
w here gm Q is the sm all-signal (7-point transconductance with R E shorted. T he effect o f th is series resistance is to linearize the characteristic so th a t, while it does reduce the fundam ental gain, it reduces the harm onic disto rtio n even m ore rapidly. As a practical m atter one should note th a t all of the foregoing discussion would be unchanged if th e v( g en erato r w ere included in series w ith C E while the base of tran sisto r 1 was grounded.
1.3 N A R R O W B A N D A M P L IF IE R S AND L IM IT E R S
A different ap p ro a c h to utilizing the circuit o f Fig. 1.1-1 w ould be to again let Z E be a single cap acito r C E an d let Z L be a parallel R L C circuit tuned to the frequency co
Fig. 1.3-1 C ircuit of Fig. 1.1-1 with Zl Zi replaced by a tuned lit/ circu it
o+ v(i) Qt=(o0R lC
9 <D0= y / \ j L C = C O
-r
u)0= reso n an t frequency

>, COS '>>
h 2\ i ) V W
- T 'Q (short circuit at do)
1.3
NARROWBAND AMPLIFIERS AND LIMITERS
o f th e in p u t signal as show n in Fig. 1.3-1. F o r a parallel R L C circuit, the m agnitude o f th e im pedance a t th e fundam ental frequency, Z L(jc), is, in general, greater than the m agnitude of the im pedance a t the nth harm onic, \ZL(jna>)\ ; in particular, IZ L(jnoj)\ _ n U '
\Z L(joS)\ ~ (n2 - 1)Qt '
w here Q T is th e Q of th e reso n ant circuit. Therefore, if QT is sufficiently high, we can o b tain alm ost a p u re sine-wave o u tp u t voltage v0(t) in spite of large harm onic com ponents in the collector current of transistor 1. F o r exam ple, if x = 5, then Q r = 48 reduces the second-harm onic ou tp u t voltage com ponent to 1 % of the fundam ental and the third-harm onic voltage com ponent to 0.31 % (the collector current has d isto rtio n com ponents o f 72 % and 40% respectively). T herefore, as a good approxim ation, the o u tp u t voltage v0(t) m ay be w ritten as !(0 = Krr ^C2^L ; ~r \ co sa)^ I 0(x > (1-3-2)
where R L = Z L(j w ) is the im pedance o f the parallel R L C circuit a t resonance. Since the im pedance of the reso n an t circuit to dc is zero, no dc voltage is built up across Z L. In this case, instead of the sm all-signal transconductance gmQ, it is convenient to define a large-signal average transconductance Gm which is equal to the ratio of the fundam ental collector current I c l l to the fundam ental driving voltage V1 : r
m
_ r
^ m (^ )
^c i l a^c2 2î(x ) _ w, I i \ Fi Kj / 0(x)
m Q
2/i(x ) r i vx / 0(x)
( 1*3
3)
W ith this definition for Gm (x), t> 0(i) may be w ritten in the equivalent form v(t) = Krc - G J x ) R LVi cos wt, (1.3-4)
which is sim ilar in form to the o u tp u t o f the sm all-signal amplifier. T he basic differ ence is th at Gm (x) is a function of V1 (or x) and no longer a constant. Figure 4.5-6 presents values for Gm (x)/gm Q for various values of x. F ro m Fig. 4.5-6 we see th a t Gm is dow n 1 dB from its x = 0 value when x = 1 ; hence, though the h arm o n 'c d isto rtio n has been rem oved, the am plifier can operate only in an approxim ately lin ear fashion w ith in p u t am plitudes below 26 mV peak. By linear, in this case, we m ean th at there is a co n stan t ratio betw een input and o u tp u t signal levels, an d th a t this ratio is independent o f signal level ; this is necessary if an AM wave is to be amplified. If we wish to handle larger in p u t signals in a linear m anner, then the unbypassed em itter resistor again provides the means. If, on the o th e r hand, we w ant to rem ove am plitude variations in V1 from the o u tp u t, i.e., if we wish to p roduce a lim iter, then we need only increase x. F rom T abl 1.2-1 o r from Fig. 1.2-1 we note th a t as x increases, 2 / 1(x )//0(x) approaches a satu ratio n value of 2 ; hence va(t) given by Eq. (1.3-2) reduces to vo(0 - vcc ~ < x2 IC2R l cos o>t, which is clearly independent of variations in V1. (1.3-5)
PREVIEW
1.4
As an exam ple, we consider th e 'c a se w here V 'j varies betw een 130 mV and 520 mV (x varies betw een 5 a n d 20) because of a spurious am plitude m odulation. If we define the m o d u latio n index as
jjj
Vi 1
m ax
~ Vi Am i, n
KAm a x + v i 1 m i, n then the input m o d u latio n index is m = 0.6 (or 60%). Since for x = 5,21 ,(x)/70(x) = 1.787, an d for x = 20, 2 / 1(x )//0(x) = 1.949, and since the am plitude o f the ac com pon en t o f v0(t) is p ro p o rtio n a l to 2 / 1(x )//0(x) [cf. Eq. (1.3-2)], the o u tp u t m odulation index is m 0 = 1.949 + 1.787 = 00435
i ! 9~
( r 4 3 5 %) /0
A further stage driven w ith this signal at a norm alized level such th a t x > 10 could reduce the o u tp u t m o d u latio n below 0.05 %.
1.4 FREQUENCY M ULTIPLIERS
As we saw in Figs. 1.2-1 an d 1.2-2, as x increases, the harm onic com ponent of the collector curren t increases. F o r / x = 1 0 , J2( x ) //l(x) = 0.85, I 3(x )/It (x) = 0.66, U x V M x ) = 0.46, an d I ^ x j / I ^ x ) = 0.29. Therefore if we tune the o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit to a h arm o n ic o f the input, we can obtain an appreciable voltage at least up to the fifth h arm o n ic for an in put drive of 260 mV (x = 10). (F o r x = 2 0 , 15{x)/1{(x) has increased to 0.54.) Such circuits are know n as frequency m ultipliers. They are widely used to o b tain a higher frequency from a stable crystal oscillator or, in FM systems, to increase the o u tp u t F M deviation. Specifically, if the parallel R L C circuit is tuned to the nth h arm onic of the input, v j t ) is given by vo(t) = vcc 1.5 M IXERS
Io(x)
cos nu>t.
(1.4-1)
So far we have driven the ju n c tio n o f tran sisto r 1 w ith a single-frequency cosinusoid. L et us now consider th e case w here i\{t) = Vt cos a ^ t + g(t) cos a>2t. T he signal at frequency co1 m ay be th o u g h t o f as a local oscillator signal in a superheterodyne receiv er; g(t) cos co2t m ay be th o u g h t o f as a low-level received am plitude-m odulated (AM ) signal w hich we wish to translate to the interm ediate frequency (IF) o f the receiver. If we again n o te th a t for tran sisto r 1 in Fig. 1.1-1 (with Z E = C E) the baseem itter voltage is given by vBE = v{ + Vdc, then we m ay w rite the em itter cu rren t in the form
i E = /^ ^ /k T ^ x c o s m iig fo g lO /fc T lc o s w jr
( J 5_ | j
If we assum e |g(f)| < 2 .6 m V , then gi*()/*r]cos<2r m ay jje approxim ated by 1 + [qg(t)/kT] cos co2t. In addition, if we replace excosa>'' by its F o u rier series, Eq.
1.5 (1 .5 1) s im p lifie s t o
MIXERS
cos a jji +
cos a>2f
(1 .5 -2 )
F inally, by n o tin g th a t cos A cos B = {cos (A - B) 4- cos (A + B)], we m ay rew rite iE in the form
(1.5-3) H ence we have generated A M waves w ith envelopes p ro p o rtio n a l to the input envelope g(r) at frequencies co1 co2, + (o2, 2a>! <y2, 2col + a)2, etc. If we now choose Z L as a parallel R L C circuit tuned a t a> 2 with a value of Q t sufficient to rem ove o th e r frequency com ponents from the o u tp u t [but not so large th a t th e envelope inform ation o f g(t) is filtered], then the o u tp u t takes the form
*C C -
g c ^ L g ( 0 C O S (C ! -
(0 2 ) t ,
where
kT
/(*)
6mC/ 0(x)-
Clearly the in p u t A M w ave has been tran slated in frequency from a>2 to uj1 - to2. By choosing th e oscillato r frequency a jt correctly we can shift (or mix) the in put AM wave to any desired interm ediate frequency. T he q u an tity gc, w hich m ay be interpreted as the ratio o f the envelope o f the collector cu rren t a t the frequency oj1 a>2 to the envelope o f the in p u t voltage at frequency ca2 , is called th e conversion transconductance. Since / i(x )//0(x) increases m onotonically to w ard an asym ptote o f unity for large values o f x (or equivalently Fi), it is a p p aren t th a t gc is optim ized by choosing Vy greater th an 260 mV (x > 10). F o r this case gc % gmQ an d the m ixer n o t only translates in frequency b u t also amplifies. As an exam ple o f this fact we consider the case in which g(i) = (1 mV) (1 + cos o)mt) cos (o2t (where com a> 2), R L = 10 kQ, / C2 = 2.6 mA, Vl = 260 mV, a w 1, an d Z L is a parallel R L C circuit tuned at cot - co2. Clearly then for this circuit
10
PREVIEW
1.6
gc = (0.1)(0.948) m h o = 0.0948 m ho. C onsequently, the o u tp u t voltage is v0(t) = Vcc (0.948 V )(l + cos w mt) cos (coj aj2)t. T he o u tp u t signal is shifted in frequency and amplified by a factor of alm ost 1000. It is interesting th a t m ixers o f this form are em ployed in all superheterodyne receivers, th a t is, in m o re than 99% o f the w o rld s receivers o f any kind.
1.6 SINE-WAVE OSCILLATORS
T o operate the m ixer we required a local o scillato r; hence every superheterodyne receiver requires an oscillator. At the sam e tim e every tran sm itter also requires an oscillator. T he first-order characteristics of an oscillator are its waveshape, its fre quency, an d its am plitude. Second-order characteristics are the frequency and am p li tude stability with changes in time, tem perature, voltage, and physical m ovem ent. T o set the frequency o f a sine-wave oscillator we connect it into a feedback loop so th at positive feedback o f exactly 360 is possible only at the desired frequency. T o build frequency stability into it we concentrate m ost of the phase shift vs. fre quency dependence in to one p o rtio n o f the circuit (often a q u a rtz crystal o r a high-Q tuned circuit). T he o scillator often attain s its desired am plitude by reaching a balance betw een the feedback allow ed by the passive p o rtions of the circuit and the nonlinear gain oifered by the active p o rtio n of the circuit (the tran sisto r in the case we are ab o u t to consider). Figure 1.6-1 show s a sine-wave oscillator circuit constructed from the basic circuit o f Fig. 1.1-1. F o r this circuit a 360 phase shift aro u n d the loop is possible only in the vicinity of the tuned circuit resonant frequency co0 ; hence, if an oscillation occurs, it has a frequency o f approxim ately ut0. Let us now assum e th a t the resonant circuit has a high Q T ; then, if the circuit oscillates, the voltage across it is alm ost
Fig. 1.6-1 Sine-wave oscillator.
1.6
SINE-WAVE OSCILLATORS
11
sinusoidal even if the collector cu rrent flows in n arrow pulses. If we assum e also that this voltage, v, = V, cos tu0f, is stepped dow n by the capacitance ratio n = C \/(C i + C 2) (cf. C h ap ter 2), then a sinusoidal drive voltage of the form Vl cos a> 0t appears at the em itter o f tra n sisto r 1, w here = nVt. This em itter voltage, in general, causes a nonlinear, pulselike collector current. W e d em o n strate in Section 5.5 th a t the loading o f the tran sisto r em itter ju nction u p o n C 2 is equivalent to a resistance o f a/Gm{x). In addition, we dem onstrate th at this loading m ay be reflected across the in d u cto r L a s a conductance of n2[Gm(x)/ a], w here n is again C J ( C i + C 2). C onsequently, th e total effective conductance appearing across th e in d u cto r is G T = G, + n2Gm (x)
A ccording to the B arkhausen criterion, for a sustained sinusoidal oscillation at u> 0 , A L(jo)0) = 1, w here A L(j<o) is the loop gain. T o evaluate the lo o p gain we break the loop a t th e em itter, apply a signal o f the form Vl cos co0t to the em itter, term inate the b ro k en lo o p in a resistance o f a/G m (x), and determ ine the signal across the te r m ination o f the loop. T he b roken loop is show n in Fig. 1.6-2. T he capacitor C , w hich has n o effect o n th e calculation o f A t ( j w 0) since it is an ac sh o rt circuit, is in corporated to preserve the dc bias conditions. N ow , w ith the lo o p bro k en , the oscillator reduces to a n arro w b an d am plifier for which we m ay write v, = friGw(x) cos (Opt n G Jx)
Gl +
( 1.6 - 1)
12
PREVIEW
1.6
Since the tw o capacitors act as a step-dow n transform er w ith ratio n, n V , G J x ) cos a> 0t
( 1 .6 - 2 )
(1 .6 -3 )
Stable sinusoidal oscillations occur at co0 for
or equivalently
E q u atio n (1.6-4) specifies the value of Gm{x) required by the passive p o rtio n of the circuit. T he am plitude m ust now adjust itself so that the tran sisto r supplies this Gm(x). If I C2 is know n, then gmQ = I C2q / k T follows, and from Fig. 4.5-6 we may determ ine the x th a t co rresponds to the required Gm. F o r exam ple, if C y = 100 p F , C 2 = 11,200 pF, and R L = 13.7 kQ, then n = 0.00885 and G J x ) = 8300 mho. n
If, in addition, I C2 = 0 .5 mA, then gmQ = 19,200 /mho hence from Fig. 4.5-6, and Gm(x)/gmQ = 0.432;
It is quite obvious th a t Vcc m ust exceed 12 V if collector-base satu ratio n is not to o ccu r in tra n sisto r 1. So long as Vcc > 12 V, the previous am plitude is the am pli tude a t which the circuit stabilizes. In addition, in this case, 13.7, w hich is not nearly as high as we w ould norm ally w ant the Q of an oscillator to be. H ow ever, even in this relatively lo w -g case we have only 5% second-harm onic voltage across the tuned circu it; hence o u r assum ption of a pure sine-wave drive
1.7
PROBLEMS
13
w as n o t bad. W e shall show later th a t such a circuit oscillates w ithin tw o p arts in a tho u san d of the nom inal center frequency of the tuned circuit alone.
1.7 C O N C L U S IO N S
N ow th at we have seen som e of the possibilities o f this simple circuit, we shall go back an d exam ine b o th a num ber of passive circuits and a num ber of o th er nonlinearities in detail. T hen we shall retu rn to explore in m ore depth each of the circuits discussed here, an d also to discover m any o th er circuits of im m ediate interest to the com m unication o r control system designer. Before we plunge into nonlinear c o n trolled sources an d then in to circuits, we devote a chapter to passive transform erlike netw orks and a ch ap ter to the response of narro w b an d filters to m odulated signals. T here are no review chapters on basic electronics, for instance, on biasing smallsignal amplifiers. F o r readers w ho feel deficient in such areas, som e suggested back ground reading is listed below.
SU G G EST E D B A C K G R O U N D R EA D IN G IN E L E C T R O N IC S Angelo, E. J. Jr., Electronics : F E T s, BJT' s and Microcircuits, M cG raw -H ill, New Y ork (1969). G ray, P. E., Introduction to Electronics, Jo h n Wiley, New Y ork (1967). A 325-page paperback developed for an in troductory course in electronics. A bout half of the book is devoted to physics, diodes, and diode circuits, one-third to ju n ctio n transistors, and one-sixth to field effect tra n sistors and vacuum tubes.
PROBLEM S Problem s 1.1 through 1.5 are all based on the circuit of Fig. 1.1-1. 1.1 Supposing th a t | V EE\ = 3 V, RB = 3 k fi, all alphas = 0.98 and all transistors are identical, silicon, an d have / ES = 2 x 10 16 A, find / C1. If Vcc = 4- 10 V, then determ ine the value of R l th a t can be used to replace Z L so th a t the o u tp u t dc voltage level will be + 5 V. W h at is th e approxim ate pow er dissipation in each tran sisto r for this case? 1.2 Suppose Z E is replaced by an ac short circuit in the circuit o f Problem 1.1. Sketch v0 for the cases w here vl is a pure sine wave having peak am plitudes of 1 mV, 2.6 mV, 26 mV, and 260 mV. (In Section 5.3 this case is considered in d e ta il; only a reasonable estim ate o f the
output is required at this point.)

1.3 Suppose Z E is replaced by a 100 i i resistor in series w ith an ac short circuit. R epeat P roblem 1.2 for the cases in which Vi has a peak am plitude o f 1 mV and o f 260 mV. C o m p are the
14
PREVIEW
v (/)= (2 6 0 m V ) cos 107/ T = 2 T C , P=98 Ye = 0.7 V
Figure l.P-1
results with the previous problem . (The second case is no t triv ial; the solution is covered in detail in C h ap ter 5.) 1.4 R epeat P roblem 1.2 for the case w here R, is shunted by a parallel LC com bination tuned to the resonant frequency o f the in p u t sinusoidal signal. D oes satu ratio n occur? 1.5 Repeat P roblem 1.2 for the case w here R L is shunted by a parallel L C com bination tuned to the second harm onic o f the input sinusoidal signal and com pare the results with those of Problem 1.4. 1.6 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. l.P -1 , determ ine an expression for vj t ) (Q2 and Q3 are identical). 1.7 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. l.P -2 , determ ine the quiescent values of iEl, vEBl, an d v0 when IESl = 10~ 13 A, I ES2 = 2 x 10~ 13A, and IES3 = 1.5 x 10~13A. 1.8 F o r the circuit o f Fig. l.P -2 , determ ine v0(t) where IES3 = 10 13 A. = (1 m V )cos 106f and I ESl = l ES2 =
PROBLEMS
15
Figure 1 . P 2
CHAPTER 2
BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND TRANSFORMERLIKE COUPLING NETWORKS
In this ch ap ter we explore the sim ilarities am ong a num ber of passive netw orks all of w hich have w idespread practical application. All of these netw orks have the p ro p erty o f being able to transform im pedance levels and hence voltage an d cu rren t levels. Initially we consider a b ro a d b an d transform er, and in later sections we show how a n u m b er of p ractical circuits m ay be reduced to the com bination o f a parallel R L C circuit an d an ideal transform er. T h ro u g h o u t the chapter, em phasis is placed on plausible ap p ro x im atio n s, usually based on a consideration of the pole-zero diagram for th e circuit in question. T he read er m ay q uestion the necessity of such a chapter, since he has undoubtedly already had one o r m ore courses in netw ork theory o r linear circuits. W e have included the c h a p te r because it has been o u r experience th a t such courses o r the textbooks used in them rarely bring o u t the sim ilarities in the circuits discussed here o r m ake evident the ap p roxim ations th a t suffice to simplify them . It is o u r aim in later chapters to com bine these circuits w ith various nonlinear elem ents to m ake useful circuits. Before u n d ertak in g this co m b in atio n it seems wise to have a th o rough fam iliarity w ith th e individual pieces. T he read er eager to get on to com plete circuits m ight exam ine the equivalences show n in T able 2.5-1 an d the illustrative exam ples at the end of Section 2.4. If these are all old h a t, th en we urge him to push o n ; if not, we recom m end this ch ap ter as a fo undation for later work.
2.1 BRO ADBAND TRANSFORM ER C OUPLING
In this section we study the frequency and tim e-dom ain properties of a linear netw ork consisting of a resistive load coupled to a driving voltage source by m eans of a b ro a d ban d transform er as show n in Fig. 2.1-1. Such netw orks are useful for providing dc isolation an d the possibility of phase inversion betw een the input and the o u tp u t; they are also em ployed w hen the load resistor m ust be scaled in value to m a tc h the driver over a b ro a d b and o f frequencies. F or exam ple, a tran sisto r pow er am plifier m ight require a 200 i2 resistive load over the frequency range of 20-20,000 H z in o rd er to deliver a required am o u n t o f pow er w ithout exceeding its m axim um voltage, current, and pow er ratings, w hereas the speaker it has to drive m ight have an im pedance of 8 Q ; hence transform er coupling is required. T ransform er coupling is also em ployed w here the load resistor m ust flo at referenced to the in put voltage source b o th for dc an d for ac signals.
16
2.1
BROADBAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING
17
Fig. 2.1 -1 T ransform er coupling netw ork.
Since o u r objective in this section is to gain fam iliarity w ith the basic operation of the transform er as a coupling elem ent, we neglect second-order effects such as w inding capacity an d core nonlinearities in o u r analysis. In addition, we m odel the resistive losses in the transform er as sm all resistors in series with the input and ou tp u t term inals. T his m odel is quite reasonable where core loss is not excessive in com p arison with winding loss, as is the case in m ost com m ercial broad b an d transform ers. T he transform er m odel m ost useful for analyzing b ro ad b an d coupling netw orks is show n in Fig. 2.1-2, w here r l and r2 represent the transform er loss. T he equivalence
Fig. 2.1 - 2 T ransform er model replacing tra n s form er of Fig. 2.1 -1.
of this m odel, as well as o th e r possible m odels, and the original transform er is explored in the appendix an d in the problem s at the end of the chapter. T he m odel explicitly indicates the cause of the loss of high- and low -frequency transm ission. In particular, at low frequencies the im pedance of L b - k 2L { approaches zero and shunts to ground the signal path to R L; and at high frequencies the im pedance of L a = (1 k 1) L l app ro ach es infinity and thus opens the signal path to R L. H ow ever, if L h L a (or equivalently k x 1), a frequency range exists where coLh is large in com parison with the im pedance it shunts, while coLa is small in com parison with the im pedance in series w ith it. O ver this range, which we call the m idband (cf. Fig. 2.1-7), the inductances L a and L h may be approxim ated by short and open circuits; this yields the simplified model show n in Fig. 2.1-3 for the netw ork of Fig. 2.1-1.
18
BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS
2.1
ky/Lt
Fig. 2.1 -3 Midband model for transformer coupling network.
W ith the aid o f the m id b and m odel, we first observe th a t for the usual case where r 2 R l an d r l R s, an im pedance of n2R L is presented to the driving source. Therefore, by choosing n2. = k 2L 1/ L 2 appropriately, we m ay o b tain any load resist ance required by th e driving source. F o r k x 1 an d L l an d L 2 w ound on the sam e core,
2 L1
N"
w here an d N 2 are the n um bers of tu rn s in the windings of and L 2 respectively; hence in this case n m ay be related to the physical turns ra tio of the transform er. Second, we observe th a t in the m id b an d n m ay be chosen to m axim ize the voltage across R L for the case w here v,{t), R s, and R L are fixed. S ituations of this type arise w hen a transducer, such as a p h o n o g rap h pickup, with a high source im pedance ( R s) an d a fixed developed signal (vt) m u st be coupled in th e m id b a n d to an am plifier w ith low in p u t resistance (R L). W riting the m idband transfer function in the form
vM .
vt(t)
nR L 717 rl + R s + n (r2 + R L)
(2.1- 1)
an d equating d H J d n w ith zero, we o b tain the value of n which m axim izes H m: nm = J{R's + r M R i . + W ith this value o f n = nm, the m idband transfer function is given by
Rl ( 2. 1- 2 )
(2.1-3) + r2)
2s / ( R s +
T he value of n = nm given in Eq. (2.1-2) is intuitively reasonable as the value which produce m axim um signal to RL since it yields a f t the tranpfom ier input term inals which is equal to the source resistance R s + r t . Such a m atch ensures m axim um pow er in to the transform er an d thus into R L. It is a p p aren t from Eq. (2.1-3) th a t the existence of transform er loss reduces the signal available to R L . T o o b tain a b etter m easure o f this signal atten u atio n , we assum e th a t v,{t) is o f th e form Vi cos cot, w here co is som e m id b an d rad ian frequency,
2.1
19
<20--------1
I -------- O b
a 'O
500n
Fig. 2.1 A Typical transform er specification. / , - 2 0 Hz, f 2 15,000 Hz
and th a t n = n, and then co m pute the ratio of the average pow er delivered to R , to the average pow er delivered to R L w ith = r2 = 0. This ratio, which is a m easure
o f e fficien cy r\, is g iv e n b y
V\ Rl 2R l 4(/?s + r i }(R l + r2) V\ Rl 2R L 4R SR L C learly then, unless r x R s an d r 2 R L, m uch o f the available signal pow er is not supplied to R l . T he tran sfo rm er m an u factu rer usually indicates w hat m inim um values o f R s an d R l ensure R L r2 an d R s r 1 in his specification of the tu rn s ratio. Typically, the specification ap p ears in the form show n in Fig. 2.1-4, which is interpreted to imply th a t if a 5 Q resistor is connected across term inals b a n d b', 500 Q is seen a t term inals a an d a' in the m idband range extending from 20 H z to 15,000 H z; hence n = ^ 5 0 0 /5 = 10. In addition, the fact th a t R L = 5 Q and R s = 500 Q ensures R , r2 an d R s r , , usually to the extent that rj > 0.8. U sing sm aller values of R L does not alter the turns ratio n but does decrease the efficiency rj and alter the m idband frequency range. T o extend o u r analysis beyond the range of the m idband, we obtain the transfer function H(p) = V0(p)IVx(p) for the circuit of Fig. 2.1-2 in the form nRL H(p) =
'p 2 + p
(2.1-5)
w here R a = R s + R b = n2(R L + r 2), L a = (1 k 2) ! . ^ and L b = /c2L , . Since all R L (or RC) netw orks have their poles on the negative real axis, the pole-zero
20
2.1
Fig. 2.1 -5 Pole-zero diagram o f H(p).
d iagram for H(p) takes the form show n in Fig. 2.1-5, where and p 2 are the roots o f the d en o m in ato r of H(p). In general, the expression for p t and p 2 is quite com pli cated ; however, for the b ro a d b a n d transform er where L b L a, an d in tu rn p 1 p 2, simplified ap p ro x im ate expressions for p , and p 2 m ay be obtained. W e note from Eq. (2.1-5) th a t the sum and p roduct o f the ro o ts o f the d en o m in ato r of H{p) are given by Pi + Pi = ~ and PiPi R aRb LTh
As L b increases relative to L a, p , + p 2 approaches a co n stan t value while p t p 2 ap proaches zero. But p i p 2 can ap p ro ach zero only if one of the poles, p 2 in this case, ap p roaches the origin. T hus as L b increases relative to L a the larger pole is ap proxi m ated by the sum o f the p o le s; th at is, Pi * Pv + Pz and PlPl P 10 RRh L aL b + Rh RRb 1 P20R + Rh + R, Ra + Rb = P 10
(2. 1-6 )
P2
(2.1-7)
R + Rh L h
As the reader can readily d em o n strate num erically, if R a % R b and L b > 10L a, the ap p ro x im atio n s o f Eqs. (2.1-6) a n a (2.1-7) are accurate w ithin 5% . In ad d itio n , if L b > 100L th e ap p ro x im atio n s are valid w ithin 1 % for a n y ra tio of R a to R b. It should be noted th a t p 10 is the netw ork pole obtained with L b open-circuited and th a t p 20 is the n etw ork pole o btained w ith L a replaced by a sh o rt circuit. Figure 2,1-6 shows the tw o sim plified single-pole circuits from which p l0 an d p 20 m ay be obtained by inspection. W ith the poles widely separated, H(p) is given by
2.1
21
and P20 in ad d itio n , 20 log \H(ja))\
(a)
(b)
20 log H m + 20 log |co/p20| (2-1-9)
- 20 log y / l + (w /p10)2 - 20 log y / l + (m / p 20)2,
w here H m is th e m id b an d tran sfer function. T he m agnitude 20 log \H(ja>)\ an d a sketch o f a rg H(juj) vs. a> a re given in Fig. 2.1-7. Since |p 10| |p20|, the co rrections a t each corner to the asym ptotes d o not in te ra c t; hence the range o f frequencies over which \H(ja>)\ has n o t decreased by m ore th a n 3 d B from its m id b an d value is ju st the range between |p 10| and |p2ol- This range is conventionally defined as the 3 dB bandw idth of the transform er coupling netw ork. O n e should n ote also th a t as the poles becom e widely separated, arg H (jw ) ap p ro ach es + n/4 a t a> = |p2ol a n d n/4 a t oj = |p 10|. If the tran sfo rm er coupling netw ork is now excited by a step of voltage of the form Vj(t) = K,u(t), then IP) = V\ /P, K( p ) = F,//(p)/p, and , _ l Vl H ( p ) _ Vt n R L (e - | P2|< _ e - l P'l')u(i),
( 2 . 1- 10)
K \ P i - P 2I
Fig. 2.1-7 Magnitude and phase vs. to for transfor mer coupling network.
22
2.1
Fig 2.1 -8 Step response of transform er coupling netw ork.
w here i f " 1 is th e inverse L aplace tran sfo rm operator. A p lo t of v0{t) vs. t is shown in Fig. 2.1-8. N o te th a t the high-frequency pole at contributes to the deterioration o f the leading edge of the o u tp u t step, while the low-frequency pole at p 2 contributes to the decay o f the o u tp u t step to zero. This, of course, is an expected result, since a transform er does n o t tran sm it either the high-frequency com ponents of the step which co n trib u te to its leading edge or the low-frequency (dc) com ponents which are required for a n o nzero steady-state value. If one m akes th e tran sfo rm er b ro a d b a n d by designing k 1 (for which case Pi x P to an d P2 ~ P2o)> ^ e step response takes the form show n in Fig. 2.1-9. Since IPil > :> l?2l> th e tim e d u ra tio n o f e ~ |pi1' becom es negligible when com pared with e ' l p2l'; thus the step response takes the approxim ate form vM = V inR L _ | P 2 0
^ 0P 10
M O=
Vih R l
R a + Rb
' \ P2 0 \ t
u{t).
( 2 . 1- 11)
N o te th a t this is th e response o b tainable from the simplified circuit of Fig. 2.1-6b. If th e fine stru ctu re o f th e leading edge o f the step response is required, an expanded tim e scale a b o u t th e origin m ust be em ployed. O n such a scale e -|p21' rem ains essen tially c o n sta n t a t u n ity ; th u s the leading edge o f the step response takes the ap p roxi m ate form
vU):
V inRi
R a + Rb
<1
H t) ,
( 2 . 1- 12)
Fig. 2.1 -9 Step response of b ro ad b an d transform er n e t work.
2.1
23
Fig. 2.1-10 E xpansion of leading edge c f Fig. 2.1- 9.
which is illustrated in Fig. 2.1-10 and which is exactly the step response obtained from the simplified circuit of Fig. 2. l - 6(a). C onsequently, for the case of widely separated poles, b o th the step response and the frequency response may be obtained from simplified single-pole circuits. As an application of the above analysis, let us specify the param eters of a tra n s form er which m atches 5 fi (RL) to 500 Q (R s) in the m idband extending from 50 Hz to 5000 H z (|pi| = 3.14 x 104 rad/sec, \p2\ = 3.14 x 102 rad/sec). W ith these values the poles are widely s e p a ra te d ; hence L , - (1 - k )L, = R + ' ' + " H R l + ' 2) IPlI
Lb K L i
i 2r
( R S + r! ) (RL + r2)n2 [.R s + rj + n2(R L + r2)]\p2\
If the transform er is to have reasonable efficiency, we m ust have R s r l and R L r2. In addition, for a m atch, we need n2R L = R s , therefore, (1 - k 2) L y ^ ^ 1000 x 4 = 31.8 m H and 250 /c2L t % = 800 m H ,
fro m w h ic h w e o b ta i n k = 0 .9 6 2 , L j = 832 m H , a n d L 2 = k2L i/ n 2 8 0 0 m H /1 0 0 = 8 mH. All of these values are readily obtained in practice. Before term inating o u r discussion of b ro a d b an d transform er netw orks, let us consider the effect of loading the transform er in a way different from th at specified by the m anufacturer. Clearly if both R s and R L are increased while their ratio rem ains constant, the efficiency increases and |p 10| and |p 2ol increase in direct p ro p o rtio n to R s or R L (if we assum e rj R s and r2 R L) \ hence the transform er passband is shifted up in frequency. If R L and R s are decreased, the opposite effect results. To determ ine the effect on |p 10| and |p 2ol f varying R L relative to R s, we plot
20 log |p 10| = 20 log ^ and 201o g W Rb = 2 0 lo g j
RJ.
1 + -^
R.
24
2.1
Ra_ Fig. 2.1-11 Plot of 20 log |p10| and 20 log |p20| vs. R J R b.
vs. R J R b as show n in Fig. 2.1-11, where R / L is expressed as a dim ensionless q u antity in som e convenient system o f units. As R a = R s + r l is increased relative to R b = n2(R L + r2), we observe th a t the high-frequency pole increases w ithout bou n d while the low -frequency pole app roaches a co n stan t value. C onsequently, we should expect a cu rren t source drive (R s = oo) to produce no high-frequency break point regardless o f the value of k. T his effect is n o t observed in practice, however, since an ad d itio n al finite b reak p o in t is pro d u ced by the physical w inding capacity, which we have neglected. As R a is decreased relative to R b, we observe th a t the high-frequency pole app ro ach es a c o n stan t value while the low -frequency pole ap proaches zero. In the lim it as R a -* 0 we should expect the transform er to pass d c; how ever, this effect is also n o t observed in practice because o f the nonzero resistance o f the driving source a n d th e existence o f r x. A lthough the above analysis is perform ed for a transform er coupling netw ork, the sam e results are obtained for any b ro a d b a n d coupling n e t w ork having a zero a t the origin and tw o poles on the negative real axis. In particular, a n etw ork o f the form show n in Fig. 2.1-12, consisting o f a coupling cap acito r be tw een th e driver an d the load with som e stray capacity to ground, has a sim ilar step an d frequency response. R, C
Fig. 2.1-12 Capacitive coupling network.
2 .2
PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
25
L iv 'd )
Fig. 2.2-1 P arallel RLC circuit.
In the sections w hich follow we shall shift our em phasis from the b ro ad b an d ap plication of the transform er to its application in narro w b an d circuits. W e shall begin by developing th e p ro p erties o f sim ple n arro w b an d circu its; we shall then extend these concepts to n arro w b an d transform er-coupled netw orks.
2.2 P A R A L L E L R L C C IR C U IT
Before beginning a discussion of n arro w b an d transform er netw orks, we shall review som e o f th e p ro p erties o f sim ple n a rro w b an d reso n an t circuits, w hich a re essential building blocks o f the m ore com plicated transform er netw orks. W e shall begin by considering the sim ple parallel R L C circuit show n in Fig. 2.2-1. If we drive the circuit with the cu rren t i,(f) an d define v(t) as the o u tp u t voltage, the transfer function (in this case, inp u t im pedance) takes the form
1 1 K(P)
Z l l (p) =
*c 2 v P RC 1 LC iP ~ Pi)(P - P i)
( 2 .2- 1)
where PU2 2R C +
1
2R C
LC
T he poles, p 1 an d p 2 , m ay be real o r a com plex conjugate pair. W e consider these tw o cases separately. F o r the case w here (1/2R C )2 > 1L C (or equivalently R < co0L/2 = l/2co0C, where a> 0 = 1/v/ l C ) , p x an d p 2 lie on the negative real axis as show n in Fig. 2.2-2. This pole-zero d iagram , w hich is analogous to the one for the b ro a d b an d transform er netw ork of Section 2.1, indicates th a t for values of R which are small com pared with
7(0
SF -O Pi Fig. 2. 2 -2 Pole-zero diagram o f Z ,,(p ) with R < w 0L/ 2. P2 1
26
2 .2
3 v(/)
Fig. 2.2 -3 Simplified circuits for finding p 10 an d p 20.
(o0L/2, the parallel R L C n etw ork functions as a b ro ad b an d netw ork w hose m idband frequency range extends from \p2\ to |p,|.. Physically the m idband m ay be interpreted as th a t range o f frequencies over which the im pedance o f b o th the inductance L and capacitance C is large, and therefore negligible, com pared w ith R ; hence Z llm = R. At low and high frequencies the im pedances of L and C respectively a p p ro ach zero, thus shunting i,(f) to ground. F o r wide pole sep aratio n the approxim ate values of and p 2 m ay be determ ined by inspection. In particu lar, for p, p 2, P\ is approxim ated by the sum of the roots of the d en o m in ato r o f Z t i (p), an d p 2 is approxim ated by the p ro d u c t of the roots divided by the sum of the roots, th a t is,
1 Pi ~ P 10 i
l/L C P2 l/R C
R ~ L = P20'
( 2 .2 - 2 )
Physically |p 20| is the rad ian frequency a t w hich the im pedance o f L is equal to R, an d |p 10| is th e rad ian frequency a t w hich th e im pedance o f C is equal to R. A lterna tively p 10 a n d p 20 are th e poles o f th e sim plified circuits show n in Fig. 2.2-3. Since the step an d frequency responses o f the b ro a d b a n d parallel R L C netw ork in term s of an d p 2 are identical in form w ith the corresponding responses o f the b ro a d b and transform er, we d o n o t present them here. F o r the case w here (1/2 R Q 2 < l / L C o r R > co0L/2, the expression for the poles takes the form
P 1,2 = - a j - J Wq - a 2 = - a j ,
(2.2-3)
w here co0 1/ N / Z c , a = 1/ 2J?C, a n d /? = yfcol a 2. T he pole-zero d iag ram for this case is show n in Fig. 2.2-4. It is a p p aren t th a t the distance o f the poles from the origin is given by a 2 + ft2 = col; hence as a is increased by increasing the loading o n th e circuit (decreasing R), th e poles m ove in to th e left half-plane alo n g th e sem i circular trajectory o f rad iu s oj0 u n til they m eet on the real axis for a = w 0. Physically a> 0 is th a t ra d ia n frequency a t w hich the im pedances o f the in d u cto r an d cap acito r are equal in m agnitude and opposite in phase, an d thus produce an o pen circuit w hen com bined in parallel. T his frequency, a t w hich the parallel R L C circuit ap p ears as a pure resistor R, is called the resonant frequency of the circuit.
2 .2
27
SF
C
\ rc
w0 =Jl c
Fig. 2.2^4 Pole-zero diagram of Z , t(p) with
R > w0LI2. T o obtain the sinusoidal steady-state frequency response when R > to0L 2, we express Z , {{jo) as /(u/C K 5 -, (2.2-4) Z u (joj)= r - - - .......= ---------------------to + 2jtoa to I' + jQi ow>() E quation (2.2-4) provides the m eans of o b tain in g an exact p lo t o f |Z , [(yco)! and arg Z u (ja>) vs. o). O n the o th er hand, a quick sketch of \ Z l l (jto)\ an d arg Z 11(jto) may be obtained from the value of Z l ,(yco0) and the asym ptotic values o f Z n (ja>) as co approaches zero and infinity. T he asym p totic values vs. u> m ay be o btained by plotting the resistance R. the m agnitude of the capacitive reactance IA^m)! = 1/tuC, and the m agnitude of the inductive reactance \ X L(o))\ = w L on the sam e set of coordinates vs. w as show n in Fig. 2.2-5. Clearly for to = to0 the reactances of the inductor and cap acito r cancel each o ther and yield 17-11(jo))\ = R and, of course, arg Z i tO w) = 0. As co is decreased below a>0 , the small reactance o f the in d u cto r rapidly dom inates the parallel R L C netw ork, causing \ Z Xi(joj)\ to a p p ro ach tnL an d arg Z 11(7 ) to a p p ro ach n/2. Similarly, as to is increased above <o0 , the small reactance o f the capacitor rapidly dom inates the parallel R L C n etw ork, causing \ Z { (jto)\ to ap p ro ach 1taC an d arg Z x ,(/o>) to a p p ro ach n/2, as shown in Fig. 2.2-5. In additio n , th e tw o half-pow er frequencies tol an d co2 , at which |Z u (y'oj)| = R j s / 2 an d a r g Z u (jw) = -+-ti/4 arid 7 t/4 respectively, m ay be found by equating the im aginary term in the d en o m in ato r of Eq. (2.2-4) to + 1 and solving for to : to2 0 1, 0) = U)] , (2.2-5) Qt
COOJn
+ 1,
CO
CO,
28
2 .2
D irect solution o f Eq. (2.2-5) yields the following relationships betw een at, and a > 2: a >2 ffli = 2a and = co0.
How ever, since the difference betw een co2 and (ot is the 3 d B bandw idth (BW) of the parallel R L C circuit, we have BW = 2a, o r equivalently BW _ 2a _ 0 0 1 Qt
(2.2-6)
It is interesting a t this p o in t to note the significance o f the p a ra m ete r Q T, which is referred to as the netw ork q u e. F irst of all, as QT increases, the 3 dB bandw idth o f the netw ork decreases relative to its resonant frequency. Clearly, then, if the parallel R L C circuit is used to transm it a m odulated carrier w hose spectrum occupies a fixed b a n d o f frequencies a b o u t co0 , Q T m u st n o t be increased to a p o in t w here the m o d u latio n is distorted. Second, increasing Q T increases the ratio o f R to co0L = 1/ w 0C (note th a t Q T = R/(o0L = Rco0C). H ence the parallel R L C netw ork greatly atten u ates frequencies in th e vicinity o f 2<w0 (where \ Z 1(Joj)! - 1/tuC) relative to frequencies in th e vicinity o f oj0 (w here Z i l (jeo) x R). C onsequently, if the purpose of the parallel R L C circuit is to extract the fundam ental com ponent o f a periodic waveform , a Q T as high as possible is desired. T hird, as Q T increases, the poles o f Z x i(p) a p p ro ach the im aginary axis in the com plex p-plane a n d cause any transients induced in the n etw ork to becom e m ore and m ore oscillatory. If we wish, we m ay in terpret Q T in still a n o th er way. F o r the case w here (t) = I cos (o0t , w hich results in v0(t) = I R cos < x > 0t = Vl cos co0t, we have 2 7i (peak energy stored) energy dissipated per cycle 2 n ( iC V f) (2n/a)0) ( V j/2 R ) o) qC R Q t (2.2-7)
2.2
29
This in terp retatio n of Q T in term s o f stored and dissipated energy is useful in d eter m ining the Q of circuits w ith m ore than one source of dissipation. In cases w here Q T is high, or equivalently where the poles of Z u (p) are close to the im aginary axis, a graphical ap p ro x im atio n perm its us to o b tain a greatly simplified expression for Z u (j(o). If we consider the p h a so r diagram show n in Fig. 2.2-6, we observe th a t for a> > 0 the range o f frequencies over which |Z j i(j(o)\ = (S F ) p J p Pip P 2 is significantly different from zero is th a t range in the vicinity of p, where p Pt becom es small. As a is decreased relative to co0, this frequency range decreases to the point w here th e p h aso rs draw n from z and p 2 = p* rem ain essentially c o n sta n t over the entire range, w ith the m agnitudes and angles given by
pz to0, 6Z =
tt/2 ,
ppi
2a>0,
dP2
n/2.
In addition, for a cj0 , P = J w l - a 1 % OJ0 . C onsequently, for high values o f Q T , Z(jto) m ay be clocely approxim ated hy
a ' 2 ~8
= exp ( - jf lp .) 2CPr>
30
2.2
Recognizing th a t p Pl exp j0 Pi = a + j(o> ft) % a + j(a> - co0), we m ay rew rite Eq. (2.2-8) in the form Z , A j o j ) = ------1 R p = -------------------1 + / ^ *
id
> 0.
(2.2-9)
A sim ilar form m ay be o b tain ed for w < 0. It is a p p a re n t th a t |Z n (y'co)| given by Eq. (2.2-9) is sym m etric a b o u t half-pow er frequencies to t and co2 given by co 1,2 = co0 o c.
o j
0 ,
with
It is interesting th a t for high values o f Q T, u> 0 approaches the arithm etic ra th er th an the geom etric m ean of (Oj an d a>2, while the 3d B bandw idth rem ains unchanged at (o2 a! = 2a. F o r (a - u)1 an d for a> = u> 2 , p Zl has increased from its m inim um value o f a to a ^ /2 , th u s causing \ Z xl{jo))\ to decrease from its m axim um value by a factor o f 1/^/2A lthough we have indicated th a t the simplified form o f Z u (j'a>) given by Eq. (2.2-9) is a g o o d ap p ro x im atio n for Z j (jw) whenQ r is high, we have n o t yet d eter m ined w hat range of Q T m ay be considered high. T o do this we m an ip u late the exact expression for Z 11(ja)) given by Eq. (2.2-4) into the form Z ..W +1 l + 4Q / 2 C iT 4 Q ~ T (2.2- 10)
w here i2 = (to oj0)/a. H ere we see explicitly th a t as Q T > oo Eq. (2.2-10) reduces to Eq. (2.2-9). In a d d itio n , if we p lo t |Z , ^ jo j^ /R an d arg Z n (7'co) vs. Q as show n in Figs. 2.2-7 an d 2.2-8, we observe exceptionally close agreem ent betw een the curves o btained for QT = 10 an d Q T = oo, particularly in the vicinity o f f t = 0, o r equiva lently to = co0. Since the curves for Q T = oo correspond to the simplified expression for Z i l (jw) given by Eq. (2.2-9), we m ay clearly use this app ro x im atio n for Z ^ i j o j ) w ith confidence for Q T > 10 and as a b a llp a rk ap p ro x im atio n for Q T as low as 5. T o o b tain the response o f the parallel resonant circuit driven by an im pulse of current, we o b tain the inverse Laplace transform o f Z j ,(p) o r directly evaluate the im pulse response by o th e r m ethods. In either case, we o b tain z u (i) = [ Z u (p)] = ^ " c o s j fit + ta n " 1 u(t). (2.2-11)
F o r the case w here Q T > 10, Eq. (2.2-11) reduces to the simplified form i(0 ~ ^ e M (cos (o0t)u(t), (2.2- 12)
since p = a>0% / T ^ l y 4 Q f a w 0 and a//? =
1 0.
2.2
31
Q
Fig. 2.2-7 P lo t o f \Z{ ,{ja))\/R vs. f i = (co - co0)/a.
2.3 PA R A L LE L L C C IR C U IT W IT H S E R IE S L O S S
In this section we shall consider the parallel resonant circuit with loss in series with the in d u cto r o r capacitor. W e shall show th a t w hen the series loss is small, as is m ost often the case in com m unication systems, the circuit behaves in the same fashion as the parallel R L C netw ork, an d thus the loss may be m odeled by an equivalent parallel resistor. Such a m odel perm its the com bination of circuit loss appearing at several points in the parallel L C circuit into a single parallel resistor for which the expressions derived in Section 2.2 m ay be applied directly. W e begin o u r analysis with the circuit of Fig. 2.3-1, in which the loss in the form of r appears in series with the inductor. W e shall then generalize to the case where loss appears in series with b o th the in d u cto r and capacitor and also in parallel with the com bination. F o r the circuit of Fig. 2.3-1, the transfer function (or input im pedance) relating r0(t) an d i(t) is given by Z u iP) = W l = {1/C)ip + r/L) hip) (P - Pi)(P ~ Pi) (2.3-1)
where p 1 2 = ( r/2L ) + v /(7/2L)2 1/LC . W e see th a t the poles of Z lx(p) may be either real o r com plex, depending on the relationship of the param eters. Since the analysis of the circuit with real poles is quite sim ilar to the real-pole analysis perform ed in Section 2.2, we restrict o u r atte n tio n to the case where 1/L C > (r/2L)2 (or equiva lently r < 2 ca0L = 2/co0C , w here to0 = 1/ ^ J l C). F o r this case the poles m ay be w ritten in the form
P i ,2 *=
jyjwl ~ a 2 =
jP,
(2.3-2)
32
2.3
2 .3
PARALLEL LC CIRCUIT WITH SERIES LOSS
33
SF=-
Fig. 2.3-2 Pole-zero diagram o f Z n (p) for r < 2w 0L.
w here r 2L ' 0)0 = 1
y lc
and
/?
*coq a 2.
T he co rresp o n d in g pole-zero diag ram for Z u (p) is show n in Fig. 2.3-2. H ere again we notice th d t as a is increased by increasing r, the poles m ove into the left half plane along a sem icircular trajecto ry of radius co0, where co0 is the frequency at which the m agnitudes o f th e im pedances o f the in d u cto r and capacitor are equal. F ig u re 2.3-3 show s a sketch o f |Z n (jco )| an d arg Z n (jw ) obtain ed graphically from the pole-zero p lo t o f Fig. 2.3-2. Even this rough sketch indicates that, unlike the parallel R L C circuit, the circuit with loss in series w ith the in d u cto r does not experience eith er zero phase shift o r m axim um am plitude o f \ Z X1(_/cu)| a t the frequency (o0 - F o r this reason tw o distinct resonant frequencies are specified for this circuit: (1) th e am p litu d e reso n an t frequency a t which the m axim um value o f |Z u (y<y)| occurs a n d (2) th e phase reso n an t frequency a t which Z , ,(7(0) ap pears purely resistive. F o rtu n ately , as the poles an d p 2 a p p ro ach the im aginary axis, both resonant frequencies converge to co0 , w hich is som etim es defined as still a third resonant frequency. In additio n , no convenient expression exists for either the m axim um value of \Zi\(jA \ o r th e 3 dB b an d w id th o f the circuit in the general case. How ever, for the case where a a > 0 o r Q Lf is high, where QL is defined as 1 a)0rC ' 2a r certain sim plifying ap p ro x im atio n s in the expressions for Z i l (ja)) m ay be made.
t W e shall reserve QT for q u e in parallel R L C circuits.
(2 .3 -3 )
34
2.3
Fig. 2.3-3 Sketch of magnitude and phase of Z , t(joi) vs. ai. Specifically, w ith the aid o f Fig. 2.3-4, we w rite Z x ZuO'co) = Pp,Ppz an d observe th at, for frequencies in the vicinity of p x (the only range for a> > 0 where Z y, (jo>) is significantly different from zero), the following ap p roxim ations are v a lid : p z x co0 , 9Z x 7r/2, p Pl % 2a>0, ep2 x n/2, ex p j(02 - 6 in the form - 0 ) (2.3-4)
P = J a i l - a 2 co0. T hus Eq. (2.3-4) m ay be w ritten in the form Z nO 'to) exp - j d Pl =

1
2 CPpt
2C al 1 + /
a> to.
co > 0,
(2.3-5)
which is identical in form to Eq. (2.2-9). If, in addition, we observe th a t
dc ' c =
then Eq. (2.3-5) m ay be rew ritten in the form Z u ( j( o ) 1+j
= Qlr R -oj > 0,
(2.3-6)
.0) O)0
(2.3-7)
which is exactly the expression for the im pedance of a high-Qr parallel RLC circuit
2 .3
35
lz, lUbi
arg Z i1i 7a i = e , - 0, 1- 0 , 2
er
< * J q
Fig. 2.3 -4 P hasor diagram for evaluating Z , , (jw).
w ith R = /?eq = gr. Hence, for high values of QL [specifically, QL > 10 ensures the accuracy of Eq. (2.3-7) w ithin a few percent], the circuit of Fig. 2.3 1 m ay be m odeled by th e circuit show n in Fig. 2.3-5. W ith this equivalence in circuits, we note from the results of Section 2.2 th at \ Z Xi(./)|m ax = R BW = 2a = r/L, BW /w 0 !Qi, In term s of the pole-zero d iagram o f Z n {p) show n in Fig. 2.3-2, the effect of replacing the series loss by a parallel loss is the m ovem ent of the zero at 2a to the origin. T his m ovem ent has little effect on Z u (p) for sm all values o f a, which exist when Q l is high.
Fig. 2 .3-5 Equivalence o f tw o parallel resonant circuits.
36
2 .3
Figure 2.3-6
In practice, the quickest way to convert series loss into parallel loss is to evaluate Q l = a>0L /r , determ ine w hether QL > 10, and then form R eq Q2 Lr. N o te th a t if Q l > 10 and if there are n o o th er losses in the netw ork, then QL = Q T. Clearly Q t Req/ôL = Ql - If o th e r losses are present in the circuit, /?eq m ust be com bined with them to d eterm ine QT ; thus QL ^ Q TExam ple 2.3-1 D eterm ine values for r, L, a n d C for the circuit show n in Fig. 2.3-6 such th a t Z u ijc o ) peaks to a value of 1000 i i at a> 0 = 107 rad/sec ( / = 1.6 M H z) w ith a b andw idth o f 5 x 105 rad/sec. Solution. Since the b an d w idth is n arrow com pared w ith co0 , we have a high-Q circuit for which
= o = ^
Ql In addition, 2a BW
= 20
1000 Q = |Z O o ) | * Q2 Lr ; hence r = 2.5 Q. F ro m the relationship = 2a ss BW we obtain

L =
2.5
il
5 x 10 rad/sec
= 5 //H ,
an d finally C = l/(o2 0L = 2000 pF. If the loss in a parallel resonant circuit appears in series with the capacitor, as show n in Fig. 2.3-7, the in p u t im pedance is given .by
2 .3
37
o-
Fig. 2.3-7 Parallel reso n an t circuit w ith loss in series with the capacitor.
o Zn(P)
Figure 2.3-8 show s a pole-zero d iagram o f Z x (p) for the case w here the poles form a com plex conjugate pair. Again, and by reasoning sim ilar to th at em ployed when the loss is in a series w ith th e inductor, it is readily show n th a t for Qc > 10, where Q c = cj0/2a = co0L /r = l/a>0rC, the series loss r m ay be replaced by an equivalent parallel loss R cq o f value g r w ith negligible effect on Z x j(p). In addition, it m ay be show n th at if a loss ap p ears in series w ith the inductor an d a loss r2 ap p ears in series w ith the capacitor of a parallel resonant circuit, and if
w here o 0 = 1 / y f L c , then the to tal loss m ay be represented as the parallel com bina tion of Q j / i , Qcr 2, an d any existing shunt resistance. W e shall explore this idea further in the following example. Exam ple 2 .3 -2 F o r th e circuit show n in Fig. 2.3-9, determ ine the resonant radian frequency oo0 , the b andw idth, Q T, and Z n ( j ( o 0). Solution. W e observe first th a t oj0 = 1/y/~LC = 107 rad /sec; hence
pi / /
-e
rC SF = r
P^2 = - " /P
SV
\
\
U > n - y/EC
\
"x _
P2 P
(3
= v ^ o2 - 2
Fig. 2.3 -8 Pole-zero diagram of Z t l (p).
38
2 .4
C onsequently r 1 a n d r2 m ay be replaced by equivalent parallel resistances each equal to Qcr i = 4 k Q . T he to ta l sh u n t resistance is therefore the parallel com bination of 2 kQ, 4 kQ, an d 4 kQ, which o f course is 1 kQ = R T. Since for the equivalent parallel reso n an t circuit, L an d C com bine to produce an infinite im pedance a t a> 0, Z u ( j o )0) = R t = 1 kQ. Also Q t = R t / u> 0L = 10 and BW = co0/ Q T 106 rad/sec.
2.4 PARALLEL R ESO NA NT TRANSFORM ERLIKE NETW ORKS
In this section we shall consider the parallel resonant circuit in which the loss appears across only a p o rtio n of the in d u cto r or capacitor. Again we shall show th a t when Q is high (or, equivalently, the com plex poles of the circuit are close to the im aginary axis), the circuit in p u t im pedance has essentially the sam e form as th at o f the parallel R L C circuit. T he loss m ay therefore be m odeled as an equivalent parallel resistor for which the results of Section 2 .2 are directly applicable. In addition, we shall show th a t the tapped a n d loaded in d u cto r o r capacitor possesses m any o f the properties of an ideal transform er. Specifically, if the loading is light, the load across the tapped energy-storage elem ent m ay be m odeled by the identical load placed across the secondary of an ideal tran sfo rm er w hose prim ary is placed in parallel w ith the to tal energy-storage elem ent. T his representation is valid n o t only for the evaluation of the input im pedance but also for the evaluation of the transfer im pedance. W e begin o u r analysis w ith the circuit of Fig. 2 .4 -1 , in which the loss in the form of G appears across a p o rtio n of the capacitor. W e shall then generalize to the case
2 .4
PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSFORMERLIKE NETWORKS
39
w here the loss ap p ears across a p o rtio n of the inductor, and also (in Section 2.5) to the case where the loss app ears across the secondary of a physical transform er with
c a p a c itiv e ly tu n e d p rim a ry .
F o r the circuit of Fig. 2.4-1 the input im pedance is given by
Z (p ) =
VqA p ) IP)
4 \ P + C l + C2
2G 1 + P + PL C
(2.4-1)
lc ,c 2
w here C = C 1C 2/(C 1 -I- C 2) is the series com bination o f C x an d C 2 . If the loading on C 2 is light, Z n (p) m ust have a pair of com plex poles in addition to a real-axis pole, an d thus m ay be w ritten in the form
Z , ,(/>) =
pc \ p + c , + c 2 (p + y)(p + a - j P ) { p + a +j(1)'
(2.4-2)
w here p = a + jfi and p 2 = a jfi are the complex conjugate poles and p3 = y is the real-axis pole. Figure 2.4-2 is a typical pole-zero diagram of Z , j(p). F ro m Eq. (2.4-2) or from Fig. 2.4-2 it is ap p aren t that the expression for Z , ,(/>) reduces to the form o f the input im pedance o f an equivalent parallel R L C circuit if p 3 = z2 or, equivalently, if y = G jC x + C 2. T o determ ine under w hat circum stances ja
P\
X'
SF
C
c, t Ci
Fig. 2.4-2 Typical pole-zero diagram of Z , ,(p).
X
pi
Pt*
40
2 .4
this pole-zero cancellation is achieved, and in ad d ition the resu ltan t values o f a an d fi in term s of the circuit p aram eters o f Fig. 2.4-1, we first w rite the d en o m in ato r of Eq. (2,4-2) in the form (p + y)(p + c c - jp)(p + a + jP) (2.4-3) = P3 + P2(y + 2a) + p(a2 + [I2 + 2ay) + y(a2 + (I2). W e then equate the co rresponding pow ers of p in Eq. (2.4-3) and in the d en o m in ato r o f Eq. (2.4-1) to o b tain the set of equations y + 2a = G /C 2, a 2 + p 2 + 2ay = l / L C = y(a2 + p 2) = G / L C l C 2. (2.4-4a) (2.4-4b) (2.4-4c)
If, in ad d itio n , we define Q = coo/2ay, th en Eqs. (2.4-4a, b, an d c) m ay be com bined and rearranged in the form n 2G l 1 - 1 /nQ l
2 - - r ( - n n / n j
a 2 + p 2 = o)2 0{\ - I/O), G 1 1 ' C l + C 2\ l - l / Q f
(24- 5a|
(2.4-5b) (2.4 - 5c)
'
where n = C l/{C l + C 2). It now becom es clear from Eq. (2.4-5c) th a t if > 100 then the real-axis pole an d zero of Z j (p) lie w ithin 1 % o f each o th er and, for all practical purposes, cancel to yield Z n (p) in the form o f a parallel R L C circuit w ith a2 + ft2 x tup and 2a % (n2G /C )(l - 1/nQ). W ith the aid o f Eqs. (2.4-5a and c) we m ay also write a * = Qt U \ ~ W 2ay 1 - 1/n Q (2.4- 6)
where Q T = co0C /n2G an d QE = a0(C! -I- C 2)/G. F o r large values o f 2 Eq. (2.4-6) reduces to Q % O t .Qe + l/n. (2.4-7)
H ence if QT QE (which m ay be directl) determ ined in term s of the circuit param eters) is g reater th an 100, we can be sure t h a t Q is sufficiently large to effect the desired pole-zero cancellation. In addition, Q , QE > 1 0 0 ensures the accuracy (w ithin 1%) of the ap p ro x im atio n of Eq. (2.4 7), from which we obtain
2.4
41
e r .e >.oo,
)--------1> -L i
c \
= c2 )--------1i
oZ n (P)
7-u (P) Fig. 2.4-3 P arallel circuits with equivalent input impedances. a n d in tu r n
Ci + Cp
PC Z n (P) p 2 + la p + a 2 + p 2
(2.4-9)
where G = n2G\ 1
hQ t
Q e + 11
E q u atio n (2.4-9) represents th e in p u t im pedance o f the equivalent R L C circuit show n in Fig. 2.4-3. If Q t Q e > 100 an d , in addition, nQT QE is large, then Geq reduces to the simplified form Geq = n2G, nQT Q E 1. (2.4-10)
In particu lar, if nQ T.QE > 20, then Geq = n2G w ithin 5% , w hereas if nQT QE > 100, then Geq = n2G w ithin 1 %. (N ote th a t since n < 1, nQT,QE > 100 ensures Q t Q e > 100.) W ith this ad d itio n al condition satisfied, we m ay transform the equivalent circuit show n in Fig. 2.4-3 in to an alternative and m ore useful form, show n in Fig. 2.4 4. Clearly, if G is reflected th ro u g h the ideal transform to obtain
<?+
Fig. 2 .4 -4 T ransform er m odel for reso n an t circuit with tapped an d loaded capacitor.
42
2 .4
Geq = n2G, then th e m odel of Fig. 2.4-3 results. H ow ever, the m odel o f Fig. 2.4-4 is m ore versatile th a n the m odel o f Fig. 2.4-3, since it provides a valid approxim ation for n o t only the in p u t im pedance Z t l (p) b u t also the transfer im pedance Z l2(p) = Kiip)/hip) fr the case w here QE > 10 and also nQT QE > 100. T o d em o n strate this property, we note th at, in general,
7 KliP) K i 2 iP) ^ 0liP) ry / *|_j / \ Z i2ip) = -T7-T = 77- 7-7 -JT-T = Z n ( p ) H v(p), hiP) K tip ) I.iP)
(2.4-11)
/A
j . t
where H ip ) =
KiiP) c,
KiiP)
C l + C 2 p + G/(C, + C 2)
for the circuit of Fig'. 2.4-1. A pole-zero diagram for Z l2(p) is show n in Fig. 2.4-5. F ro m this diag ram an d from argum ents sim ilar to those given in Section 2.3, it is clear th a t if 0/y 1 and, in addition, o)0/a. 1, then the zero at the origin effectively cancels the pole a t - y w hen one evaluates the frequency o r tim e response o f Z 12{p)
JW
-< >
Fig. 2 .4 -5
P ole-zero pattern o f Z 12(p).
2 .4
43
g rap h ically ; hence Z i2(P) ~ y1 Z (p ) = nZ u(p ),
C1+ L2
which is exactly the transfer im pedance of the m odel of Fig. 2.4-4. C learly the condi tion nQT QE > 100 (which is required for the input im pedance of the m odel of Fig. 2.4-4) results in co0/a % Q T and cj0/y QE \ hence the com bined conditions hQ t Q e > 100 an d QE > 10 perm it the use of the m odel of Fig. 2.4-4 for obtaining both Z n (/>) and Z l2(p ) for the circuit of Fig. 2.4-1. Specifically, if QE > 10 (and ,1Q t Q e > 100) then |Z 12(ja;)| obtained from the m odel is accurate w ithin 1 % of its actual peak value an d the phase of Z l2{ja>) is accurate w ithin 6 over the passband. If the phase angle of Z l2{j(o) is critical or if QE < 10 while Q t Q e > 100, then Z n (jw) should be o btained from the m odel of Fig. 2.4-3 and Z l2(ja>) should be obtained by m ultiplying Z n (jto) by H v{jco), which is determ ined exactly from F.q. (2.4-11). At this p o in t it is w orthw hile to in terpret physically the p aram eters n , C, Q T, and Q e em ployed in the m odels of Figs. 2.4-3 and 2.4-4. Clearly n is the voltage division ratio of the tw o series capacitors with the load across C 2 rem oved (G = 0); that is,
n = -------
v2(t)
G = 0
I'olU)
T he cap acito r C is ju st the to tal capacitance shunting L in the circuit of Fig. 2.4-1 o btained w ith G = 0. In additio n , Q r . = (o0C /n 2G is the Q of the m odel of Fig. 2.4 4, w hereas QE = (C j + C 2)/G is the ratio of the o u tp u t resistance (1/G) to the reactance at co0 w hich shunts G, evaluated with the input voltage t> 0(f) of the circuit of Fig. 4.2-1 reduced to zero (i.e., with the input shorted). W e shall now use the sam e physical in terp retatio n to obtain the corresponding param eters for a parallel R L C circuit with a tap p ed an d loaded inductor. C onsider the parallel R L C circuit of Fig. 2.4 6. By a procedure sim ilar to that em ployed w ith the circuit of Fig. 2.4-1, we can show that the transform er m odel, also show n in Fig. 2.4-6, m&y be em ployed to obtain expressions for Z , (p) and Z 12(P) provided that
h
> 100
and
QE > 10, u)0 = 1/^/L C ,
where in this case Q T = co0C /n 2G, QE = co0L l L 2/G (L i + L 2), L = L , + L 2, and n = L 2/{ L l + L 2). H ere again we observe that
tol(f) G= 0 that L is the inductance shunting C w ith G = 0, th at Q T is the Q of the m odel of Fig. 2.4-6, an d th at Q E is the ratio of 1/G to the reactance at a>0 shunting G, evaluated with rol(f) = 0. This set of conditions is valid for any of the transform erlike netw orks show n in T able 2.5-1 and thus provides a handy m nem onic rule. If for the circuit of Fig. 2.4-6 Q t Q e > 100 but QE < 10, Z u (p) may be evaluated from an equivalent
44
2 .4
Fig. 2.4-6 Parallel RLC circuit with tapped and loaded inductor and its transformer model. parallel R L C circuit w ith a sh u n t resistance R cq = 1/G eq, where again G = n2c | 1 j \ nQT.QE + 1 (2.4-12)
In addition, Z 12(p) m ay be evaluated as Z l2(p) = Z n ( p ) H v(p), where Hvip) = L t G p + (L , + L 2) /L l L 2G Shunt Input Resistance If an ad d itio n al sh u n t in p u t resistance R L is placed across the parallel R L C circuit w ith a tapped a n d loaded capacitor, as show n in Fig. 2.4-7, it is ap p a re n t th a t the in p u t im pedance
z ; ,(p ) = *i(P) = R^ z i and z '2(p) = *ol(P) = z 'i i ( p ) " M
(2.4-13)
w here Z n (p) an d //(p) are the input im pedance and transfer voltage function o f the circuit o f Fig. 2.4-1. C onsequently, if nQ T QE > 100, Z i t (p) m ay be obtained from
2 .4
45
V ol<f)
V2 ( f )
GL+ n 2G ' " ' "*-T' 'c t '
C, + C2
Fig. 2.4 -8 M odel for circuit of Fig. 2.4 7 used to obtain Z , (p) and Z '12(p).
an equivalent parallel R L C circuit w ith a shunt resistance of 1/n 2G, an d in tu rn Z \ l (p) m ay be o b tain ed from the equivalent parallel R L C circuit w ith s h u n t resistance 1/(n2G + Gl ), sh u n t capacitance C, and sh u n t inductance L. Clearly, for this resultant parallel R L C circuit _ m0C co0 (2.4-14) 'T n2G + G , 2 a ' w here a ' is the real p a rt o f the poles of Z \ !(p). If b o th w 0/2a! = Qr > 10 and coo/y > 10, where y is the pole of H v(p), then again Z l2(p) ~ Z 'u (p )n- If S t'Q e > 100, then w 0/y QE\ thus if nQ T /Q E > 100, Qe > 10, an d Q T > 10, then the m odel show n in Fig. 2.4-8 m ay be used to obtain b o th Z'n (p) an d Z \ 2{p) for th e circuit o f Fig. 2.4-7. The sam e argum ents apply to the parallel R L C circuit w ith a tapped and loaded inductor.
E x a m p le 2 .4 1 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 2.4 9, determ ine an expression for t)0l(t) an d vo2(t) as well as the circuit bandw idth.
Solution. If we assum e nQT QE > 100 and QE > 10, we m ay replace the original circuit by the m odel show n in Fig. 2.4-10, for which Ci _ 1 C 1C 2 = 1000 pF , n = 2 L C ! + C2 C ! + C2 1
s/ l c
= 107 rad/sec,
Z n (j(y0) = R v (0
= 2 k fi,
Figure 2.4-9
46
2 .4
i,U)
pp; looo pF 500 n
-o
v,(/>
-o
Figure 2.4-10
Q t = ^ t = 20,
Q e = (S O O O K tC , + C 2) = 20,
and
nQT QE = 200;
these values justify the use of the m odel. Since the cu rren t drive is at the resonant frequency a>0, where the input im pedance ap p ears purely resistive [ Z n (ja)0) = /?eq], v oi (0 m a y he w ritten directly in the form uol(i) = I R eq cos 107i = 2 V cos 107f, an d hence = nvol(t) = 1 V cos 107f. Finally, since the only loading in the circuit is across C 2 , Q T = Q t a n d BW = w 0/ C t = 5 x 10s rad/sec. 11 determ ine values for C l5 C 2, E x a m p le 2 .4 - 2 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 2.4 an d L such th a t the circuit resonates at / 0 = 1 6 M H z (w 0 = 108 rad/sec) w ith a b andw idth of 1.06 M H z [BW = (107/1 .5) rad/sec] and achieves m axim um signal transm ission to R L at resonance. Solution. If we again assum e nQ T.QE > 100, QE > 10, and QT > 10, we m ay replace the original circuit by the m odel show n in Fig. 2.4-12. Since a t resonance the in d u cto r and cap acito r com bine to produce an open circuit, m axim um signal (or
Figure 2.4-11
2 .4
47
power) is tran sm itted to R L in the purely resistive netw ork w hen n is chosen to m a tc h R l to R s, i.e., when n = J r J r s=
yi
k il/9 kQ = 1/3 = C J { C , + C 2).
W ith this value of n, R L is reflected through the ideal transform er as a 9 kQ resistor; thus the total in p u t resistance a t resonance is 4.5 kQ. Recalling th a t BW = 1/ R C for a parallel R L C circuit, we obtain
c ,c 2 = _____ 1_ ___ = 100
Cj + C 2
(4.5 kQ)BW
3 P
Replacing C ,/(C , + C 2) by n = 5 , we obtain C 2 = = 100 pF,

n
C
c, =
11
-----1 C 2 = 50 pF,
\n
an d finally L =
0J0C
= 30 juH.
At this point the original assum ption m ust be checked. It is ap p aren t that and Q e = (1 kil)oj0(C 1 + C 2) = 15;
hence nQ T Q E = 150. In addition, we note th at for the circuit in this exam ple q t = 0/B W = 1 5 ; thus the use of the m odel is justified.
E x a m p le 2 .4 - 3
F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 2.4-13, determ ine Z n (j(u0) and
Z 12(./o). Solution. F o r the circuit show n, w 0 = I / T I C = 107 rad/sec and n = L 2/ ( L i + L 2) = 1/100. Hence
Q
Qt-
n co0L
= 100,
in Qe L iL2 + L2
IQ
oj0L 2
= 1,
and
Q t Q e = 100.
48
2 .5
vi(0
C 1000 pF Z., 9.9 nH L -> 0.1 nH Figure 2.4-13 S in c e Q t Q e = 100 b u t nQ T QE = 1, 1

Z u ( M ) = R eq = --------
n G 1 -
= I B = 20 k n
2
nQT QE + 1 /
(cf. Eq. 2.4-12). O n the o th e r hand, since QE < 10, the transform er m odel show n in Fig. 2.4-6 m ay n o t be used to determ ine Z i2{p)- H ow ever, the exact expression for Z l2(p) is given by
1
Z 12(p) = Z l i (p)Htj(p) = Z t i (p)-
L tG
(2.4-15)
Li + L 2 P + l , l 2g
If we su b stitute ja>0 = y'107 rad/sec for p in Eq. (2.4-16), we o b tain Z i2(ja>0) rh the form
Z 120 w o) = (2 0 k O )100(1 + j ) '
from which we obtain 200 \ Z i 2(ja)0)\ = = i l and arg Z i2(jco0) = - 4 5 .
2.5 PARALLEL R ESO NA NT TRANSFO RM ERS
In applications w here a n arro w b an d circuit is needed to isolate the load from the driving source or to provide a 180 phase inversion between the in put signal and the load at resonance, a physical transform er m ust be em ployed in the parallel resonant circuit as show n in Fig. 2.5-1. In a d d itio n , the physical transform er m ust be em ployed if a step -u p tu rn s ratio is required betw een the driving source and the load at resonance for the purp o se of m atching a high lo ad im pedance to a sm all source im pedance. T he tran sfo rm erlike netw orks discussed in the previous section are capable of providing only a step-dow n tu rn s ratio. T he physical tran sfo rm er m ay also be em ployed in a parallel resonant circuit as an a u to transform er, show n in Fig. 2.5-2. In this configuration the transform er does n o t provide isolation, 180 phase inversion, o r a step -u p tu rn s ra tio a t resonance. Its usefulness stem s from the fact th a t it is a m ore realistic m odel for the inductive
2 .5
PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSFORMERS
49
M = ky/LX L2
+
V2<0
Fig. 2.5-1 TransNJcmer with tuned prim ary an d loaded secondary.
transform erlike parallel reso n ant circuit, since it includes the effect o f m agnetic coupling betw een th e tw o in d u cto rs in the form of m utual inductance. T he au to transform er rep resen tatio n is especially useful w hen the tw o in ductors are w ound on the sam e core o r o b tain ed by providing a ta p on a single inductor. As is show n in Ejg. 2.5-2, L i an d L 2 are defined differently in this case th an w hen the tw o inductors are independent. T his is d one so th at the netw orks of Figs. 2.5-1 and 2.5-2 can be analyzed by m eans of the sam e m odel. T o o btain expressions for the in p u t and transfer im pedances o f the tw o parallel reso n an t transform er netw orks, the results of Section 2.4 m ay be applied directly. T his becom es a p p a re n t if we replace the physical transform ers of Figs. 2.5 1 and 2.5-2 by their co m m o n tw o -in d u cto r term inal equivalent m odel (which is derived in the appendix to this chapter) as show n in Fig. 2.5-3. C learly the ideal transform er reflects a net co n d u ctan ce o f G /a2 .= G L 2/ k 2L l across the inductor k 2L x and thus the
Fig. 2.5--3 C ircuits of Figs. 2.5-1 and 2.5-2 w ith tran sfo r m ers replaced by their tw o -in d u cto r model.
50
2 .5
circuit becom es identical to the circuit of Fig. 2.4 6. C onsequently, if n'QT QE > lOOf where ri = k 2,
Q t'
coqC
and
Q e > 10,
1
co0C _________ k 2G/a2 ~ (M j L y f G
and
Qe
co 0L 2( 1
- k 2)G
then we m ay replace the circuit to the left o f the ideal transform er by its equivalent transform er m odel as show n in Fig. 2.5-4 (cf. Fig. 2.4-6). If we now com bine the tw o ideal transform ers in cascade to o b tain a single ideal transform er w ith a tran sfo rm ation ratio n = n'/a = k ^ / L 2/ L l = M / L x, the m odel of Fig. 2.5-4 reduces to the desired m odel for determ ining ,(p) and Z 12(p), show n in Fig. 2.5-5. H ere again we observe for the circuits o f Figs. 2.5-1 and 2.5-2 th at
UO 2(0 M O
th a t L , is the to ta l inductance shunting C w ith G = 0, th at QE is the ratio o f the resistance (1 /G) to the to tal reactance at cu0 shunting G w ith uol(i) = 0, an d th at QT is the Q o f the m odel of Fig. 2.5-5.
resonant circuits including transformers.
Connection exists for auto transformer
t We use ri in lieu of n because n is being reserved for the overall transformer ratio.
2 .5
51
Table 2.5 1 E quivalent circuits an d p ertinent relationships fo r parallel resonant transform erlike netw orks
Model for
Circuit determ ining Z n (p) and Z t^ p )
I
l 4
C,
C,
1
JLC
-pC j
c ,+ c 2
C i+ C 2
< * * qC n2G
0<C l+
o
A
c?
-o
8 |
A A
o* ot + ^2 L i+L2 M n'=n
n2G L 2G
uj
c>c5
cf s:
N~ N~
2 2
u
------ K c ~ -i : lA c i L
g
.2 .2
C /2 V ) c c
il
l:n cr i-0
M i '=fc3
1 JL^C
n2G
e S c o E I J
1:n
M L\
n'=k
1 M
n*G
Table 2.5-1 sum m arizes these properties th at we have discussed. Since the tu rn s ratio n o f an a u to transform er in a high-Q parallel resonant circuit m ay be expressed in term s of an unloaded voltage ratio, the physical co n struc tion o f the a u to transform er is quite straightforw ard. O ne selects (or winds) an in d u cto r w hose inductance is the desired value o f L ,, places a voltage source V\ cos.a>0t across the entire inductor, and moves a probe along the length o f the inductor. At the point where the voltage V2 cos oj0t measured between the probe an d the b o tto m of th e in d u cto r is equal to n V i , a lead is soldered and the construction
52
2 .5
M k\/Z^L2
Fig. 2.5-6 Parallel reso n an t transform er with tuned secondary.
of the au to transform er is com plete.
C learly this tran sfo rm er resonates at
ft> 0 = 1/ y j L t C a n d possesses a tu rn s ra tio of n. Before ending o u r discussion o f parallel reso n an t transform er circuits, we should n o te th a t n o restrictions on the coefficient o f coupling of the physical transform er w ere required to derive the high-Q m odel o f Fig. 2.5-5. H ow ever, if k approaches unity, Q e ap p ro ach es infinity an d the m odel o f Fig. 2.5-5 becom es a n exact m odel for the parallel reso n an t transform er, regardless o f the value o f G. IT we h ad decided to restrict o u r a tte n tio n to closely coupled transform ers, we could have obtained the m odel o f Fig. 2.5- 5 d irectly by letting k = 1 in the m odel o f Fig. 2.5-3 an d noting th a t n = l/a = n/ L 2/ L 1 = M / L X.
Transformers with Tuned Secondaries

In m any applications th e secondary, ra th e r th an the prim ary, of a transform e^ is tuned, as show n in Fig. 2.5-6. Such coupling is usually em ployed to m inim ize the effect o f any capacitance shunting i,(t) (for instance, collector capacitance) on the tuning o f the reso n an t circuit. Specifically, if the transform er steps up im pedance by a factor of a2, th e effective capacitance shunting C is 1/a2 tim es th e capacitance shunting i(t). If a = 10 an d the c u rre n t source capacity is 2 p F , only 0.02 p F reflects th ro u g h to load C. T he tuned secondary is also em ployed w ith tran sisto r IF am plifiers to keep the collector im pedance an d , in tu rn , the collector voltage small. T his low im pedance level n o t only reduces the M iller capacitance seen at the tran sisto r input, b u t also reduces the effect o f o u tp u t tuning on the in p u t im pedance. Such isolation is essential if stages are to be tu n ed independently to o b tain an overall IF transfer function.
Fig. 2.5 -7 Hybrid controlled-source model replacing transformer o f Fig. 2.5-7.
2 .5
53
To obtain expressions for the input and transfer impedance of the circuit shown
in F ig . 2 .5 -6 , w e firs t re p la c e th e tr a n s f o r m e r b y its h y b rid c o n tr o lle d - s o u r c e m o d e l (d e riv e d in th e a p p e n d ix to th is c h a p te r ) , a s s h o w n in F ig . 2.5 7. W ith th e m o d e l
(which is not based on a high-Q approximation) in place, it is immediately apparent

t h a t Z l 2 (p) = Vo2(p)/Ii(p ) is th e in p u t im p e d a n c e o f a p a ra lle l R L C c ir c u it m u ltip lie d b y M / L 2 ; sp e c ific a lly ,
1 (2.5-1)
L PC Z l2ip) = ----------- ---------- 7 - . 1 P 1 P + R^C + T jC In addition, M z n(p) = PU - k 2)Li + Z 12(p) l2
(2.5-2) = p ( l - k 2) L l + M C 1 ' L 2C
W e therefore observe th a t the effective transform ation ratio is M / L 2, the factor by which i,(f) is reduced w hen reflected into the secondary and the factor squared by w hich the parallel R L C circuit is reflected into the prim ary. W e also observe th at if (f) is a periodic in p u t c u rren t o f period T = 2n/a > 0 , then vo2(t) will-be a sinusoid w ith a frequency a> 0 if Q T o s i n c e the tuned circuit will extract only the fundam ental com p o n en t of ,(i). O n the o th e r hand, because of the series inductance (1 k 2) L , , yol(i) will be rich in h arm onic content. * '1 Exam ple 2.5-1 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 2.5-8 derive an expression for Z 12(p) an d Z 13(p) w ith the assum ption th at the circuit is a h ig h -g one. Solution. Using the hybrid controlled-source m odel, we may first reflect ,(t) through the transform er to o b tain a source of (M /L 2)i,(r) shunting R L. If we now assume
hQ t
Q e > 100,
Q e > 10,
and v2 (0
Qr > 10,
v.l(0
54
2 .6
where
C i
oj0C
co0C
n = 7Tr^Fr> Ci + C2
qe
Qt =
n2G and
Q t = n2G + c = C iC 2 C l + C 2
then we m ay replace the tapped cap acito r by an ideal transform er to ob tain the m odel show n in Fig. 2.5-9. F ro m this circuit it is im m ediately a p p aren t th at M 1
p
and
c
M 1 nL ? C
l 2c
Z U (P) = _2 , (nG + GL)p , P I * T
1
l 2c
N etw orks o f the form show n in Fig. 2.5-9 are usually em ployed w hen a single tuned response is required, as well as a low im pedance across i,(i) and an overall voltage step-dow n ratio. In addition, such netw orks are em ployed to keep stray capacitance across b o th an d G from affecting the tu n in g o f the parallel R L C circuit.
2.6
THREE-W INDING PARALLEL R ESO NA NT TRANSFORM ER
In this section we shall develop a m odel for the three-w inding parallel resonant transform er show n in Fig. 2.6-1. Since this circuit is a fundam ental com ponent not only in the a n te n n a stage, b u t also in the oscillator and I F am plifier stages of su per heterodyne receivers, a sim plified m odel is required to facilitate its analysis and
2.6
THREE-WINDING PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSFORMER
55
Fig. 2.6-1 Threew inding parallel resonant transform er.
design. In ad d itio n , the m odel aids in the understanding of the physical operation of the transform er netw ork. W e begin by presenting an equivalent circuit for the three-w inding transform er. W e then in co rp o rate this m odel into the circuit of Fig. 2.6-1 and, with the results of the previous section an d the assum ption of high-Q, reduce the circuit to its final simplified model. T he m ost general m odel for the three-w inding transform er is quite com plicated. H ow ever, if we place the restriction on the transform er that M
12
Mu
( 2.6- 1)
where M u = M n is the m u tu al inductance betw een the ith and the jth windings,
th e n a s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d a n d u se fu l m o d e l m a y b e o b ta in e d . E q u a tio n (2 .6 -1 ) c a n b e
cast in the equivalent form k i2k 23 = k l3 (2.6- 2) by noting that k (j = M ijl % f L iL j, where k {j is the coefficient of coupling between the /th an d jth windings. A lthough, in general, Eq. (2.6-1) is n o t always exactly satisfied, it is approxim ately satisfied in a larpe num ber of practical cases. In particular, if L 2 an d L 3 are closely coupled (they are usually w ound on the sam e core), then k 23 x 1 and, of course, k l2 % /c13; hence Eq. (2.6-1) is valid. In addition, if the transform er is placed in a high-Q circuit, it can be shown, by the techniques developed in Section 2.4, th at even if Eq. (2.6-1) is not satisfied, the im pedances obtained on the assum ption th at it is are accurate w ithin a few percent. The p ro o f of this statem ent is left to the interested reader. W ith the restriction of Eq. (2.6-1), the three-w inding transform er has the term inal equivalent m odel shown in Fig. 2.6-2. This equivalence is readily dem o n strated by showing th at both the transform er and its model have the identical set of defining equations : Vi = p L ,/ , + p M l2l 2 + p M i3I 3, V2 = p M l2I x + p L 2l 2 + p M 23I 3,
y3 = p w , 3/ i + p m 23 i 2 + p l 3 i 3 .
(2.6-3)
If the transform er is now replaced by its m odel in the circuit of Fig. 2.6-1, the equivalent circuit show n in Fig. 2.6-3 results. It is ap p aren t th at the right-hand portion of the circuit in Fig. 2.6-3 is sim ply the parallel resonant a u to transform er
56
BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS hiP)
2.6
F ig .2 .6 -2 T erm inal equivalent circuit for three-w inding transform ers with
= M 13/M 23.
considered in Section 2.5; hence we m ay apply the results o f th at section directly. Specifically, if h ' Q t Q e > 100 (' = k 2 3 ), Q e > 10, and Q T > 10, where
_ oC(M 2
^ T
< o 0L 3(1 - k 23)G 3'J
M, 0 V ,
JL Q ) i ^ v 2<,) Li<
\M2i
<G 3 +6
Fig. 2.6 -3 E quivalent circuit for parallel resonant three-w inding transform er. t If Eq. (2.6-1) is n o t satisfied, QE is given by: QE =
^2 3 ^1 3 A l 3) 3
2 .6
THREE-WINDING PARALLEL RESONANT TRANSFORMER
57
and Qt
WoC G 2 + G 3( M 23/ L 2)2
then the circuit o f Fig. 2.6-3 reduces to the final h ig h -g simplified form show n in Fig. 2.6-4. With the aid of this m odel we may immediately write 1 * c KiiP) _ M i z (2.6-4) Z u(p) 1 U p. + I,ip) L jC w here Geq = G2 + G 3( M 73/ L 2)2. In addition, we obtain 'c + L-.C
Zo-i - ~ = "ZnW - M" " " I HP)

and K i (P) r (, 1 _ t7
(2.6-5)
2 p 2 + p 4?
Z l l (p) =
+ -2 1 2+ V C + J _ L 2C
( 2.6- 6 )
It is interesting to n o te th a t Z i2(p) and Z 13(p) are in the form o f the im pedance o f a parallel R L C circuit m ultiplied by a scale factor, w hereas Z ,,(p ) contains an ad d itio n al term w hich m ay be m odeled as a series inductor. C onsequently, if (f) were a periodic w aveform (of p eriod 2n/<o0) containing several harm onics plus the fundam ental, an d Q r w ere 10 o r greater, vo2(t) and r o3(f) w ould be sinusoidal in form, w hereas t;ol(f) w ould be a periodic function with considerable harm onic content. T his effect is d u e to th e series in d u cto r o f Z , 1(p), which, unlike the parallel R L C circuit, does n o t a p p e a r as a sm all im pedance a t the harm onics o f w 0.
Example 2.6-1 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 2.6-5 determ ine the value o f M 23 w hich m axim izes uo3(t). A lso d eterm ine (with the value of M 23 found) an expression for vo2(t) and t> o3(f) an d values for Q r and BW.
cm = =
Fig. 2.6-4 High-Q three-winding tuned transformer model.
V(/)
l2
+6
58
2 .6
Figure 2.6 -5
*3
io n
=2 nH
AT,2= 10 nH
23 * 0 .5
Solution. If we assum e n'QT QE > 100, QE > 10, and Q T > 10, we mpty em ploy the m odel o f Fig. 2.6-4 o m itting L 2 and C (which resonate in this case a pco0 = 107 rad/sec) as show n in Fig. 2.6-6. N ow vo3(t) is m axim ized if n is chos6n to m atch the 10 Q resistor to the 400 kQ resistor, i.e., if n = M1 , 23 / io n 400 kQ 0.005.
T herefore,A f23^ 100p H x 0.005 = 3 pH , an d ,sin ce fe23 = 0.5, L 3 = M \ 3f k \ 3L 2 = 0.01 pH . C onsequently,
Qb =
and
~ ^ 23)^3
Q t = ^ ( I O Q ) = 400, an d thus n'QT Q E = k 23Q T QE = 80,000/3. T o o b tain an expression for to3 we reflect the input c u rre n t source and the 400-kQ resistor across the 10 Q o u tp u t resistor. T he reflected resistance is (400 kQ)n2 = 10 Q an d the reflected cu rrent source is M 12 ^2 (sin 107f)m A = 20 mA sin 107f; L , M 23
V 2<0
Figure 2.6-6
2 .6 hence
PROBLEMS
59
v< ,3(t) = (20 mA)(5 fi) sin 107r = 0.1 V sin 107f
an d vo2(t) = = 2 0 V sin 1 0 7t ,
Finally, by observing th a t R 3 reflects into the secondary as 400 kfi, we obtain Qr = = -------------------------- = 200 (107 rad/sec)(100/iH )
(a slig h tly h ig h e r v a lu e th a n o n e w o u ld n o rm a lly e x p e c t fro m a n in d u c to r ) and 200 k fi
BW = ! ^ - C = 5 x 104 d /* c 200
S in c e n Q t
Q e
1 00, Q e > 10, a n d Q T > 10, use o f th e m o d e l is ju stifie d .
PROBLEM S
2.1 F o r the transform er with the loss terms shown in Figure 2 .P -1, determine the value o f L 2 required to m atch an 8 ft load to a 3200 Q source in the midband. W hat are the upper and lower 3 d B frequencies for this case? W hat is the open-circuit voltage transform ation ratio o f this transform er? W hat is the efficiency o f the unit when working under the originally specified conditions?
2.2 Assume that the transform er (with the same values of k, L , and L 2) o f Problem 2.1 is used between a 3 f l load and a 1200 Q source. Find the 3 dB frequencies and the efficiency. 2.3 Repeat Problem 2.2 for the case where the load is 20 Q and the source is 8000 i l 2.4 Suppose the source output in Problem 2.1 is such that 10 mW o f'a c power reaches the 8 Q load. Plot load power vs. load impedance for the case where the load varies between 2 ft and 32 ft while the other parameters of the system are maintained constant. 100 ft k 0.50
ft
Figure 2.P-1
60
2.6
100 pF
2'.$' Consider the m atching netw ork o f Figure 2 .P -2 , in which is tuned to m ake Z x{jo>) res'onate at w0 = 2 x 106 <Ll has a Q o f 100 at oi = 2 x 106 rps). Find Z j ,(jco0) and the
input Qt . W hat is the approxim ate phase shift between vo2(t) and voi(t) at co = 2 x 106? I f the peak sinusoid current flowing into Z u 0'co) at resonance is 1 mA, what is the peak value o f i> o2(f)? 2.6 Repeat Problem 2.5 for the case where the 3 0 Q load is increased to 1000 i 2 . 2.71 A capacitor with a Q o f 200 is com bined with a coil with a Q o f 80 and a 20 k ii resistor to "produce a parallel tuned circuit resonant at 60 x 106 rps. Letting C = 25 p F , find the . bandwidth o f the resultant circuit. 2-8 Repeat Problem 2.7 for the same coil and capacitor connected in series with a 10 i2 resistor to form a series resonant circuit at the same frequency. I f the power input to this circuit at resonance is 10 W , how much power is dissipated in each series element? 2.9 F o r the circuit o f Figure 2 .P -3 . determine v(t) at resonance. I f the capacitors are lossless and the coil loss is included in the 10 k fi resistor, what is the circu its QT1 Assuming that the input current generator also produces a 0.5 mA peak sinusoidal com ponent at both 2 u>0 and 3a>0 , estim ate the relative distortion (each harm onic separately) at t;(i). (The pole-zero diagram o f Fig. 2 .4 -2 provides an easy way to estimate distortion at harm onic frequencies.) 2.10 Assume that it(t) in the circuit o f Fig. 2.P -4 is a sinusoidal current with a peak value of 15 mA and a radian frequency o f co0 = 4 x 106 rps and C 2 is chosen to resonate at co0 .
1013 pF
(t) = (I mA) sin w0t Figure 2 .P -3
PROBLEMS
61
R , = 2500 i l
F in d the o u tp u t Voltage across R b. M ake reasonable assum ptions. State these assum ptions clearly. W hat is the Q of the circuit? 2,11 F or each of the netw orks show n in Fig. 2.P-5, determ ine
oj0
Q r , BW, Z ,
, { j o j 0 ),
and
ZnUô)I
Ki'
Ki
Ki M
+ lkfl o
/-! = 10 jiH M = 5(xH L2= 10 jiH Figure 2.P 5
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 2
T R A N SFO R M E R EQ UIV ALENT CIRCUITS
T he tw o-w inding transform er show n in Fig. 2 .A 1 m ay be described com pletely in term s o f its term inal e q u a tio n s:
VJp) = p L J M
+ p M I 2(p),
(2.A-1)
V2(p) = p M I i ( p ) + p L 2I 2(p).
li(p)
hiP)
Fig. 2. A -l Two-winding transformer. C onsequently, an y netw ork w hich has the sam e defining equ atio n s as the transform er m ay be substituted for th e transform er in any circuit in which the transform er is placed, an d this su b stitu tio n will n o t affect the voltages o r currents in the overall circuit. Several n etw orks having the sam e defining equ atio n s as the transform er (and therefore referred to as term inal equivalents o f the transform er) are show n in Fig. 2.A-2. By reflecting one o r m ore o f the various in d uctors th ro u g h the ideal transform ers in th e circuits o f Fig. 2.A -2, one can ob tain a n u m b er of o th e r term inal equivalent n etw o rk s for th e transform er. T here are several procedures for verifying th a t the netw orks o f Fig. 2.A -2 are indeed term inal equivalents for the transform er o r for evaluating the equivalent inductances o f the new netw orks. O n e a p p ro ach is to observe th a t Eq. (2.A-1) is equivalent to a statem en t th a t the im pedance at a-a' w ith b-b' open is p L t , th a t the im pedance a t b - b w ith a-a' open is p L 2, an d th a t the ratio o f the voltage at b-b to a cu rren t applied a t a-a' w ith b-b' open is pM . W e then choose th e values o f the proposed equivalent circuit so th a t these three conditions are met. T he values shown in Fig. 2.A -2 d o m eet these conditions.
62
APPENDIX
63
O)M Oa oa
L,
I ------------ 1 1 b -TV2 YYV>------1 ------------- 0 i W i
(a)
~o
Ideal
b'
,2 M 2 M
L xL2 A/2,
------------ , i r i A/
(b)
,2 a / 2 3 U M Oa o(1 *2)L,
a
L,
-trz!__!rztIdeal
-o
b
-o
a - k
/A V L,
k 2L,
o
O-
b1
M vZ.iL?
-bd _Jrd
Ideal
Fig. 2.A -2 Term inal equivalent netw orks for transformers.
M Z -l s
-o
6'
(a)
(b) Fig. 2.A 3 T erm inal equivalent transform ers.
(cl
A transform er m ay have a term inal equivalent netw ork which is also a tra n s former. T o illustrate this, Fig. 2.A-3 shows tw o of the m any term inal equivalent netw orks for an a u to transform er (M is the m utual inductance between L , and L 2). T erm inal equivalent netw orks for the transform er of Fig. 2.A-1 m ay also take the form of n etw orks co ntaining controlled sources. Three such netw orks are show n in Fig. 2.A-4.
64
TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
T he d o ts a t the ends o f th e transform er w indings in Figs. 2.A -1, 2.A -2, and 2.A-3 show the relative directions o f induced voltages. A cu rren t flowing into a do tted w inding causes a plus-to-m inus d ro p across this w inding a n d induces a voltage in all o th e r w indings such th a t the do tted end is positive. M oving the d o t to the opposite end o f the tran sfo rm er w inding on the secondary of Fig. 2.A-1 would reverse the signs of both o f the pM -term s in Eq. (2.A-1). It w ould also lead to a reversal o f the secondary d o t on the transform ers of Fig. 2.A -2 an d to the reversal o f the direction o f b o th o f th e g en erato rs in Figs. 2.A-4(a), (b), and (c). F o r the a u to transform er, placing the d o t a t the b o tto m of L 2 w ould reverse the sign of the m u tu al term in Fig. 2.A-3(b) an d reverse the d o t on the secondary o f the transform er o f Fig. 2.A-3(c). h < J > ) > -rYW'\_ h ip )
Vl(P)
(a)
iiiP)
h ip )
ViiP)
(1 ~ k 2) L t
Vi(p)
Fig. 2.A -4 T erm inal equivalent netw orks containing controlled sources.
CHAPTER 3
T R A N SM ISSIO N OF SIG N A LS T H R O U G H N A R R O W B A N D FILTERS
T he purpose of this ch ap ter is to exam ine a simplified m ethod of determ ining the o u tp u t response o f a class o f n a rro w b a n d high-frequency netw orks w hen these netw orks are driven by any one o f a variety of useful signals. A m ong these signals we include steps, im pulses, an d various am plitude-m odulated signals centered w ithin the passband of the filter. F irst we define the class of netw orks to be considered, then we define the low-pass equivalent circuit for such netw orks, an d finally we show th a t the response of the original netw ork to a given signal is a function o f the response of the low-pass equivalent circuit either to the signal or, in the case of am plitude-m odulated signals, to the envelope o f the m o d u lated signal. T hus, w here the m ethod is applicable, the original com plicated netw ork response problem is replaced by a simplified and reasonably accu rate appro x im ate solution. It has been suggested to us th a t such m aterial is covered elsewhere and neied not be repeated here. O u r experience has been th a t at least a brief review o f these co.nqepts, perhaps from a view point th a t the reader has n o t encountered before, is useful in understanding their use in later chapters. 3.1 LOW-PASS EQUIVALENT NETWORKS FOR SYMMETRICAL BANDPASS NETWORKS F o r a general n a rro w b an d netw ork whose transfer function is H(p) and w hose pass b an d is centered a b o u t to0 , the m agnitude an d phase of H(ja>) vs. oj take tfee form show n in Fig. 3.1-1. If H(joj) is indeed narrow band, then the am plitude response, \H(joj)\, falls essentially to zero a sh o rt distance on either side of co0 , as shown. In
Fig. 3.1-1 Magnitude and phase plot for a narrow band network.
65
66
TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS THROUGH NARROWBAND FILTERS
3.1
addition, if H(jaj) represents the transfer function of a physical netw ork with a real (not im aginary o r com plex) im pulse response h(t), then H ( -jc o ) = f w hich is equivalent to m - M = \H(jw)\ (3.1-1) and 6( co) = 6(a>), where 6(u>) = arg E qu ation (3.1-1) is, of course, sim ply the statem ent th a t the m agnitude of a physical netw ork m ust be an even function o f co and the phase m ust be an odd function of co. W e define the low -pass equivalent transfer function H L(jto) for H (jw ) as th at function w hose m agnitude has the sam e dependence on co in the vicinity of co = 0 as \H(ja>)\ has in the vicinity of co = co0, and whose phase angle has the sam e dependence on co in the vicinity o f co = 0 as 8(co) O(a>0) has in the vicinity o f co0 . T his definition m ay also be expressed in the form H L(jco) = H ( jw + ja>0)e~mo,o)u(a) + co0), (3.1-2)
w here u(co + co0) is the unit step function which, in Eq. (3.1-2), has the effect of rem oving the low er p o rtio n (co < 0) of H(jw). T he e~M c>o) term rem oves a constant phase angle 0(coo) from the phase of H L{jw). A plot of the m agnitude and phase of H L(ja>), which correspond to the m agnitude and phase o f H (jw ) show n in Fig. 3.1-1, app ears in Fig. 3.1-2. N ote th at the phase of H L{jco) is zero for co = 0.
|/ / t (0)| = |//(y w o )|= H0
(J)
arg //(7w) = 0,(cj) = 0(ta+a>o)-0(wo)
Fig. 3.1-2 Magnitude and phase plot for H L(jw). T he transfer function H(Jco) is defined as being sym m etric a b o u t co0 if H l( ; co) = Hf(ju>), or equivalently \H L(--j(a)\ = \HL(ja>)\ and 0L(a) = - 0 L( -(o ). In this chap ter we shall restrict o u r atte n tio n to sym m etric n a rro w b an d netw orks for tw o reasons. F irst an d m ost im p o rtan t, m ost physical narro w b an d netw orks m ay t By definition, H(jw) =
J oo/i(f )e - -' '
(3.1-3)
dt. If the impulse response hit) is real, then
H (-jw ) =
where H*(j(o) is the complex conjugate of H(jaj).
3.1
LOW-PASS EQUIVALENT NETWORKS
67
be closely appro x im ated by sym m etric transfer functions. Second, the sym m etry condition, expressed by Eq. (3.1-3), ensures th a t the im pulse response hL(t) of the low -pass equivalent n etw ork is real, which is essential if H L(jio) is to be physically realizable. If H(jco) is n o t sym m etric ab o u t co0, the low-pass equivalent transfer function is still defined by Eq. (3.1-2); however, it m ay not be associated w ith a physical netw ork and, in ad d itio n , calculations em ploying it m ay becom e som ew hat m ore involved. In additio n to relating H L(jaj) to H(jco), for the sym m etric narrow band filter we m ay o btain th e inverse relationship. Specifically, w ith the aid of Eq. (3.1-1) we note that H(j(o) = H ,( j(o - i(o0)eje{olo) -I- H L{ja>0 + j(o)e (3.1-4)
this equation, of course, represents H L(jai), with the app ro p riate phase angle added, shifted up and dow n in frequency by an am o u n t co0T o solidify o u r ideas on the relationship between H ,(jw ) and H(jio) we shall develop low -pass equivalent netw orks for several physical narro w b an d netw orks. W e consider first the parallel R L C circuit show n in Fig. 3.1-3. F rom Section 2.1 we recall th a t at resonance Z t l (./a)0) is purely resistive; hence 6((o0) = 0. In addition, we recall th a t w ith Q T = oj0R C > 10, which is a necessary condition for a narrow bandw idth, Z n {jco) is closely ap proxim ated by (cf. Eq. 2.2-9)
Z n O 'c o ) =
R ( 0)n 1 + j~
O J > 0,
w h e re (o0 = l /v / L C a n d a = 1/2 RC. C onsequently, with 0(wo) = 0 , E q .(3.1-2)yields

, R. . ,
. (3.1-5)
1 +JCJ/IX
u>o =
v 'T c
Q j~ u)qR C > 10
Kig. 3.1 3
Parallel RLC
circuit and its low-pass equivalent.
68
3.1
Fig. 3.1-4
N arro w b an d circuit and its low-pass equivalent.
which we recognize as the in p u t im pedance o f the low-pass equivalent netw ork also show n in Fig. 3.1-3. As a second exam ple we consider the circuit show n in Fig. 3.1 4. F o r this circuit the voltage transfer function H(p ) is given by Hip) V2ip) Vi(p) wl p 2 + la p + o>l ' (3.1-6)
w here co0 = 1/ s/ l C and a = 1/2 RC. A pole-zero diagram of H(p) and a sketch of
Fig. 3.1-5 P ole zero diagram o f H(p) and plot o f \H(ja>)\ and arg (Hjoj) vs. w.
3.1
LOW-PASS EQUIVALENT NETWORKS
69
\H(jco)\ an d arg H(jco), for the case w here w 0/2ct = co0R C = Q T > 10, are show n in
F ig . 3 .1 -5 . W h e n th e c o m p le x p o le s a r e c lo s e to th e im a g in a r y a x is (a n e c e ss a ry
condition for the netw o rk to have a narrow bandw idth), then H(jco) is significantly different from zero only in the vicinity o f oj0. Therefore, when graphically evaluating H( jco) for to > 0 from the pole-zero diagram , we can closely approxim ate the p h aso r p P 2 d raw n from p 2 to the im aginary axis by p P2 * (3.1-7)
over the significant frequency range in the vicinity o f co0- 1 addition, the phasor from p l to a poin t co on the im aginary axis m ay be w ritten as Pp. = a + j(> ~ P) ~ a + 7(a> - w 0). (3.1-8)
C onsequently, for co > 0 an d Q T > 10, H(ju>) m ay be closely approxim ated by

SF
a ) f e - jinl2) (O 2oj0at \ 1 + j co,
QTe ~ M Kl2) C 0 1 + jCOn
(3.1-9)
PpiPp
If we now note th at 0(coo) = n/2 and em ploy Eq. (3.1-2), we obtain Qt (3.1-10)
A n on-unique low -pass equivalent netw ork having this transfer function is shown also in Fig. 3.1-4. T he ideal transform er is required to provide the voltage am plifica tion o f Q t a t co = 0, which is the am plification of the bandpass netw ork at co = a0. The bandw idth BW of H(jo}) is 2a, which is exactly twice the bandw idth of H L{jca).
Fig. 3 .1 -6 M odel for two-stage IF strip and its low-pass equivalent.
70
3.2
If tw o o r m ore sym m etric noninteracting narrow band filters, each of which has a center frequency of co0, are connected in cascade, then the low -pass equivalent of the com posite filter is obtained by cascading the low-pass equivalents of the individual filters. Figure 3.1-6 illustrates the low-pass equivalent netw ork com prising two cascaded, n o n in teractin g parallel R L C circuits.
3.2 IM P U L S E AND S T E P R E S P O N S E
W ith the aid of th e results of Section 3.1 we can represent the im pulse and step response for a sym m etric n arro w b an d filter as a function of the im pulse response hL{t) o f the equivalent low -pass filter. Such a representation perm its one to analyze the m uch sim pler low -pass equivalent filter to obtain corresponding results for the bandpass filter. If we designate h(t) as the im pulse response of the n arrow band filter whose transfer function is given by H(ja>), then h(t) is the inverse F o urier transform of H(ja>), th at is, h(t) = - - f H(jm)ei< ot dw. 2 TtJ-oo (3.2-1)
W ith the aid of Eq. (3.1-4) we can express H(ja>) in term s of its low -pass equivalent H L(j(o) to o b ta in 1 h(t) = H L(ja> - joj0)ej9(mo)ej1 ' da> 2n J - x + J~ f H L( jw o + jco)e-j9(,ao)eJo > da). 2nJ..a 0 (3.2-2)
If, in additio n , we substitute co' co co0 in the first integral and co' = u> 0 + a> in the second integral of Eq. (3.2-2), the expression for h(t) simplifies to the desired form y = 2hL(t) cos [a>0t + 0(coo)], H L( j a > y m" dc,y (3.2-3)
which directly relates h(t) to hL(t), the im pulse^response of the low -pass equivalent circuit. As an application of this result, let us evaluate the im pulse response z x ,(r) of the high-Q parallel R L C circuit show n in Fig. 3.1-3. F o r this circuit 6(a>0) = 0. The im pulse response of the low -pass equivalent circuit z llL(t) (also show n in Fig. 3.1-3) is know n to be (3.2-4)
3.2
Z ll(0
IMPULSE AND STEP RESPONSE
71
C Fig. 3.2 1 Sketch of z, ,(f) for a parallel RLC circuit.
where a. = 1/2RC. C onsequently, by em ploying Eq. (3.2-3) we obtain
2i i (0
= ê
" ( c o s J 0f)n(r),
(3.2-5)
which is exactly the expression o btained for z n (f) in Eq. (2.2-12) with m ore conven tional techniques. A sketch of z, ,(f) is show n in Fig. 3.2-1. T o obtain the step response of a(t) for a n arrow band filter in term s of its low-pass equivalent circuit, we first evaluate the step response in term s of H(jw), then express H(jio) in term s of H L(ja)\ and finally find a(t) in term s of hL(t). The step response a(t) for the narro w b an d filter can be w ritten in the form (3.2-6) where (1 / j o ) + k S(m ) is the F ourier transform of the unit step. Since for the netw orks under consideration the response at dc is always assum ed to be zero, it follows that H( 0) = 0 and therefore the (w)-term m ay be om itted from Eq. (3.2-6). We now express H (jw) in term s of H L(jto) and restrict our attention to regions close enoi gh to the com plex poles so th at near the upper com plex pole j o may be replaced by ;co0 an d near the lower com plex pole j o may be replaced by ju)0 . After some rearrangem ent, one obtains the step response in term s of the product of the im pulse response of the low -pass equivalent circuit and a sine wave at the center frequency of the n arro w b an d c irc u it; th at is, (3.2-7) Evaluating Eq. (3.2-7) for a high-Q parallel R L C circuit, we obtain a(t) = e "(sin ai0r)w(i),
oj0C
where < o0 = 1 /^ /L C and a = 1/2 RC.
72
3 .3
Physically w hat this m eans is th at driving the tuned circuit with a step function causes-it to rin g at its resonant frequency. Since there is no continuing supply of energy at this resonant frequency, the ringing decays with time. The higher the Q of the circuit, the m ore cycles it takes for the decay to fall to any given percentage of the original level.
3.3 N A R R O W B A N D N E T W O R K S W IT H M O D U L A T E D IN P U T S
In this section we shall apply an am plitude-m odulated signal of the form s,(f) = g{t) cos oj0t, show n in Fig. 3.3-1, to the sym m etric narro w b an d filter and dem onstrate that the filter o u tp u t is of the form s0(0 = [g(0 * hL(t)] cos [aj0f + 0(cjo)]. w here * denotes convolution. This result is quite significant, since it simplifies the problem of calculating the response of a bandpass filter excited by an AM wave to the problem of calculating the response of the equivalent low-pass filter excited by the envelope w aveform g(f). T he resultant expression provides the m odulation for the o u tp u t carrier cos [co0t + 0(coo)]T o begin o u r developm ent we define G(a>) as the F o u rier transform o f g(?) and assum e that |G(co)| has som e form sim ilar to th at shown in Fig. 3.3-2. W ith this definition of G(w) and with the aid of the shifting theorem , the F o urier transform of
s,(f) = ^ +
e -* )
takes the form G(w + to0) G(w - c d 0 ) S ,M = -------2------- + ------- 2------- which is also show n in Fig. 3.3-2. We assum e thro u g h o u t this analysis th a t the two term s in the expression for Sj() do not overlap. This assum ption requires that the highest-frequency com ponent com of g(f) be lower th an the carrier frequency oj0.
Fig. 3.3-1 T ypical plot o f am plitude-m odulated waveform.
3.3
NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH MODULATED INPUTS
73
1
Fig. 3.3 -2 Plot o f|G M | and |S,((u)| vs. w.
|-OJ0
| "
U )--->
This condition is alm ost always satisfied in practice, since for m ost AM systems a> m is required to be several orders of m agnitude sm aller than oj0 because of the physical lim itations of the AM m o d u la to r and dem odulator. F o r the condition a> 0 a> m, we see th at the spectrum of s,(f) occupies a narrow band of frequencies centered on the carrier frequency to0. This property perm its frequency division m ultiplexing (FD M ), i.e., the independent com bination of m any AM signals w ithin a single channel. This is accom plished by choosing a distinct carrier frequency for each signal in such a fashion th at none of the signal spectra overlap in the frequency dom ain. T o extract a desired signal at the receiving end of the channel, one need only pass the com posite signal through a narro w b an d filte r; the filter passes the signal of interest and atten u ates all others. T he filter capable of passing the desired AM signal centered at co0 w ould, of course, have the form show n in Fig. 3.1-1. W ith s,(f) applied to this filter, whose transfer function is H(jcj), the o u tp u t signal s0(t) may be w ritten in the form s0(r) = (3.3-1)
where 1 indicates the inverse F o u rier transform operation. W ith the aid of Eq. (3.1-4), which relates H(jaj) to its low -pass equivalent, the expression for s(f) m ay be rew ritten as s(0 = & - ' { [H L( j w - j c o 0)eje^
e j 9(u>0 )
+ H L(ja>0 +juj)e ~m<a>]

e ~ j 9 ( a > o)
G(w + co0)
G(w oj0)
^ ~ l [H L(ja) - j i o 0)G(co - C 00)] + 2 *
+ /w 0)G(w + w0)]. (3.3-2)
E quation (3.3 2) m akes use of the fact th at the upper portion of the spectrum of S,(a>) does n o t overlap the lower portion of the spectrum of H{ju>) and vice versa.
74
3 .3
lu(i) +
Mt ) { R C V S' )
Fig. 3.3-3 Parallel RLC circuit with AM input.
If the inverse shifting theorem is now em ployed, Eq. (3.3-2) takes the desired form
g jta o tp fflvjo )
_ |_
g - j w o t g - j${ioo)
s0{t) = -----------------
' F ~ 1[HL(ja))G(w)] (3.3-3)
= [g(0 * h L(f)] cos [w0f + 0(wo)].
N ote carefully th a t l [H L(ja>)G{oL>)] = g{t)* hL{t) is simply a sh o rth an d m athem atical expression, which we refer to as the convolution of hL(t) with g(r). A lthough this convolution can be determ ined w ith the aid of the convolution integral, it is in general o btained in a m ore straightforw ard fashion as th e o u tp u t of the netw ork whose im pulse response is hL(t) and whose input signal is g(t), th at is, as the o u tp u t of the low -pass equivalent netw ork excited by g(r). A few exam ples should clarify this point. As a first exam ple, let us evaluate the voltage across a high-Q r parallel R L C circuit in which a current of the form / cos a> 0t is applied at t = 0. The narrow band netw ork shown in Fig. 3.3-3 is being excited by an AM wave with an envelope g(t) = Iu(t); therefore, Eq. (3.3-3) may be em ployed to determ ine v(t). As was pointed out above, g(t) * hL(t) = v0L(t) is the o u tp u t of the low-pass equivalent of the parallel R L C circuit with a current Iu(t) applied at the input. T he step response of the low-pass equivalent circuit is readily found to be iV (f) = IR( 1 - e~*)u(t); and since d(oj0) = 0, Eq. (3.3-3) (where a = 1/2 R C and oj0 = \ / s/ l C) yields L'(f) = 7i?(l e " )c o s u> 0tu(t). (3.3^1)
A sketch of v0L(t) and r 0(r) is given in F ig 3.3-4. We observe th at the steady-state value of v0(t) is the p ro d u ct of the input current / cos a> 0t and the resistance R of the parallel R L C circuit. T his is an expected result because at the resonant frequency Z n ( j o j 0) = R. In addition, we observe th at v0(t) rises tow ard its steady-state value with an envelope governed by a single tim e constant r = 1/a ; thus for f > 4 t, v0(t) has attained an am plitude within 2 % of its steady-state value.
3.3
N A R R O W B A N D N E T W O R K S W IT H M O D U L A T E D IN P U T S
75
v0t (l)
/r
1 a
------------------------I R
Fig. 3.3 -4 O u tp u t waveforms for the circuits o f Fig. 3.3-3.
It is ap p aren t th a t the closer the com plex poles of the parallel R L C circuit lie to the im aginary axis in the com plex p-plane, the longer it takes the ou tp u t waveform to reach steady state. C onsequently, netw orks with very narrow bandw idths (a w 0) are capable of tran sm itting w ithout disto rtio n only input AM waves with slowly varying envelopes, or equivalently, AM waves whose spectra are contained w ithin the p assband of the n arro w b an d filter. An alternative in terp retatio n is that an AM wave is tran sm itted w ithout d istortion if the spectrum of g(f) lies within the passband of H L(jio). As a second exam ple, let us apply a periodically gated carrier of frequency o j 0 to a high-Q parallel R L C circuit as show n in Fig. 3.3 -5. T he input current may be
i( r)= /S (r )
-37,
I III
4
I
T\ 4
I
37~| 4
I/5Tt 4
Fig. 3.3 -5 Parallel R L C circuit driven by gated carrier.
76
3.3
represented as = IS(t) cos oj0t, where 5(f) is a periodic sw itching function of period 7i th at has a value of either 1 or 0. W ith this representation it is ap p aren t th at i',(r) is an AM wave and therefore that |!o(f) = iv (f ) cos K f + fl(co0)], where v0l(t) = I S ( t ) * h L(t ) is the o u tp u t of the low-pass equivalent of the parallel R L C circuit driven by iiL(t) = IS(t). Figure 3.3-5 also illustrates the low-pass equivalent circuit for determ ining v0L(t). If we assum e th at T j/2 > 4 t = 4/a (i.e., th at the circuit reaches steady state in each interval of d u ra tio n T i/2), then we can w rite vO L(t) in the form vO L(t) = IR [ 1 + _ r j A < t < T,/4, TJA < t < 3T,/4, 3 ^ 4 < f < 57^
(3 .3 -5 )
= I R e ~x(t- Tl/4), = IR [ 1 -
an d in tu rn v0(t) = v0L(t ) cos w 0t. A sketch o f v0L(t) and v0{t) ap pears in Fig. 3.3-5 to the right o f th e co rresponding circuits. N o te th a t an o u tp u t exists for the parallel R L C circuit d u rin g the intervals o f tim e d u ring w hich there is no input. T his phenom enon is clearly the result of the oscillatory decay of a h ig h -g circuit which has acquired energy from an in p u t signal du rin g som e previous interval of time. As a third exam ple, let us apply a sinusoidally m odulated AM signal of the form s,(i) = A[l + m cos a>mf] cos u >01 to a general sym m etric n arro w b an d netw ork whose passband is centered ab o u t a>0. Figure 3.3-6 illustrates the w aveform of s,(f). The param eter m for this form of AM
Fig. 3.3 6 Plot o f sinusoidally modulated AM wave.
3.3
NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH MODULATED INPUTS
77
wave is defined as the m o d u latio n index, and A is defined as the unm odulated carrier am plitude. T he m o d u latio n index m may be related to the w aveform s,(r) by the relationship m = (1 3 -6 )
where C is the m axim um p eak-to-peak value of s,(i) and B is the m inim um peak-topeak value of s,(f). If B 0, then m = 1 and s,(f) is said to be 100% m odulated. In general the percent m o d u latio n is given by % m o d u latio n = m x 100%. (3.3-7)
W ith s,(f) applied to the sym m etric narro w b an d netw ork with transfer function H(jw), the o u tp u t of the netw ork s j t ) is given by s0(f) = [,4(1 + m cos comt) * hL(t )] cos [co0t + 0(coo)]However, A * hL(t) = A H l(0) and Am cos a)mt * hL(t) = A m \H L(jm m)\ cos [ajmt + 0L(coJ], where H L{ja)) is the low -pass equivalent transfer function of H(jtu) and dL(a>) = arg H ,( jo>). T herefore, s(l) takes the form of a sinusoidally m odulated AM signal given by s0(t) = ^ / / t ( 0 ) |l + W e note th at the m o d u latio n (3.3-6)] is given by cos ["mi + ^L(wm) ] | cos [co0t + d(w0)]. (3.3-9) (3.3-8)
index m'(a> m) of s(t) [obtained with the aid of Eq.
\ H l (
Ht(0) and th at the o u tp u t m o d u latio n is shifted in phase by 9L(a)m). Exam ple 3.3-1 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 3.3-7, determ ine an expression for v(t).
Solution. F or the parallel R L C circuit, 1

(On =
= 107 rad/sec
and
Q T = co0R C = 10.
y ic Since the circuit is sym m etric a b o u t u> 0 we can obtain the envelope vJt) of v0(t) by passing (5 m A )(l + cos 5 x 105t) through the low-pass equivalent netw ork, as show n in Fig. 3.3-8. The com p o nent of v0l due to the 5 mA co n stan t input is simply
78
Figure 3.3-7
Figure 3.3-8
5 raA x 1 ki = 5 V, w hereas the com ponent of v0L due to the (5 m A )cos 5 x 105i of input is [(5 V )/v/2 ] cos (5 x 105r n/4). T he atten u atio n of \ / s/ l and the phase shift of n/4 are b o th due to the fact th at the input cosinusoid lies exactly at the 3 d B point of the low -pass filter. C om bining the two com ponents of v0L(t) and m ultiplying by cos a> 0t , we finally obtain cos 5 x 10sr - v0(t) = (5 V) 1 H \ 4 cos 107f.
T his expression for v0(t ) could also have been obtained by direct substitution into Eq. (3.3-9) o f /I = 5 mA, H L(0) = 1 kQ, H L(joim) = (1 kfi)/(l + j) = (1 and 9(a>0) 0. A nother exam ple exploring the m easurem ent of h ig h -g filters appears in the appendix at the end of the chapter.
3.4 N A R R O W B A N D N E T W O R K S W IT H P E R IO D IC IN P U T S
( )ne of the m ost efficient m ethods of am plifying a high-level sinusoidal signal is to convert the signal into a periodic train of narrow pulses in a nonlinear am plifier and then to pass these pulses th rough a n arrow band filter to reconstruct the original sinusoid. In ad d itio n , one of the m ost fundam ental m ethods of generating an am plitude-m odulated wave is to control the am plitude of a periodic waveform (usually a square wave or a train of narrow pulses) and then to pass the wave through a n arro w b an d filter to o btain a sinusoidal carrier. Since both of the above techniques
3 .4
NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH PERIODIC INPUTS
79
em ploy a n arro w b an d filter w ith a periodic input, we shall determ ine the o u tp u t s(t) of such a filter centered at a > 0 when the input signal is of the form s,(f) = g(t)sp(f), where s p([) = sp(l + T) is periodic with period T = 2 ti/ o)0 and g(t) is the lowfrequency signal which controls the envelope of sp(t). F o r high-level am plifier, g(i) reduces to a constant. Since sp(i) is periodic, it may be expanded in a Fourier series of the form
X i
sp(t) = a0 + Ys an cos lw oi + bn sin nw0t n= 1

0 0
= a 0 + Z C n cos (nu)0t + 0), n= 1
(3.4-1)
w here C = a\ + bj and 0n = tan~ l(bja). T he input signal to the filter there fore takes the form G C S ,-(0 = a 0 g ( t ) + c n g ( t ) c o s ( n a >0{ + U (3.4-2) n= 1 which is an infinite su perposition of AM waves, each centered at a harm onic to0 . If the m axim um frequency com ponent a> m of g(f) is m uch less th an co0 (which is alm ost true in practice), then the spectrum of each AM wave occupies a narrow band of frequencies o f 2w m a b o u t its center frequency as show n in Fig. 3.4-1. If s,(r) is now passed through a n arro w b an d filter for which \H(jna>0)\ 0 for rt = 0, 2, 3 , 4 , . . . , then the o u tp u t s0(t) of the filter can be closely approxim ated by the response of the filter to only the fundam ental (n = 1) com ponent of sf(f); th a t is, s0(t) x [C,g(f) cos (co0t + 0 ^ ] */i(r), (3.4 3)
w here h(t) is the im pulse response of the narro w b an d filter. If the filter is sym m etric ab o u t o j 0 , then s 0( t ) , with the aid of Eq. (3.3-3), can be w ritten in the equivalent form s0(t) = [C lg (f) * M O ] cos [a>0t + 6 , + 0 ( o)], (3.4-4)
where hL(t) is the im pulse response of the low-pass equivalent filter and 0(a>) is the phase angle of the n arro w b an d filter. F o r the case where g(i) is a co n stan t or where |S,(cj)|
m
o j0
r" -l \
2 oj0
2
cj
r'-U 'k 3cu0

2 o j ,
(Jj
2 c Om
-m
2 cl,
Fig. 3 .4 -1 Typical spectrum o f s,(/).
80
3 .4
H L(jw) x H l (0 ) over the b and of frequencies occupied by g(f), [i.e., where the lowpass equivalent filter passes g(t) undistorted], the filter o u tp u t simplifies to s0(f) = C , WL(0 )g(f)cos [oj0c + + 0(ojo)] (3.4-5)
= C i\H (ja)0)\g(t)cos[oj0t + 0 i + 0(ao)],
which is in th e expected form of an AM signal with envelope g(f). T he constant C , , is, o f course, the fundam ental com ponent of the original periodic w aveform and \H(ja)0)\ = H l (0) is the transfer function o f the filter in the vicinity of the fundam ental frequency. As a specific exam ple o f the above procedure, let us evaluate the o u tp u t o f the high-Q parallel R L C circuit show n in Fig. 3.4-2, which is driven by a periodic train o f cu rren t im pulses applied at t = 0. T he in put current /(i) has the form i,(i) = q ^ S ( t - k T ), f c= 0 (3.4-6)
where q is the im pulse strength (in coulom bs) and T = 2n/a>0 is the spacing between impulses. If we rew rite i',(i) in the equivalent form /,(t) = qu(t)sp(t), (3.4-7)
where sp(f) = Y = _ ^ S(t kT), it becom es ap p aren t th at the input current is an envelope-m odulated periodic waveform. T o begin o u r analysis, we expand Jhe periodic train of im pulses sp(t) in a F o urier series to o btain 1 2 x (3.4-8) sp(t) = + cos n w 0t 1 * n= 1 and in turn
X
I(f) = I 0u(t) + 2 I 0u(t) cos nco0t, w here / 0 = q / T is the average value of (t) for f > 0. If l
/.(/)
(3.4-9)
%0
for
n = 0, 2,3 ,4 ,.
y A re a = q
I f
T i,(t)=qu(l) I
k = ~ao
t-~
V o(t)
8 ( r - kT)
v ^(0
Fig. 3.4- 2 Parallel R LC circuit driven by im pulse tw in.
3 .4
NARROWBAND NETWORKS WITH PERIODIC INPUTS
81
or equivalently
l Z i iO 'w a > 0 )| _ IZ u Q w t O o )! ^
for
1,
th e n w e n e e d o n ly r e ta in th e f u n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t o f /(f) to o b ta i n a n e x p re s s io n
for
Physically, the co m ponents of /,(/) in the vicinity of na)0 (n > 2) w ould be
effectiv ely s h o r te d to g r o u n d th r o u g h th e c a p a c ito r C a n d th u s w o u ld n o t c o n tr ib u t e to r(f), w h ile th e c o m p o n e n t o f /(f) in th e v ic in ity o f co = 0 w o u ld b e effectiv ely
shorted to gro u n d through the in d u cto r L and thus would not co ntribute to v0(t).
W ith th e a s s u m p tio n th a t o n ly th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t o f /(f) c o n tr ib u te s to i (f) w e m a y w rite
v(t) ^ [2I0u(t] Cos a)0t] * z x i(f) = [2 / 0M(i)*2 llL(r)]c o sa j0f = 2 /0R (l e ~ a,)u(t) cos vj0t [cf. E q. (3 .3 -4 )].
(3 .3 -1 0 )
In practice, if one has a very narrow pulse in the train (so th at all the harm onic term s have nearly equal am plitudes) and a b road filter (so th at the response is not dow n too m uch at the harm onics), then the previous approach will be som ew hat in e rro r.f This erro r can be estim ated from the size of the netw ork transfer function at the various harm onics and the size of the input signal com ponent at each harm onic.
Fig. 3.4 3 Graphical evalua tion of |Z, ,(7(0)1 .
+ F rom the time view point, the addition o f an im pulse to a netw ork is bound to cause a.stepwise, rather than a sm ooth, increm ent in the stored energy and hence in the waveshape appearing across the network.
82
3.5
As an exam ple, it is relatively simple to evaluate |Z , ,( jnoj)\ for any narrow band netw ork from a sketch of its pole-zero diagram . Figure 3.4-3 shows the case for a parallel R L C circu it; \ Z n (jnio)\ is found as a scale factor (1 C in this case) times the m agnitude of the p hasor from the zero to mo on the im aginary axis divided by the prod u ct of the m agnitudes of the phasors from the two com plex poles to the same point. If QT > 10, or equivalently a w0 , we observe that Pp, * (n - l)co0 , hence |Z , x(jnuj0)\ It follows that ZÛncoo)! _ \ Z u ( j o ) 0)\ n uj0R C (n2 - 1) _ n Q T{n2 - 1| (3.4-12) 7T (1C > P: = ^ ----~
Pp,Pp2
pP 2 ^ (/i + l)co0 ,
and
p 2i = nio0 :
(3.4-11)
(W o H >r -
1)
As we m ight expect, as Q T increases, the ra tio of \ Z X, ( y > i c o 0 ) | to \ Z X1 ( 7' o j 0 ) | decreases. Specifically for QT > 10, Z ^ ij n o jo ) < 0.067 for all n / 1.
Using these results one can estim ate the m inim um Q necessary to keep the rm s co n trib u tio n of the second- and third-harm onic term s of an ideal im pulse train applied to a parallel tuned circuit below ! 0 of the fundam ental co n tribution to the output. Since all co m ponents of an im pulse pulse train are equal in m agnitude, the desired value of Q is a solution of the equation
T p p V l + <8 x l ) ^ TT50-
or Qt Since all o th e r w aveshapes have harm onics th at fall off in m agnitude as the . frequency increases, it follows th at any w aveshape other than an im pulse in the train will not require as high a value of Q to keep the distortion from the second and third harm onics dow n to 1 %. T he d istortion problem is considered again in a m ore form al and detailed m anner in Section 3.5. 3.5 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION If a periodic signal sp(t) o fp e rio d T drives a narro w b an d filter centered at co0 = 2n T. the filter essentially extracts the fundam ental com ponent of sp(r). However, if the filter transfer function is not identically equal to zero at the haj m onies of w0 . som e
3.5
TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION
83
h arm onic co m ponents ap p e a r at the filter output. Specifically, if sp(t) = C o + X C cos (na>0r + 6) n= 1 (3.5-1)
and if H(jco) is the transfer function of the narro w b an d filter, then the filter ou tp u t s0(t) has the form
GO
s0{t) = C 0H( 0) + C n\H(jno)0)\ cos [nw0t + Gn + 0(nwo)],

n= 1
(3.5-2)
w here 6{na>0) = arg H {jn w 0). In m any applications, in p articular th at of obtaining a pure sinusoid at the o u tp u t of an oscillator, the higher harm onics of s0(t) represent an unw anted d isto rtio n signal s^f)* where s^ i) m ay be w ritten in the form s / t ) = CJH (jn(o0)l cos [nco0t + 0 + 6(nco0)].
n= 2
( 3 .5 - 3 )
[The C 0H( 0) term has been deliberately om itted from sjit), since it can alw ays be rem oved by an R F choke o r a blocking capacitor.] T o obtain a q u an titativ e m easure of the effectiveness of a narro w b an d filter in reducing s / t ) relative to the fu ndam ental com ponent of s0(t), we define total harmonic distortion (T H D ) as the ra tio of the rm s value of s / t ) to the fundam ental com ponent of s(i). T hus THD = (^d)rms
S )r,
t y [C \2 L n= 2 IcJ L
( 3 .5 - 4 )
w here (C l/2)\H (jnw 0)\2 is the rm s value of sd(t). The qu an tity T H D given by the above eq u atio n is exactly the m eter reading th at w ould ap p ear on a d istortion analyzer driven by s(t). It is a p p aren t th a t for a given input signal sp(t), the sm aller the value of T H D th e b etter the filter perform s in producing a pure sinusoidal output. , Qt = < jjq RC> 10
s /L C
F ig. 3 .5 -1
H igh-Q parallel R L C circuit driven by a periodic train o f im pulses.
84
3 .5
T o illustrate the m eth o d o f ob tain in g an expression for T H D , let us exam ine the o u tp u t v0(t) of the high-(?T parallel R L C circuit show n in Fig. 3.5-1. F o r this circuit the periodic in p u t cu rren t m ay be expanded in a F o urier series o f the form
00 00
(0 = q
Z
k,= oo
W - k T ) = C 0 + C cos na}0t,
n= 1
where C = 2C 0 = 2q / T ; hence C J C X = 1 for n = 2, 3 , . . . . high-Q r parallel R L C circuit, \Z u (jn o } 0)\ \ Z u (jco0)\ (cf. Eq. 3.4-12); thus 1 T H D = / z 1^5 rl 6 rV n=~2 \w2 1 n Q T(n2 - 1)
In addition, for a
(3.5-5)
T he series Y^,= 2 (n/ nl ~ I )2 is know n to converge to (1/16 + 7 t 2/ 12),f which when substituted in to Eq. (3.5-5), yields T im 1 1 k 0.94 T H D = - / + * . Q j \ 16 12 Qj(3.5-6)
W e now observe th a t for T H D less th a n 1 %, Q T m ust be greater th a n 94. (A value o f 76 was o b tain ed in the previous section by considering only the second- and thirdh arm onic d isto rtio n terms.) If in lieu o f a periodic train o f im pulses, (i) in the circuit o f Fig.3.5-1 is a square wave w ith a p eak-to-peak am plitude I, a period T = 2n/u>0 ,and zero average value, then
00
ii(t) = z C 2n_ 1 cos(2n - l)w 0i, n= 1
(3.5-7)
where C 2n_! = 2 / ( - l ) " _ 1/ 7 t(2n - 1). F o r this case (C2n_ i/C ,)2 = (l/2 n - l) 2 ; thus
.5 - 8 , T he series
[srrW rJ
t A lthough the series in Eq. (3.5-5) has been o btained in closed form for this case, such a rep resen ta tion is in general n o t possible. F ortu n ately , in m ost practical cases, the series o f Eq. (3.5-4) converges sufficiently rapidly so th a t the first tw o o r three term s provide a reasonably good approxim ation to the entire series.
3.5
PROBLEMS
85
is know n to converge to (tc2/48 - 3/16); hence Eq. (3.5-8) simplifies to 1 /* 3 0.135 / -------------% --------Qt V 48 16 Qt
THD =
'
(3 5 -9 )
To yield less th an 1 % T H D with a square-w ave drive to a parallel R L C c irc u it jQ t m ust only exceed 13.5, which is a factor of 7 lower than the value of QT req u ired.to yield less than 1 % T H D w ith an im pulse train drive. This reduction in the required value of Q T results b o th from the fact th at the even harm onic com ponents of a square wave are zero and from the fact th at the higher harm onics of a square wave have am plitudes th at are sm all com pared with the fundam ental am plitude. (The am plitudes of the harm onics vary inversely with frequency.) Since a periodic train of im pulses is the only w aveform whose harm onic am plitudes do not decrease with increasing h arm onic num ber, we expect the T H D obtained with an im pulse train drive to a p articu lar n arro w b an d filter to provide an upper bound on the T H D obtained with any oth er periodic input drive; hence QT = 94 ensures less than 1 % T H D for a parallel R L C circuit regardless of the form of the periodic input curren t drive.
PROBLEM S 3.1 Find the low-pass equivalent circuit, from the y n (p) viewpoint, for a h ig h -^ (Qt ^ 10) series R L C circuit.
i2(0
3.2 D eterm ine i2(t) in Fig. 3.P 1, assum ing th at w 0 = 107 rad/sec, r = 50 1, QT = 20, and r,(t) is a 5 V peak cosine signal at w 0 = 107 rad/sec th at is 100% am plitude m odulated by a radian frequency of 2.5 x 105 rad/sec. 3.3 D eterm ine the o u tp u t voltages v0(t) when a unit impulse, a unit step, and a unit step m odulated sine wave of f = 1.6 M H z are applied successively as i(r) in the circuit of Fig. 3.P-2. 3.4 Find the low-pass equivalent circuit o f the high-Q circuit show n in Fig. 3.P-3.
500 pF
9+
uj = ' 7 l U ~
q t =u rc> \o
Figure 3.P-4
9.9 nH
PROBLEMS
87
3.5 Find the response of the tw o-stage IF strip show n in Fig. 3.P--4 to an am plitude-m odulated sine wave at the resonant frequency of the tuned circuits. Assume an input m odulation of 100 % and th at the carrier is centered in the passband of the filter. F in d the o u tp u t percentage m odulation for rad ian m odulation frequencies of 1/4RC, 1/2RC, and 1/RC. (Use the lowpass equivalent approach.) 3.6 A train o f rectangular narrow pulses 0.1 /isec wide, 10 mA in am plitude, and spaced 628 nsec ap art is applied as i,(i) to the circuit o f Fig. 3.P 5. E stim ate accurately the com ponent of yo2(f )a t2 x 107 rad/sec. (Hint: T he curve for / 2/ / mx for a rectangular pulse in the Appendix to C hapter 9 m ay prove helpful if the pulse train problem is unfam iliar.) 3.7 D eterm ine v j l ) for the circuit o f Fig. 3 .P -6 when i,(f) = (1 mA)(cos 2.5 x 105t) cos 107t.
Figure 3.P-6
H IG H -0 FILTER M EA SU R EM EN TS
T he results of Section 3.3 find practical application in the m easurem ent of the m agnitude an d phase angle, as a function of tom, of the transfer function of extrem ely n arro w b an d filters, i.e filters having Q as high as 104. T he frequency of a norm al oscillator often can n o t be adjusted with the required precision to m ake such m easure m ents ; and even if it could be so adjusted, it would be unlikely to possess the required frequency stability to allow the m easurem ent to be m ade conveniently. O n the o th er hand, a crystal oscillator with the sam e center frequency as the filter of interest can possess the required frequency stability. If this oscillator is am plitude-m odulated w ith the o u tp u t of a low-frequency constant-am plitude variable-frequency oscillator, the resultant signal of the form s,-(f) = j4(1 + cos a}mt) cos a)0t does provide the test signal w ith which to evaluate the high -Q filter. applied to the filter, the o u tp u t signal takes the form (Eq. 3.3-9) sa(t) = /IH JO ) j l + W ith s,(f)
cos [wmr + 0L(c o J]j cos [co0f + 0(ojo)].
(3-A -l)
If = \HL(jv)m)\/HL{0) and 0L(u)m) are m easured as a function o f cum an d if H L(0) and 0{coo) are determ ined, then sufficient d a ta exist to plot the m agnitude and phase of H(jco). Specifically, for w > 0, \H(jw)\ = \H L(jw - w0)|, where \H L(j< x> m)\ = m'(com)HL(0) and 0( oj) = 9 l ( o j w 0) + O (a>0). Experim entally H L(0) and 0(coo) can be readily determ ined by any num ber of stan d ard m ethods with the m odulation on the crystal oscillator absent. In addition, and 0L(ajm) can be determ ined by form ing a Lissajous pattern on an oscilloscope face with s(r) applied to the vertical channel and cos a> mt applied to the horizontal channel. A typical Lissajous pattern is show n in Fig. 3.A-1. Since the upper and lower envelopes o f s0(t) form standard elliptical Lissajous patterns, 0L(tom) m ay be found from = s in - 1 ^ , E (3.A-2)
88
APPENDIX
89
0i (<u)=sin
Fig. 3.A -1 Lissajous p attern o f s0(t) vs. cos comt.
w here E an d F are indicated in Fig. 3.A-1. In addition, nt'(com) can be obtained as

m' (coJ = ^ + g (3 .A -3 )
by em ploying Eq. (3.3-6). [The reader should convince him self of the validity of Eq. (3.A-2).] C onsequently, by selecting a sufficient num ber of different values for (om, one can p lo t th e m agnitude an d phase angle of H( joj) to any degree of accuracy desired.
CHAPTER 4
N O N L IN E A R C O N T R O L L E D SOU RCES
T h e no rm al m ode of o p eratio n o f the active devices discussed in this b o o k is n o n linear. T hus the usual sm all-signal increm ental m odel for a device is n o t likely to be o f m uch use either in designing o r in analyzing a circuit. T he purpose o f this ch ap ter is to rem edy this situation by providing adequate large-signal m odels for a n u m b er o f useful devices. W e shall accom plish this aim by exploring general m eth o d s of dealing w ith the nonlinearities th a t occur in a nu:r.Lci oi real-life active devices o r circuits. In o rd er to co ncentrate on basic concepts, we assum e the absence of device reactan ce; e.g., no charge storage is allow ed in transistors. W e also assum e th a t only a single type of nonlinearity occurs in any given case. In tl c early sections, all sources are assum ed to be ideal in th a t series o r parallel losse : are excluded. In later sections we exam ine the m odifications th a t occur through the inherent o r deliberate ad d itio n o f resistive terms. C h ap ter 5 will consider the co m bination o f nonlinear an d reactive effects, w hile all the follow ing ch ap ters will be concerned w ith com plete circuits o r systems.
4.1 GENERAL COMMENTS O n e can b reak d o w n the types of nonlinearities in to two b ro ad classes. In one class, the in p u t-o u tp u t relationship is of the piecewise-linear o r sw itched-linear segm ent fo rm ; in the other, the relationship varies gradually an d lacks a b ru p t changes of slope. Piecew ise-linear types are alw ays easily expressible in analytic form, as are certain of the g rad u al relationships. In som e cases one can view a p articu lar piecewise configuration as an asym ptotic lim it for a gradual expression. F o r som e device characteristics, sim ple analytic m eans o f characterizing their relationships d o n o t seem to exist. H ow ever, in these cases one can always, a t least in theory, fit a polynom ial to any desired degree over any desired range. A lthough co m p u ter p ro g ram s to aid in such curve fitting are widely available, they should have to be resorted to only on rare occasions. In general, one can n o t resort to superposition in dealing w ith nonlinear cir cuits. T his m eans th a t th e dc (average-value) an d ac (tim e-variable) com ponents of the o u tp u t signal are interrelated. Initially we deal w ith this problem by assum ing ideal voltage o r cu rren t sources as bias supplies, so th a t average values m ay be fixed independently o f th e tim e-variable term s. T he circuit of Fig. 1.1-1 provides an exam ple of such a bias circuit.
90
4 .2
PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCE, SINGLE DISCONTINUITY
91
In add itio n to th e ac-dc interrelationships o f nonlinear sources, there are input drive w av esh ap e-o u tp u t w aveshape relationships th a t norm ally defy generaliza tion. T his problem is circum vented in practice by assum ing one of several com m on driving w aveshapes an d determ ining the o u tp u ts for them . F o rtu n ately , it tu rn s out th at d c plus a sine-w ave drive or dc plus a square-w ave drive suffices to provide a first-order ap p ro x im atio n for the o p eratio n of alm ost all real circuits.
4.2 PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCE, SINGLE DISCONTINUITY C onsider the circuit o f Fig. 4.2-1. W hen v t > V0, i2 = G(vx F0); w hen u, < V0, i'2 = 0 ; hence, if Vi = Vb + v(t) and V - MOLax > K ,
then the o p eratio n occurs com pletely along the sloping p o rtio n of the characteristic and is increm entally linear in the conventional sense. In this case, superposition applies to the ac signal co m p o n en ts; th a t is, if i2 = I b + i(t), then i(t) = Gv(t).
Fig. 4. 2-1
Piecewise-linear voltage-controlled current source.
As a n o th e r special case, consider the previous circuit biased exactly a t the break point, so th a t Vb = K0. U n d er this circum stance, the circuit perform s as an ideal half-wave rectifier. In this case, if v(t ) = Vt cos tot, then the o u tp u t cu rren t consists of half-cycle sine-wave pulses o f peak am plitude I p = GVX, while a square-w ave in p u t for t;(t) o f peak -to -p eak am plitude 2Vl aqd period T = 2n/co yields a squarewave o u tp u t also o f peak value l p = GV1. N o te th a t in the sine-wave case the o u tp u t w aveshape is drastically different from the in p u t w aveshape over o n e half-cycle, w hereas it has th e identical shape over the o th er half-cycle. O n the o th e r hand, a square-w ave in p u t yields a square-w ave o u tp u t In m any practical circuits the drive is periodic and the nonlinear device is followed by a n arro w b and filter o f the type discussed in C h ap ters 2 an d 3. In these cases it is convenient to express th e device o u tp u t in a Fourier-series form th at clearly displays th e various frequency co m ponents and their phase relationships.
92
NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES
4.2
T his is very easy to d o when Vb = V0 and r(r) = Vx cos cot, since the F ourierseries expansion o f a series o f half-sine-wave pulses is given by I I ' 2(0 = + - cos n 2 21 371 cos 21 -r~ cos 4cot + , 1571 (4.2-1)
where l p = G VX is the peak value o f i2. W ith v(t) in the form of a square wave, i2(t) = 1
2
21
7t
21 21 cos cot cos 3a>f 4cos 5cot ,

371 571
(4 .2 -2 )
w here again / p = GVX an d the tim e origin is taken at the m iddle o f the positive pulse. It is w orth n o tin g a t this point th at if the cu rrent generator of Fig. 4 .2 -1 drives a parallel reso n an t circuit th a t is tuned to co and th at has a parallel resistance R T an d a high value of Q T, then only the fundam ental term produces any significant voltage v2 across the tuned circuit. C onsequently, with Vb = V0 , v2(t) is given by sine-wave d riv e :
, .
/ v, g r t \ v2 I ~ Ll coscui, 12 v xGRT\ v 2 ~ 1------------ 1 cose ot \ 7 1 I
(4.2-3)
square-w ave d riv e :
(4.2-4)
W ith b o th the square-w ave and sine-wave drive we have obtained a sinusoidal o u tp u t voltage th a t is linearly related in am plitude to the in put driving voltage am plitude VX. T h u s a highly nonlinear device operation has been com bined with a n arro w b an d filter to p ro d uce an overall linear amplifier. Such devices find wide application in the efficient am plification of AM waves. T he g ain o f this am plifier is a function o f the driving waveshape. As we shall see in C h ap ter 9, am plifiers in which the o u tp u t cu rren t flows for exactly h alf of each in p u t cycle a re know n as Class B amplifiers. F ro m the equations above, we see th a t a C lass B R F am plifier th a t has a linear characteristic over its c o n d ucting half-cycle has an overall linear o u tp u t-in p u t characteristic in spite o f its highly n o n lin ear in tern al behavior. T his is b u t the first of m any exam ples in which we discover overall linearity in spite of internal nonlinearities. W e now consider the general case of sine- o r square-w ave drives added to an a rb itra ry dc bias Vb. T he square-w ave case is trivial, since it alw ays results in a square-w ave o u tp u t an d hence Eq. (4 .2 -2 ) is alw ays valid. All th a t changes from case to case is the peak am plitu d e o f the o u tp u t square wave. F o r exam ple, if Vb ^ V0 , then / = G(Vb + V X - V0). In the sine-wave case the w aveshape is a function of the bias Vb and the am plitude V , ; hence Eq. (4.2-1) is n o t valid for any case except the half-wave rectifier. T he in terrelationship o f i2, Vb, V0, and VX is show n in Fig. 4 .2 -2 . H ere we see th a t i2 is in the form o f a periodic train o f sine-wave tips o f peak am plitude I p = (K, VX )G, w here Vx = V0 Vb. In addition, if i2 is plotted vs. cot ra th e r th an t, then an entire
4.2
PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCE, SINGLE DISCONTINUITY
93
Fig. 4.2-2 Output waveshape for the circuit of Fig. 4.2-1. cycle occupies a d u ra tio n o f 2n an d the sine-wave tip occupies a d u ra tio n o f 2 < j> , which we define as the co n d u ction angle, where
V
< t> = cos
yi
W e observe th a t for Vb > V0 + Vr, o r equivalently Vx < Vt , the conduction angle occupies an entire cycle a n d increm entally linear operation occurs. If we w rite a general expression for the F o u rier series expansion of a train of sine-wave tips in th e fo rm f
oo
i2 = / cos ntot, n 0 then this expansion m ay be used to determ ine the dc, fundam ental, o r harm onic c o n te n t in th e o u tp u t o f a piecew ise-linear circuit driven by dc plus a sine wave. T h e algebraic expression for the coefficients / o f such an expansion an d their asym ptotic values are presented in the appendix to this chapter. Figure 4.2-3 presents norm alized values for these coefficients in term s o f the conduction angle 2<p a n d the peak pulse am p litu d e I p. T he plus o r m inus sign after the coefficient n um ber in dicates w hether th e coefficient is positive o r negative. As a practical m atter, it is often m ore convenient to have the F o u rier series coefficients expressed in term s o f V J V X th an in term s of 4> , since in m ost p ro b lems < /> is n o t k n ow n explicitly. T his tran sp o sitio n o f coo rd in ate axes is readily
t We should recall th a t a cosinusoid applied to a n onlinear nonm em ory device produces a periodic o u tp u t which m ay be expanded in a F o u rier cosine series w ith n o sine terms.
94
NONLINEAR CONTROLLED SOURCES Linear sine-wave tips
4.3
1.00
0.80 0.60 0.40
><cj
0.30
0.20
c
'5
SE
g
0.10
0.08 0.06 0.04 0.03
-g |
o
0.02
0.010
0.008 0.006 0.005 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 C ond u ctio n angle 2<p, degrees Fig. 4. 2 -3 N orm alized F ourier coefficients o f a linear sine-wave tip pulse train vs. the conduction angle.
accom plished by em ploying the relationship cos 4> VJV \ . In p articular, l j l p for n = 0 ,1 ,2 is p lo tted vs. V J V i in Fig. 4.2-4. N egative values of V J V X in this figure correspond to the case where Vb > V0 (note th at Vx = V0 Vb) and i2 has a conduction angle greater th an 180. A s an exam ple o f the usefulness of these curves, consider a case in which Vx = 1.5 V, G = 1000 /mho, a n d Vx = 4.5 V. F ro m the d a ta o f Fig. 4.2-4 an d by m ultiplying by I p - VJ = 3 mA, we o b tain / 0 = 0.78 mA, = 1.32 mA, an d 12 = 0.81 mA. If this c u rren t were passed th ro u g h a tuned circuit o r its equi valent, then th e various o u tp u t voltages could be found by perform ing one m ore sim ple m ultiplication for each cu rren t com ponent.
4.3 M U L T IP L E -S E G M E N T P IE C E W IS E -L IN E A R S O U R C E S
W ith large eno u g h in p u t drives, all practical devices eventually sa tu ra te. In m any cases the sa tu ra tio n is sufficiently a b ru p t th a t the in p u t-o u tp u t transfer characteristic, v s .ii, can be m odeled by a m ultiple-segm ent piece w ise-linear characteristic o f the type show n in Fig. 4.3-1.
4 .3
MULTIPLE-SEGMENT PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCES
95
Linear sine-wave tips
N orm alized voltage offset
Fig. 4.2-4 Plot of l j l p vs. VJVXfor n = 0,1, and 2. Results for th e case show n in Fig. 4 .3 -l(a ) can be found as the superposition o f th e F o u rie r series for th e positive a n d the negative sine-wave tip pulse trains. F o r th e positive pulse train i2P o f peak am plitude I pl = G ,(V1 Vx), we o b ta in the F o u rier coefficients from Fig. 4.2-4 by em ploying I Pi, an d V J V i . T he F o u rier coefficients for th e negative pulse tra in i2N, o f peak am plitude I Pl = G2(V{ + Vy), are o b tain ed by em ploying I P 2 an d V JV X(in lieu o f VJVi) in the curves o f Fig. 4.2-4. T he negative pulse tra in is shifted 180 in p h ase ; therefore, its F o u rier series has the form *2n = Uo + I i cos = - I 0 -(+ n) + 12 c o s (2 (ot + 2n) + (4.3-1)
cosftjf - I 2 c o s 2cot + I 3 cos 3tur .
C onsequently, w hen i2JV is com bined w ith i2P, the F o u rier coefficients o f the odd harm onics o f b o th pulse train s a d d algebraically, w hereas the F o u rier coefficients o f the even h arm onics an d th e average value o f the negative pulse train m ust be su b tracted from th e corresp o n d ing coefficients o f the positive pulse tra in to obtain the com posite F o u rie r coefficients.
96
4 .3
(a)
(b) Fig. 4.3-1 V arious m ultiple-segm ent piecewise-linear nonlinearities, dc plus sine-wave drive.
4 .3
MULTIPLE-SEGMENT PIECEWISE-LINEAR SOURCES
97
We should note that if G, = G2 and Vx = - Vy, no average value or even har m onics exist in th e w aveform of i 2, since the m agnitude of the corresponding F o u rier coefficients of b o th the positive and negative pulse trains are equal. Results for the saturation m odel shown in Fig. 4.3 1(b) can be found by direct su b tractio n o f the F o u rie r series for a sine-wave tip pulse train o f peak am plitude IP 2 = G 3(K1 Vy) an d co n d u ctio n angle 2< fr2[4> 2 = c o s - l(Vy/V l )] from the F o u rier series for a sine-w ave tip pulse train of peak am plitude I pt = G 3(Vt Vx) an d the conduction angle 2 0 1[ 0 1 = c o s '^ ^ / K ,) ] . S u b traction of the tw o F o u rie r series results in a F o u rier series whose coefficients are found from the su b tractio n o f the co rresponding coefficients o f the original tw o series. T he coefficients o f each series are, of course, found directly from Fig. 4.2-3 or Fig. 4.2-4. In the limit as Vx becom es very large the c u rre n t w aveshape ap proaches a square w ave; hence Eq. (4.2-2) again yields lim iting values. Suppose, for exam ple, th a t Vy = Vx = 1.5 V, th a t the sine wave is varying aro u n d zero w ith an am p litu d e F, = 3 V, and th a t G3 = 500 /im ho. T hen
I pt = [500 x 10 6 x 4.5] mA = 2.25 mA, and / p2 = [500 x 10 6 x 1.5] mA = 0.75 mA. W ith the aid of Fig. 4.2-4 we o btain I 0 = (2.25 mA) x 0.41 - (0.75 mA) x 0.226 = 0.75 mA [which, o f course, could be found by inspection from Fig. 4.3-l(b)], / t = (2.25 mA) x 0.535 - (0.75 mA) x 0.40 = 0.91 mA, and 12 = (2.25 mA) x 0.093 - (0.75 mA) x 0.28 = 0.00 mA (again as expected because o f the symmetry). In general, the o u tp u t of any m ultiple-segm ent piecew ise-linear characteristic driven by dc plus a sine w ave m ay be expressed as the superposition of several sinewave tip pulse trains. A little ingenuity is som etim es required to accom plish this. O nce this rep resen tatio n is achieved, how ever, the coefficients o f the o u tp u t F o u rier series m ay be o b tain ed w ith th e aid o f the curves o f Fig. 4.2-3 o r Fig. 4.2-4. C haracteristics sim ilar to Fig. 4 .3 -l(a) occur in Class B and Class C amplifiers, w hereas center-biased characteristics sim ilar to Fig. 4 .3 -l(b ) are used as limiters. If a characteristic like th a t o f Fig. 4 .3 -l(b ) is really biased in the m iddle, then there are n o even h arm onics a t the o u tp u t. In addition, the norm alized fundam ental c u rren t o u tp u t I x/G$Vy varies only from 1.0 to 4 n = 1.273 (the fundam ental o f a
98
4 .4
square wave o f peak am plitude = 1) as the input am plitude varies from the b re ak point value, Vy = Vx , to infinity. F o r Vx = 2Vy, /, = 3G3Vy, and thus G s t y / j = 1.218. Sim ilarly, if Vx = 3.861^, then the norm alized current is 1.258. A plot o f / / G 3Vy vs. V JV y is show n in Fig. 4.3-2. It is ap p aren t th at if an am plitude-m odulated signal 1P 1 = G 3Vy, ^ = 0 .5 , - 0 .5 ,
is applied to such a characteristic so th a t the carrier am plitude is 10 tim es the b rea k p oint while the percentage am plitude m od u latio n is 80 % o r less, then the fundam ental voltage across a tuned circuit in the o u tp u t has less th an a 4.5% peak-to-peak v a ria tio n : 1.273 - 1.218 _ , --------- x 100 % 4.4. 1.24 H ence o n the n o rm al peak basis the o u tp u t m o d u latio n is less th a n 2.5 % o r equiv alently, we have reduced th e A M by m ore th a n 30 dB. Such circuitry will be dis cussed in m o re d etail in C h a p te r 12. 4.4 SQUARE-LAW CHARACTERISTICS A square-law voltage in -v o ltag e o u t characteristic can be ap p roxim ated by a netw ork of diodes, resistors, an d batteries. A square-law voltage in -c u rre n t o u t characteristic is appro x im ated quite closely by m any field effect tran sisto rs (FE T ) o f both the
4.4
SQUARE-LAW CHARACTERISTICS
99
(t>
V2
Fig. 4.4-1 Square-law source. ju n ctio n an d the M O S types o p eratin g in their co n stan t c u rre n t region. Figure 4.4-1 shows a typical square-law netw ork for which
i2 = U
~ v ) (4.4-1) v t < Vp,
where I DSS an d Vp are co n stan ts sim ilar in n o tatio n to those em ployed w ith ju nctiontype field effect transistors. C learly, as v x approaches Vp (which is som etim es referred to as the pinch-off voltage), i2 is reduced to zero. F o r = 0 , i2 = loss- 1 this section Vp is assum ed to be negative. Positive values of Vp merely shift the i2-t>i characteristic to th e right. Before proceeding further, we should note that when we refer to a square-law characteristic it is n o t a tru e square-law characteristic, b u t ra th er a h a l f squarelaw characteristic. A tru e square law w ould be a parab o la and therefore a d o uble valued function of 2. Since such characteristics do not often exist in nature, we restrict o u r atten tio n to those form ed by one branch of the p arab o la, as given by Eq. 4.4-1. H ow ever, one m ust be sure th a t operation is entirely in the square-law region before substitu tin g into the expression - 1
l 2 1 DSS| 1
MJ 2
Again, with the square-law characteristic, we find that a square-w ave input leads to a square-w ave o u tp u t; hence Eq. (4.2-2) is directly applicable to obtaining the F o u rier series of i2 once the peak value of i2 is determ ined. If, on the o th er hand, = Vh + V, cos cot and operation is within the squarelaw region, then 2 = ' p 2VXV, coscot -I- V \ cos2 < ot ),
(4 .4 - 2 )
100
4.4
i2
a F o u rier series expansion for term s; th at is, + / w here

, COS
has only three
(Ot +
2 cos 2 cot,
^ b + y)S I 6.
CN
(4.4-3)
(4.4-4)
T hus we find th a t if Vb is supplied by an ideal voltage source so th a t Vb is n o t a func tion o f / 0, then / j is a linear function o f Vx and we can define a large-signal average transductance Gm,
^ *ID S S t / hi Gm TT ~ ~ ~yT X 9
th a t is in dependent of the drive voltage. W e can define such a large-signal tra n s conductance for any type o f characteristic ; however, in general, it is n o t a co n stan t b u t a function o f Vt . W hen Gm is independent of Vt and i2 drives a high -QT parallel reso n an t circuit tu n ed to the fundam ental frequency, then variations in the am pli tude of the o u tp u t voltage are linearly related to variations in Vi ; hence, here again, the overall transfer characteristic is linear and the device perform s as a linear am plifier for A M signals. T he square-law characteristic has the interesting p ro perty th at the sm all-signal transco n d u ctan ce gm at any particu lar Q -point is equal to the large-signal average tran sco n d u ctan ce Gm a t th a t sam e Q -point. T o d em o n strate this p roperty, we evaluate gm in the form
= ^
- 2 1 D SS
1 II ~ Yi
^D SS
Vp 2 '
(4.4-5)
(4.4-6)
gm
dv1
{V, - v j
v, = V b
-21 D S S
V 2 y p
(4.4-7)
which is identical to Gm given by Eq. (4.4-6). A plot of gm = Gm vs. bias voltage Vb is show n in Fig. 4.4-2. It should be m ade clear th at gm is an increm ental slope at a poin t on the current-vs.-voltage curve, while Gm = I J V ^ is a ra tio o f fundam ental o u tp u t cu rren t to fu ndam ental in put voltage at a p articular operating point. As an exam ple, suppose th at Vb = Vp/2, or equivalently Vx = Vp/2 \ then gm I, v.
vp
and
I D SS Y j _
V.
W hen Vi is very sm all w ith respect to \VP\, then I : vanishes and low -distortion w ideband am plification occurs. As Vt increases, 7- increases and distortionless
4 .4
101
Fig. 4.4-2 Linear transconductances for square-law current characteristic (FET). w ideband am plification is im possible ; however, if a narrow band filter is em ployed, then linear am plification is possible from Vx = 0 to V{ = \Vp\/2, a t which point o p eratio n exceeds the square-law region o f the characteristic and Gm becom es a n onlinear function of Vt . In the general case, the second-harm onic d isto rtio n in the o u tp u t current as a function of drive voltage is given by A 4K K SmO 4 K gm (4.4-8)
w here gm0 is th e value o fg mob tain ed for Vb = 0. T hus, if Vb = VpJ2, then 1 % distortion arises when V1 = |Kp|/50 = IKJ/25. T his m eans th at linear small-signal w ideband am plification is restricted to sm all drive voltages. F o r exam ple, \f'Vp = 4 V and Vb = - 2 V, then to keep th e d isto rtio n below 1 % K, m ust be less th a n 80 mV. As Eq. (4.4-8) indicates, increasing the gain by changing Vb so as to increase gm
102
4.4
does decrease the d isto rtio n , b u t n o t enough to m ake this type of characteristic well suited to p roducing w ideband am plifiers w ith large-signal handling capabilities. In practical devices, the characteristic is likely to d ep art som ew hat from square law at its extrem e values; hence, if the above results are to apply, drive voltages m ust be sm all enough to stay out o f these regions. Even if Eq. (4.4-1) does accurately describe the device, if v x = Vb + Vt cos cot exceeds Vp for som e p o rtio n of a cycle the above results are n o t valid. In particular, the device is off for p a rt of the cycle an d square law for the rem ainder o f the cycle, as illustrated in Fig. 4.4 3. T hus we see th a t the cu rren t is a periodic train of square-law sine-wave tips of peak am pli tude b =
V P
- K ) 2-
Fig.4.4-4 Normalized Fourier coefficients of a square-law sine-wave tip pulse train vs. the conduction angle.
4 .4
103
In addition, the conduction angle 2(f) (i.e., the angular portion of the cycle during which 12 is different from zero) is given by 2(j> 2 c o s' 1 'i U nder this m ode of o p eration the F o u rier series for i2 no longer consists of three term s b u t ra th e r an infinite n u m b er o f term s. T he coefficients o f these term s of the F o u rier series as functions o f I p and < p are presented in the appendix to this chapter. Figure 4.4 4 presents the norm alized values for the first three coefficients in term s of conduction angle 2< p. In addition. Fig. 4.4-5 presents the norm alized F ourier coefficients l j l p plotted vs. V J V X cos (j> for n = 0 ,1 , and 2. N egative values of VX )VX are obtained when
Square-law sine-wave tips
E 8 o u.
0.010
0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006

0 .0 0 5
1 .0 - 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Normalized voltage offset Fig. 4.4 -5 P lo t ///_ vs. VJV\ for n 0, 1, 2.
104
4.5
the bias voltage Vb lies w ithin the square-law region, or equivalently, w hen the co n duction angle is g reater th an 180. T he point VJV^ = 1 corresponds to com plete o p eratio n w ithin the square-law region and a conduction angle of 360; conse quently, for values of V J V X < 1, the op eratio n is well w ithin the square-law region an d the F o u rier coefficients (only three) m ust be found from Eqs. (4.4-3), (4.4 4), and (4.4-5), w hich m ay be m anipulated into the equivalent forms , 0 , 1 = , = . 1 + (v jv ,)2 p(i - y j v . r -ijy jv i) pd - v j v , r i (4.4-11) (4.4-10) (4.4-9)
h = ip (i - v j v t f ' w hich are valid for V J V X < 1 and for which, of course,
L = ^ ( V , - VX It is of interest to n ote th a t for V J V t = 1 substituted into Eqs. (4.4-9), (4.4-10), a n d (4.4-11), I 0/ I p = , l j l p = i , and I 2/ I p = s- These are exactly the values show n in Fig. 4.4-5 for VJV^ = 1; hence the F o u rier coefficients / vary continuously as V J V X decreases beyond 1. T hese square-law sine-wave tip characteristics will be quite useful in designing self-limiting field effect tran sisto r oscillators, as well as in explaining the action in large-signal F E T R F amplifiers.
4.5 T H E E X P O N E N T IA L C H A R A C T E R IS T IC
A very good ap p ro x im atio n to the cu rren t em itted across a forw ard-biased P -N ju n ctio n in adjunction d io d e or tran sisto r is i2 = I sev'qikT, (4.5-1)
w here kT/q is approxim ately 26 mV for T = 300K. If we assum e th a t the transistor alp h a is independent of cu rren t and ignore for the present all internal resistive voltage dro p s, then by choosing I s ap p ro p riately we can use Eq. (4.5-1) to represent em itter, collector, or base currents. (The equation is n o t ex act in the reverse ' d irectio n ; how ever, for o u r purposes this nonexactness is a th ird -o rd e r effect.) A typical voltage in -c u rren t o u t exponential characteristic is obtained from the circuit o f Fig. 4.5-1. If i?! = Vb + v(r) is applied to the device, i2(t) has the form / dc + *(0. where / dc an d i(t) are functions of both Vb and v(t). In o u r previous exam ples we assum ed th a t Vb an d v(t) were supplied from independent sources and derived our results in term s of these quantities. In this case, however, we assum e th a t / dc and v{t) are supplied from independent sources and present the results in term s of these
4 .5
THE EXPONENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC
105
o-
-f-
0>
o o -o Fig. 4.5-1 E xponentially controlled current source.
quantities. T he reason for this choice is ap p a re n t when we realize th at in a welldesigned tran sisto r circuit we control the bias (or average) current and the ac ju n c tion v o lta g e ; hence these are the quantities we know. W ith t,(i) = Vh + iit) applied to the circuit of Fig. 4.5-1, i2(t) is given by
i2 = l s g<iy b l k T e q t { t ) l k T
F o r sm all-signal operation, i.e., values of v(t) for which qv(t)/kT 1, 2(f) reduces to the form
h e + *(*)>
(4.5-2)
w h e re / dc = Is evVblkT, a n d i(t) = q I dcv(t)/kT. C le a rly i'(f) a n d v(t) a r e lin e a rly r e la te d
by a sm all-signal tran sco n d u ctan ce
= t>(0 = qi dc
gm i(t) kT
which is a linear function o f bias current. We note that small-signal linear gain co n tro l can be achieved by controlling the bias cu rrent I dc. T his linear gain control will be seen to have m any useful applications. Square-W ave Input If t>(i) is a sym m etrical square wave of peak am plitude K,, it is a p p aren t th a t i2 is also a square wave with an upp er level I m = I se*v lkTe > v 'lkT and a lower level
106
4 .5
T hus the average value o f i2 is given by Jdc = / vf Im = I seyilkT cosh x (4.5-3)
an d the p eak-to-peak value of i2 is given by I PP = = 2IseqVb/kT sinh x, . (4 .5 ^ )
where x = qV xj k T norm alizes the in put square-w ave am plitude to 26 mV (at T = 300 K). By com bining Eqs. (4.5-3) and (4.5-4), we obtain
! Pp = 2 / d c ta n h * (4 .5 -5 )
T he quan tity I pp/2 I dc is p lo tted in Fig. 4.5-2 vs. x.
F o r x 1, tan h x * x and Eq. (4.5-5) reduces to If = IA < :x = ^ r Vl = g mVl , (4.5-6)
which, of course, is ju st the sm all-signal relationship betw een the peak am plitude of the o u tp u t an d in p u t squ are waves. F o r large values of x (x > 2.5), ta n h x is w ithin 1 % of unity and *~f = be(4.5-7)
T his relationship m akes sense. F o r large values of Vt the negative p o rtio n of the inp u t square wave effectively cuts off i2 ; hence i2 varies from zero to I pp and thus has an average value of pp/2. It is a p p aren t th at, for large values of x, the o u tp u t square-w ave am plitude is independent of the inp u t square-w ave am plitude and therefore the circuit functions as a limiter. C onversely, for x 1 the circuit perform s as a linear amplifier. Regardless of the value of x, however, the peak am plitude of the o u tp u t square wave is linearly related to / dc; consequently, by controlling / dc we can linearly am plitude-m odulate the o u tp u t square wave. If, in addition, we pass i2(t) through a h ig h -g tuned circuit, we obtain an o u tp u t voltage which is an am plitude-m odulated
4 .5
107
sine wave. In p articu lar, if i2(t) drives a h ig h -g parallel R L C circuit which has resistance R r and is tuned to the fundam ental of i2, then the o u tp u t voltage v2(t) is given by (cf. Eq. 4.2-2) v2(t) = tan h x cos cot. (4.5-8)
It is assum ed here th a t if / dc is a function of time, the bandw idth of the tuned circuit is sufficient to pass the AM sideband inform ation.
S in e -W a v e In p u t
If i,(f) = Vb + Vt cos coi, then

2(t) = J^qVblkTpqVôsiot/kT
_
j ^ q V b l k T p X c o s tot
where again x = qVi/kT. F o r cot = 0, 2n, 4 n , . . . , i2(t) attain s its peak value of I p = seqVh'kTex. T o observe the form of i2(t) for other values of t we norm alize i2(t) to I p and plot
vs. cot with x as a p aram eter, as show n in Fig. 4.5-3. N ote th a t for small values of x the o u tp u t cu rren t is alm ost cosinusoidal, as w ould be expected; however, as x in creases, the o u tp u t cu rren t becom es pulselike in form. Because of th e exponential n atu re of i 2, it is n o t possible to define a conduction angle for these pulses in a co nventional se n se : however, we m ay define a fictitious co n d u ctio n angle as the an g u lar p o rtio n o f the cycle for which i2(t)/lp > 0.05. This
U J t
Fig. 4.5 -3 P lot o f 2(r)//p vs. (of with x = q VJkT = K1/(26 mV) as a param eter.
108
4.5
co n d u ctio n angle m ay be defined a s 2< j> , w here 4 > is the solution o f the eq u atio n _ JC C O S < j> = 0.05, (4.5-9) o r equivalently, < /> = cos 1 1 + In 0.05 x I cos 1 1 \ (4.5-10)
A p lo t o f th is co n d u ctio n angle vs. x is given in Fig. 4.5^4.
Fig. 4.5-4 Plot of conduction angle 2tj>vs. x. T he pulse shape is a function only o f the norm alized ac in p u t voltage (x), and n o t o f th e b ias level. T his, o f course, is a basic pro p erty o f a n exponential c h arac teristic. T h e cu rren t i2(t) = I pexcosco'/ex m ay be expanded in a F o u rier series o f the form
O O
i2(t) =
n=0
C cos n o t,
w here
~x cos 6
d 0 | = l 0(x), 21. = ^/(x), e
(4.5-11)
- = ex \2 n } r excos9 cos nO, dfl) _
(4.5-12)
a n d I n{x) is a m odified Bessel function o f o rd e r n an d arg u m en t x. T he m odified Bessel functions should n o t frighten the reader, since they represent m erely the tab u lated results o f the num erical in tegrations o f the integrals o f Eqs. (4.5-11) and (4.5-12) w ith x a s a p aram eter. V arious useful properties o f the m odified Bessel functions, including their tab u latio n , are presented in the A ppendix a t the back o f the book.
4.5 By noting th at Co
109
o M ic<
(4.5-1 la)
we can w rite i2(t) as a function o f / dc in the form

hU)
r
= /d c
2 1l(x ix) 7 - 7 -rC O S n a jt n = 1 * oW O'

Z
(4.5-13)
Table 4.5-1 T ab u latio n o f m odified Bessel function ratios vs. x
21 Ax)
212{x)
1 o(x)
2h(x)
o(x)
/jW
/(*) 0.0 0.0999 0.4850 0.8928 1.3955 1.6200 1.7868 1.8511 1.8972 1.9272 1.9493
/l(x) 0.0 0.024 0.124 0.240 0.433 0.568 0.719 0.795 0.854 0.895 0.926
0.0 0.1 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 14.0 20.0
0.0 0.0024 0.0600 0.2144 0.6045 0.9200 1.2853 1.4711 1.6206 1.7247 1.8051
0.0
0.0050 0.0350 0.1866 0.3933 0.7585 1.0104 1.2490 1.4344 1.5883
T able 4.5-1 presents d a ta for 21 i(x)/10{x), 2 / 2(x )//0(x), 2 I 3(x)/I0(x), and I 2(x)/Ii(x) all vs. x. Figure 4.5-5 presents a plot of these sam e data. [These d a ta have been calculated from th e values of J(x) given in the A ppendix at the back o f the book.] As show n in the A ppendix, for sm all values of x, J 0(x) -* 1, /i(x ) x/2, and I(x) - 0
Fig. 4.5-5 Modified Bessel function ratios vs. x = qVJkT.
110
4 .5
(actually som e pow er of x g reater th an unity) ; hence, w hen x ap proaches zero, < 2(0
Jd cU
+ * cos Mt) =
/d c
+ im Y 1 cos
(4.5-14)
w hich is the expected sm all-signal response. F o r large values o f x, the pulse w idth of i2 becom es n arrow an d the fundam ental com p o n en t is seen to a p p ro a ch twice the dc value, as expected; thus again the exponential characteristic is useful as a lim iter so long as the m inim um am plitude does n o t cause x to d ro p below say 5. F o r exam ple, w ith a norm alized carrier am plitude of x = 10, 50% am plitude m o d u latio n in the in p u t (m 0.5) causes less th a n 4 % o u tp u t am p litu d e m o d u latio n (m = 0.04). W hen x is large, I 0(x) ap proaches ex/ s/ l n x (this equality is w ithin 6 % for x > 3 a n d w ithin 3 % for x > 5). H ence from Eq. (4.5-1 la ) the relation betw een the dc co m p o n en t an d th e peak c u rre n t for x > 3 is given by l P IiC y /2 n x . T h u s in a circuit in w hich / dc is held co n sta n t a t 1 m A (and in w hich resistive d ro p s a re negligible), a p eak sinusoidal base-em itter voltage drive o f 260 mV will cause a cu rren t p eak o f 7.95 mA, w hile th e fundam ental com ponent will have a peak value o f only 1.90 mA. F igure 4.5-5 conveys all sorts o f ad d itio n al interesting inform ation a b o u t the exponential characteristic. If / dc is presum ed constant, 0 th a t it is n o t a function o f Vl t then the 2 [ /,( x ) //0(x)] curve indicates th a t a n a rro w b an d linear am plifier for the I ! co m p o n en t is feasible only for values o f x less th a n unity. F ro m the curve one sees th at, for w ideband linear am plifiers, x m ust be less than 0.1 ju s t to keep the second-harm onic disto rtio n below 2.5% . [N ote as x - 0 , / 2(x)//!(x) -> x /4 ; hence x = 0.1 im plies / 2(x)/7i(x) = 0.025.] T herefore, such a characteristic is useful only in an absolutely linear fashion w hen in p u t voltages are below 2.5 mV. (The schem es th a t one em ploys to design am plifiers capable of hand lin g large-signal in p u ts w ithout d isto rtio n will be discussed in subsequent sections.) W hen th e exponential characteristic is followed by a tu n ed circuit w hich extracts the fundam ental co m p o n en t o f i2(t), it is again convenient to define a large-signal average fundam ental tran sco nductance Gm (x) as Gm(x) = = f l V1 I 0(x ) ^ k T x / 0(x) (4.5-15)
Vi
W ith this definition th e o u tp u t voltage v2(t) can be w ritten as v2(t) = ~ G m{x)V iR T cos cot, (4.5-16)
w here R T is the resistance o f the tuned circuit a t resonance. If / dc is independent of V i , then

^ tic
K i 0
j an d
<?Aic -j^Y Sn
4.5
111
T hus Gm(x) as given by Eq. (4.5-15) reduces to
T able 4.5-2 presents values for Gm(x)/gm = 2 /,( x ) /x /0(x) vs. x. In addition, these d a ta are plotted in Fig. 4.5-6.
Table 4.5-2 T ab u latio n o f 2 /,( x )/x /0(x) vs. x 2 / l(x) = G j x )
X
Xl oM 0.0 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 1.0 0.995 0.970 0.893 0.698 0.540 0.432 0.357 0.304 0.264 0.234 0.210 0.190 0.129 0.0975
gm
Fig. 4.5 -6 Plot of 21 l{ x ) / x l 0{x) vs. x.
112
4 .5
By the tim e x = 1, Gm (x)/gm is already dow n by 1 d B ; hence we again observe th at lin ear n arro w b an d AM am plifiers require It^lmax < 26 mV. H ow ever, the d ro p in Gm(x) w ith increasing drive is useful in som e circuits. F o r exam ple, it allows the o u tp u t am p litu d e of a sine-wave oscillator to stabilize. As the oscillations begin to grow , th e lo o p gain decreases to the p o in t where a fu rther increase in the oscillation am p litu d e is n o t possible. W e should n o te finally th a t i2(i), given by Eq. (4.5-13), is directly p ro p o rtio n al to / dc ; hence, here again, by controlling / dc we can achieve m ultiplication o r am p li tude m o d u latio n independent o f the value o f Vt (or x). In C h ap ter 8 we shall consider in d etail how this co n tro l is accom plished. -1 0 V
Figure 4.5-7
Example 4.5-1 F o r the n arro w b an d am plifier show n in Fig. 4.5-7, determ ine an expression for v0(t). A lso d eterm ine the peak em itter cu rren t a n d its conduction angle.
Solution. T h e b ase-em itter voltage consists of the input cosine plus w hatever dc voltage VAc builds up across the cap acito r C x; hence
VE B
= Vic + cos 107t
4 .5 and
113
i = J^qV tJkT^.eco slO i,

0 9 .6 cos 10 7r
-----2/,(9.6)
re /o (9 .6 )
+ T o fW s
T h e 2 .6 -m A c u r r e n t s o u rc e m u st e q u a l th e a v e ra g e v a lu e o f iE ; th e re fo re ,
llo(9-6)
e9-6
l Ae = 2 .6 m A "dc
a n d th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t /1 is e q u a l to . n . A > 2/ ,(9.6) /F1 = (2 .6 m A )-----------1 /0(9.6) = (2 .6 )( 1.88) m A =, 4 .8 8 m A . S in c e th e o u tp u t-tu n e d c ir c u it re s o n a te s at w 0 = l , y L C = 1 0 7 rad/sec an d
h a s Q r = a>0R C = 2 0 , o n ly th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t o f iE c o n tr ib u te s to the o u t p u t ; th e re fo re , if a % 1,
r 0 = ( - 10 V) + (2 ki))(a)(4.88 mA) cos 107r = ( - 10 V) + (9.8 V) cos 10Y In addition, since Ip = / dce9 6/ / 0(9.6), then by interpolating from T able A-2, o r using the relationship / ^ ^ / 2 n x l dc, we obtain
2 .6 mA
lp = ~TnT~ =
A ls o , fro m E q . ( 4 .5 - 1 0 ) a n d by n o tin g th a t x = 9 .6 , we o b ta in a c o n d u c tio n a n g le o f 96. A s a n a lte r n a tiv e a p p r o a c h to o b ta in in g r , we o b s e r v e th a t th e s m a ll-s ig n a l tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e gm is
gm = gin = - J j T
0.1U.
C o n s e q u e n tly , th e la rg e -s ig n a l a v e ra g e tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e (cf. F ig . 4 .5 6) is g iv en by
Gm = ( 0 . l 9 ? ) ( 0 . l ) U = 0 . 0 1 9 7 15. Therefore, the o u tp u t voltage has the value

<'(0 = K c + Gm (2 k Q ) [ ( j V ) c o s 1 0 7i] == ( 10 V ) + (9 .8 V ) c o s 1 0 7f,
which, of course, agrees with the previous evaluation.
114
4 .6
4.6
THE DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC
If tw o tran sisto rs w ith characteristics of the type outlined by Eq. (4.5-1) are co n nected in a differential configuration so th at their total em itter current, I k, is supplied by a co n stan t cu rren t source (norm ally a n o th e r transistor), then a very useful and easily integrable circuit results. T he differentially connected circuit is show n in Fig. 4.6-1. T his circu it h as a distinct nonlinear characteristic th a t should be added to o u r collection o f useful nonlinearities.
Fig. 4.6-1 D ifferential configuration.
T o o b tain an expression for the nonlinear characteristic of the differentially connected circuit, we n o te th a t i = I Sie VBEiqlkT, and
VBE1 ~ VBE2 V1 ~ V 2-
i2 = I S2eVBFiqlkT,
(4.6-1)
T herefore, if / S1 = I S2 (which should be true if b o th tran sisto rs are integrated on the sam e c h ip an d are identical in size an d construction), then i l _ g(vi~V2HlkT h If we now set it + i2 = I k, we o b tain
f Ik
(4.6-2)
1 + ez
an d
! =
h 1+
(4.6-3)
w here z = (vt v2)q/kT. T he norm alized nonlinear characteristics i j l k and i2/ I k vs. z are tab u lated in T ab le 4.6-1 an d plo tted inV ig. 4.6-2.
4.6
Table 4.6-1
z hi
115
Ik
*2/Jfc 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.75 0.90 0.95
+
!>, -
r2
+ + + +
2.94 2.20 1.10 0.405 0.000 -0 .4 0 5 - 1 .1 0 - 2 .2 0 - 2 .9 4
0.95 0.90 0.75 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.25 0.10 0.05
77 mV + 57 mV + 28.6mV + 10.4 mV 0.0 10.4 mV 28.6 mV 57 mV 77 mV
I t is o f in te re s t to n o te th a t b o th i t a n d a v e ra g e v a lu e I J 2 . S p e c ific a lly ,
i2 p o s se s s od d sy m m e try a b o u t th e ir
h hi 1 i2 - = i(z) = -------2
' '
2 \ 1 + e zj
-^ rta n h , 2 2
, *
( 4 .6 - 4 )
fro m w h ich w e o b s e r v e th a t i(z) =
i( z). W ith th e a id o f E q . ( 4 .6 - 4 ) we c a n w rite
i2 in th e a lte r n a tiv e fo rm (4.6-51

a n d , in a s im ila r fa s h io n , we w rite j = 1 + ta n h | j . ( 4 .6 - 6 )
I f th is c ir c u it is o p e ra te d a b o u t its p o in t o f sy m m e try (z = 0), a s it n o rm a lly is, th e n th e d c c o m p o n e n t in e ith e r c u r r e n t re m a in s a t I J 2 fo r a ll s y m m e tric a l d riv in g sig n a ls (u j v2 ). If, in a d d itio n , th e d riv in g sig n a ls a re p e rio d ic , n o e v en h a r m o n ic s a re g e n e ra te d . In p a r tic u la r , if t?x v2 is a s q u a re w av e o f z e ro a v e ra g e v a lu e a n d is a s q u a r e w av e in p h a s e w ith th e in p u t a n d p e a k a m p litu d e F , , th e n
i2 is a s q u a re
Fig. 4 .6 -2
Differential characteristics plotted vs. z = (u, - v2)q/kT.
116
4.6
wave 180 o u t o f phase w ith the input. Both and i2 are sym m etric a b o u t I J 2 and have peak values which can be determ ined directly from T able 4.6-1 o r Fig. 4.6-2. F o r exam ple, if Vx = 57 mV (T = 300 K), then the peak-to-peak value of b o th 11 an d i2 is equal to 0.8/*. F o r sm all values o f z (z 1 o r equivalently |i>! t> 2l < < : 26 mV), we m ay a p p ro x i m ate tanh (z/2) by z/2 to o b tain /fc/ A Sin/ h = t 1 ~ ~ = -r an d
/fc I * .
v - v 2) (4.6-7)
Z\
I k . Sin /
2/ = ^
w here g in = q IJ 2 k T . Since g in is ju st the sm all-signal co n d u ctan ce seen looking in to th e em itter o f tran sisto r 1 or 2 with the base grounded and with an em itter c u rre n t o f I J 2, it is clear th a t Eq. (4.6-7) represents sim ply th e expected sm all-signal transfer for a differential p air o f transistors. In addition, the sm all-signal tra n s conductance
a i 2ac
OKI
- 'la c
V1 ~~ V2 is given by gm =
V1 ~ v2
(4.6-8)
w here a is the ra tio o f collector to em itter current. If now t), v2 = Vt cos cot and we again define x = q V J k T , then ij = y + i where i = y tan h | - cos cot | . A sketch o f i vs.cot, show n in Fig. 4.6-3, indicates how the w aveform varies w ith x. It is q u ite a p p a re n t th a t th e F o u rie r series of i contains no even harm onics; hence i m ay be expanded in the form i = / j cos a>t + I 3 cos 3cot + / 5 cos S o t + /k Z 2. - i W c o s ( 2 n - l)cot, "M (4.6-10) and i2 = y i, (4.6-9)
4 .6
117
Fig. 4.6-3 Sketch o f i vs. cot for several values of x. where j tan h |cos I T he coefficients a(x) d o n o t ap p ear to be expandable in term s of tab u lated functions ; how ever, it is a straightforw ard num erical m atter to determ ine the F o urier co efficients a for the fundam ental and the first several harm onics. T able 4.6-2 presents a(x) = I J I k for n = 1, 3, 5.
Table 4.6-2 T abulation of l j l k vs. x for n 1, 3, 5

X
a,(x)
l,/Ik
a 3(-x ) ^ 3/^k
a 5(x) = I J I k 0.0000

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 10.0
oo
0.0000 0.1231 0.2356 0.3305 0.4058 0.4631 0.5054 0.5586 0.5877 0.6112 0.6257 0.6366
0.0000
-0 .0 0 4 6 -0 .0 1 3 6 -0.0271 -0 .0 4 3 5 -0.0611
--
0.00226 0.0097 0.0355 0.0575 0.0831 + 0.1273
-0 .1 2 1 4 -0.1571 -0 .1 8 2 7 -0 .2 1 2 2
Figure 4.6-4 plots a 1(x), a 3(x), and a 5(x)vs. x and com pares the fundam ental com ponents from the differential ch a ra cteristic. with those of a truncated linear characteristic (Fig. 4 .3 -lb ) th a t has the sam e slope at the p o in t of sym m etry and the sam e asym ptotic values. T he values for x = c o are obtained from Eq. (4.2-2) by noting th a t, for very large drive voltages, the currents and i2 m ust have the
118
4 .6
Fig. 4.6-4 Harmonic content from sinusoidally excited differential characteristic. form o f square waves. In addition, for small values of x we m ay expand \ tanh [(x/2) cos tot] in a M acL au ren expansion of the form k tan h I ^ cos cor ) = d x cos cot cos3 cot 2 2 2 2 24 - cos cot cos 3cOf 2 32/ 96 T hus, for sm all x, a,(x ) % |( x ~ > c3/ l 6) and a 3(x) x x 3/192. Clearly, then, a ^ x ) is a linear function of x, provided th at x 2/16 1. Specifically, if x < 0.63, the n o n linear term in a ^ x ) is less th an 2.5% of the linear term ; th a t is, x 2/16 < 0.025. It is also a p p a re n t th a t for x < 1, a 3(x)/a,(x) < 0.0 2 ; consequently, the lim its on linearity are determ ined n o t by the presence of the th ird-harm onic current com pon en t b u t ra th e r by the presence o f the nonlinear term in a,(x). H ence b ro ad b an d as well as n a rro w b a n d linear am plification is possible for values of 1 1 ', - r 2| < 16 mV. This increase in input drive by a factor of 6.3 over the single-transistor b ro ad b an d
X X 3\
x 3
4 .6
119
am plifier is due prim arily to the sym m etry of the differential characteristic and the resultant absence of even (principally second) harm onics from the output. In tuitively w hat we are d oing is com pensating for the nonlinear input characteristic of a single tran sisto r by using a second tran sisto r as a nonlinear em itter im pedance. W hen a tuned circuit which extracts the fundam ental com ponent of current is placed in the collector of either transistor, it is convenient to again define a largesignal average fundam ental transconductance as a li h , fliM 4a,(x) G- w = v ; = T t J , = 28- ~ = 8- -7 - where gm is the sm all-signal transconductance defined by Eq. (4.6 8). W ith this definition of Gm(x ). if a high Q r tuned circuit with a resistance R L at resonance is placed in the collector of tran sisto r 2, the tuned-circuit voltage vT is given by vr (t) = G^(x)V, R l cos cut. (4.6-11)
A negative sign w ould be required if the tuned circuit were placed in the collector of tran sisto r 1. A p lo t o f 4a ,(x)/x = Gm{x)jgm is given in Fig. 4.6-5. Finally, it should be noted th at the differential characteristic has m any of the sam e properties as the exponential characteristic. F or sm all input signals the differentially connected circuit operates as a linear amplifier, for large input signals.
. Fig. 4 .6 -5 P lo t o f
G m(x )/ g m
= 4 a ,(x )/x vs. x.
i / I k ap p ro ach es a co n stan t a n d the circuit functions as a limiter. In addition, i, an d i2 are directly p ro p o rtio n a l to therefore, linear gain co n tro l o r am plitude m o d u latio n can be achieved by controlling I k. In practice, as we shall see in C h ap ter 5, it tu rn s o u t to be m ore effective to co ntrol I k for the differential p air th an / dc for the single transistor.
120
4 .7
4.7 O T H E R G RA D U A L N O N L IN E A R IT IE S P E N T O D E S
M any p ractical devices have current-source-like o u tp u ts in which the in p u t v o ltageo u tp u t c u rre n t relationship is neither exponential nor square law. In m any cases, this relatio n sh ip takes the form
's s 1
-
v, > K. (4.7-1)
0,
< Vco.
In this eq u atio n I ss is the cu rren t flowing when = 0, while Vco is a cutoff voltage (th a t is, i2 = 0 w hen = Fco). In a pentode, for exam ple, for w hich the plate-to-cathode voltage vB is kept above the knee o f th e vB-iB characteristic, and for w hich the screen-to-cathode voltage vs an d supressor-to-cathode voltage vSP are held constant, the plate cu rren t iB m ay be related to the co n tro l g rid-to-cathode voltage va by the relationship
| 3/2
iH =
l - r^ l
(4.7-2)
Figure 4.7-1 show s a typical set of vG-iB characteristics for a pentode w ith the screen voltage as a p aram eter, along w ith the corresponding vB-iB characteristic. It should
t.V
Fig. 4.7-1 P late current characteristics for a pentode.
be n o ted th a t b o th I ss and Vc0 vary w ith the screen grid voltage. In particular, for the pentode show n, w ith vs 150 V, / ss = 16 mA and Vco = 4.6 V ; with vs = 100 V, I ss = 10 mA an d Vco = 3.2 V ; and with vs = 50 V, I ss = 4 mA and Fco = - 2 .1 V. An eq u atio n such as Eq. (4.7-1) m ay be derived from theoretical considerations a b o u t a device, o r it m ay be m atched w ith the a p p ro p riate choice of n, I s s , and Vco, to a set o f experim entally m easured characteristics. It tu rn s o u t in practice th a t m any field effect tran sisto rs have experim entally evaluated characteristics th at are
4 .7
OTHER GRADUAL NONLINEARITIES PENTODES
121
best m atched by Eq. (4.7-1) w ith values o f n ranging from 1.5 to 2.5. T he large m ajority of them , how ever, require n 2, as we noted previously. If we now apply a voltage o f the form v x(t) = Vb + v(t), w here v ^ t ) > Vco, to a device described by Eq. (4.7-1) or, as a m atter of fact, to any device w hose o u tp u t cu rren t is a sm oothly varying function of its input voltage, then we gain a great deal of insight in to the lim its o f linearity, as well as the n ature of the nonlinearity, by expanding i2 in a T ay lo r series a b o u t the Q-point. Specifically. t> 3 + = a0 + a t v + a2v2 + a 3t> 3 + , where (4.7-3)
T o describe i2 accurately we m ust keep all the terms, in the T aylor serie s; however, in practice, if the v t -i2 characteristic is sm oothly varying, we m ay require only the first three o r four term s to describe the characteristic w ithin a few percent accuracy. Any attem p t a t furth er resolution is usually u n w arran ted because of the lack o f pre cision o f the characteristic itself. (As an alternative to evaluating derivatives at the Q -point we could evaluate a2 an d a3 so th a t the series gave exact results at two other po in ts spaced a b o u t th e Q -point. W ith slowly varying curves the differences between the tw o m ethods is small. Since this second ap p ro a ch involves taking the difference betw een tw o alm ost equal n um bers, it m u st be carried o u t very carefully o r the results may be misleading.) F o r the device described by Eq. (4.7-1), if we define Vb = N V co, where 1 > N > 0, then ay = / ss( 1 - N ) \
. =
co CO
1 -
A 0"_ l ,
(4.7 4)
Clearly, for sm all ac in p u t voltages v, i2 is given by i2 = / ss(l - N )n 'cn CO
- N T ~ 1v.
(4.7-5)
H ence we observe th a t the sm all-signal tran sconductance gm is given by

(4 .7 - 6 )
Since Vco is a negative q uantity, we note th a t gm is actually positive.
122
4 .7
If u(i) = Vj cos cot such th a t t>, = Vb + Vt coscot, then i2 (from Eq. 4.7-3) is given by 1 * 2 = a0 + a i cos cot + a2V j cos2 cot -I- a 3F 3 co s3 cot (4.7-7)
if we assum e the h igher-order term s to be negligible. By using the trigonom etric identities 1 cos2fl cos 6 = - H 2 . 2 , and , . 3 . 1 cosJ 0= - cos 6 + - cos 36, 4 4
we can simplify the expression for i2 into the F o urier series form Jo h /2 f3
a2V / 3 a3K i \ a2V i a 3K? ;2 = a0 -\----I- FWa! H I cos cot H ---- cos 2 cot H cos 3ai. (4.7 8) F ro m Eq. (4.7-8) it is now a p p aren t th a t the relative second-harm onic distortioi is simply
which for sm all values of Vt reduces to I/ia 2/2 a 1. W ith the aid o f E q . (4.7 4) this can be expanded to
Vt a 2 Vi I n
2^ " = W m If n = | and N = j , then for less th an 1 % second-harm onic disto rtio n | Vi/Vco\ < 0.04. W ith VQ O = - 4 V, V, < 160 mV. The large-signal average fundam ental transconductance Gm for such a device is given by 7 i = Oi h 1 ^ + 3V' a Vi 4 a,
V l In -
IU m t\r _
2 fl
Ko
'
8 I/ C 20
e i/2
(N -
1 )2 l
(4.7-9)
T he a 3-term has m ade Gm a function of a signal level. T his leads to d istortion in n arro w b an d amplifiers. T o keep Gm co n stan t w ithin 1%, Vx m ust be restricted so that
4 .8
EFFECT OF SERIES RESISTANCE
123
U s in g th e s a m e v a lu e s sp e c ifie d a b o v e , w e see th a t \ Vx/Vco\ m u s t b e less th a n 0.283
and K, m ust be less th a n 1.13 V. H ere again a m uch larger signal m ay be applied for linear n arro w b an d o p eratio n th an for linear b ro adband operation.
If n o w v(t) = Vx c o s cot + V2 c o s co2t, th e n w ith th e a id o f E q . (4.7 3) a n d se v e ra l
trigonom etric identities we can express Gm in the form

(4.7 10)
Clearly, if the V2-term were m odulated, then a distorted version of this m odu lation w ould ap p e a r on the signal o u tp u t of o u r narrow band filter centered at u> . This effect o f the transference o f m o d u latio n from one carrier to an o th er is know n as cross m odulation. O ne of the advantages of a square-law (or linear) device as a n arro w b an d am plifier is the absence of the cross-m odulation effect. (In a true squarelaw device, a 3 = 0.) T he first am plifier stage of any receiver should always have a low susceptibility to cross m odulation, since it is virtually im possible to have adequate selectivity in front o f it to prevent the appearance o f som e unw anted signals at its input term inals.
4.8 E F F E C T O F S E R IE S R ESISTA N C E O N THF. E X P O N E N T IA L C H A R A C T E R IS T IC
In m any practical cases we find th a t the nonlinearities discussed previously are m odi fied by the inclusion o f a resistor in series with the nonlinear element. T he general effect of such a resistor is to decrease the transconductance o f the com posite device (a larger inp u t voltage is required to produce the sam e level of cu rrent th a t would exist w ithout the resistor) an d to piecew ise-linearize the com posite nonlinear characteristic. T his linearization provides the m eans o f extending the operating range of a linear am plifier at the expense o f its am plification factor. O n the other hand, w hen th e com posite device is driven w ith large signals, the principal effect of the series resistor is the increased drive voltage required to produce the required value of input current.
c -o
w ,
Fig. 4.8-1 A P N P transistor with resistance in series with the emitter.
124
4 .8
Figure 4.8-1 show s a tran sisto r w ith a resistor R in series w ith the em itter. A lthough such a resistor is som etim es ad d ed deliberately, in o th er instances it is inherent in the tra n s is to r; for exam ple, it m ay be the bulk em itter resistance o r the intrinsic base resistance, which becom es a significant factor when the transistor carries a high current. T h u s in m ost pow er am plifiers the tran sisto r m ust be m odeled as in Fig. 4.8-1. If we assum e th a t th e em itter-base ju n c tio n of the tran sisto r is described by the exponential characteristic h = I Eseq,,EBlkT, then we m ay relate v { to \ for the circuit o f Fig. 4.8-1 by the expression
t?i :=
(4.8-1)
i t R -I
W ,
Q
In .
ES
(4.8-2)
F o r sm all-signal o p eratio n the increm ental in put resistance for the circuit takes the form (4.8-3) w here r in = l/g in = k T /q l Ac a n d I dc is th e dc value o f i , . C onsequently, on a smallsignal basis we see th at the transconductance g'm given by
decreases by a factor of 1 + ginR w ith increasing R. Specifically, if agin w 0.04 U, as it w ould for / dc = 1 mA, then a series resistor o f only 10 Q decreases g^ to 72% o f its R = 0 value, while a series resistor of 100 2 decreases g'm to 20 % o f its R = 0 value. In the lim it as ginR becom es large com pared with unity, gm becom es equal to a/R an d is in dependent of the change in bias cu rrent of the transistor. T o observe th e piecew ise-linearization effect o f the series resistor on the vx characteristic, we first rearrange Eq. (4.8-2) in the form (4.8-5) q where / dc is the quiescent value o f i and ^dc
is the quiescent value of
when ij = / dc. W e then norm alize vt V0 to

Ko
^ d c ( r in
+ R) =
~ ( 1
in ^ )
4.8 and i , to / dc to obtain
E F F E C T O F SERIES R E SIST A N C E
125
"i ~ V = I I 1 ' + Ko \ l + g inR j l ic 1 + g inR '
,a V'
T he voltage VQ O m ay be in terp reted as the decrease in v v from V0 w hich w ould be required to reduce i, to zero (i.e., to cut off the transistor) if the slope of the v 1 i, characteristic rem ained co n stan t at its sm all-signal value of 1/(rin + R).
Fig. 4.8 -2 P lo t of i j l dc vs. v, Ko/Vco with g inR as a param eter.
F inally we p lo t i j l dc vs. (t;, - K0)/Fco with g inR as a param eter, as show n in Fig. 4.8-2. W e n o te from th e figure th a t as g inR is increased from zero to infinity, the characteristic varies uniform ly from the exponential (ginR = 0) characteristic to the tw o-segm ent piecew ise-linear characteristic (ginR = oo). In addition, the ginR = 1 characteristic corresp o n d s essentially to the half-way p o in t between the tw o extremes. T h u s for g lnR 1 the circuit o f Fig. 4.8-1 can be m odeled by the transistor
126
4.8
characteristic alone, w hile for g inR 1 the circuit can be m odeled by the g inR = oc characteristic, o r equivalently,
' vt ~ Vo
K
^ ,
i > 0,
(4 .8 -7 )
^ n
0,
t>i < 0.
It is ap p aren t th a t Eq. (4.8-7) describes the circuit o f Fig. 4.8-3. T his circuit thus provides the m odel for the circuit of Fig. 4.8-1 when ginR 1.
R
-*AAA-
Ideal
Fig. 4.8 -3 M odel for the circuit of Fig. 4.8-1 with g,R -* oo.
W e also observe from Fig. 4.8-2 that, as g R is increased from zero, larger linear excursions in /, ab o u t I dc are possible w ithout gross distortion. In particular, for g,R -* oo, the linear range extends all the way to cutoff ( ii//dc = 0). If the circuit of Fig. 4.8-1 is to be used as a large-signal narro w b an d amplifier, the analysis becom es quite difficult for an arb itrary value o f giaR. F ortunately, an analysis is possible for ginR = 0 (which was accom plished in Section 4.5) and for ginR = oo. In additio n , the results of the tw o analyses are sufficiently close to each other th a t solutions for any value o f ginR may be closely approxim ated. F o r the case w here ginR = oo, we m odel the transistor-series resistor com bina tion as show n in Fig. 4.8-4. The cu rrent source / dc fixes the average value of the C oo R
Fig. 4.8 -4 M odel for large-signal narrowband transistor amplifier with g,R -> oo.
4 .8
EFFECT OF SERIES RESISTANCE
127
em itter current, while the infinite coupling capacitor ensures that the entire ac voltage reaches the input term inals. (The current source could be placed on the other side o f the resistor w ithout affecting the results.) C onsequently, for this circuit we observe that, for Vi < h c R VQ O , V, h = 't = / dc + co sw f = / dc + / , cosw r
= ^dcjl + -^coscorj,
(4.8 8)
where / , = R, o r equivalently, I t/ / dc = Por ([ > K co the em itter current takes the form of a periodic train of sine-wave tip pulses, and thus may be w ritten as h. = h + h cos i0t + 12 cos 2tot + /dd 1 + v* cos a)t + ~r cos 2 cot + | ,
0 0
(4.8 9)
where (from the appendix to this chapter) K, Vx sin (f> < () cos (j> nR h = 1 cos $
V\ Vx ( > - cos 0 sin (p nR 1 cos 4 > ^
HVi Vx) cos < />sin n nR < /> = c o s ~ l - , n(n 2 - I )( 1 - cos 0) Vx = - V c - V 0,
and Vc is the developed dc cap acito r voltage. By noting that

V, Vx = Vt ( l c o s </>) and /0 = /d
we can relate VX IVC 0 directly to - < j) cos (p ' In addition, i j / I 0 can be related to n sin < j>cos n</>) n(n2 l) ( s in $ <pco$4>)
n > 2.
(4.8-10)
< j) - sin < f>cos < /> sin < p< (>cos 4 >'
(4.8-11)
(4.8-12)
128
4 .8
C onsequently, for any value o f < p, a value of V J V C0 and I J l ic m ay be determ ined from which a unique relationship betw een V J V Q 0 and / //dc can be established. T able 4.8-1 contains values of i / I 0 = / i / / dc vs- V JV m which are plotted in Fig. 4.8-5 w ith the designation ginR = oo. O n the sam e set of coordinates is plotted the ginR = 0 curve, which, o f course, is ju st the to p curve of F ig 4.5-5, since with R = 0.
Fig.4.8-5 P lo t o f / ,/ 7 dc vs. VJVa . I i / I o = 2 / 1(x )//0(x) an d V J V Q O = x. W e observe th at the tw o lim iting curves are alm ost id e n tic a l; hence the ratio o f / , / / 0 for any value of ginR can be closely estim ated from F ig 4 .8 -5 .f F o r exam ple, if ginR = 1 and V J V ^ = 10, it is reasonable to approxim ate I J I 0 as 1.95, which is half-way betw een the ginR = 0 and the ginR = oc curves. If, in addition', I ic = 2 mA, then / , = 3.7 mA, from w hich the o u tp u t voltage m ay be w ritten as Vcc + I t R L cos cot for the case where Z L is a high-Q tuned circuit w hich is reso n an t a t a> w ith a sh unt resistance o f R L. F o r the case w here the circuit o f F ig 4.8-1 is driven by a sinusoidal voltage of am plitude Vt an d followed by a tuned circuit resonant a t the frequency of the input
t It is n o t unreasonable for the I t/I dc vs. VJVco curves to form a tight set with g R as a param eter, since all the curves have the sam e asym ptotes for b o th small an d large values o f Clearly, for VJVco 1, /j/Z jc = Vi/Vce- Therefore, regardless o f the value o f g inR, the curves ap p ro ach the origin in a n identical fashion. In addition, for large values o f VJVco, if the average cu rren t is to rem ain constant a t / dc, the tran sisto r m ust rem ain cut off for m ost o f the cycle. C onsequently, the cu rren t flows in narrow pulses and / i / / dc -> 2. Again, all the curves app ro ach infinity in the same fashion.
4 .8
EFFECT OF SERIES RESISTANCE Table 4.8-1 < t> 1 oo 1 J I 0 = V 'd c 1.88 1.80 1.65 1.49 1.32 1.17 1.05 1 yjKo 28.8 9.17 4.23 2.44 1.64 1.25 1.06 1
129
60 80 100 120 140 160 00 o0
sinusoid, it is again convenient to define a large-signal average fundam ental transconductance as

n ^ l/ ^ d c
^ d c
^ l/ ^ d c
iA o
i-y\
where g' is the sm all-signal transconductance evaluated at the Q-point. Clearly, values for ^
gm
V JV m
(4-8-14)
vs. Vi/VK 0 m ay be determ ined directly from Fig. 4.8-5.
Fig. 4.8 -6 Plot of G J g m VS. VJV.
1 30
4 .8
A p lo t o f G J g m vs. V JV Q a for g inR = 0 an d g inR = go is show n in Fig. 4.8-6. H ere again we see th a t the curves are sufficiently close to perm it an accurate estim ate of GJg'm for any value of g inR. It is now quite ap p aren t th at the ratio of I , / I 0 is determ ined prim arily by the ratio o f V J V m and is alm ost independent of g,nR. However, the value of kT
K :o =
^ d c (r in +
R )
-------( 1
g in R )
increases with ginR. C onsequently, as ginR is increased, the drive voltage m ust be increased by a factor of 1 -I- g jnR to m aintain the same fundam ental o u tp u t current. Exam ple 4.8-1 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 4.8-7 determ ine an expression for
Solution. Since th e tu n ed circuit in the collector has QT = 20 an d is tuned to co = 107 rad/sec, we n ote th a t t> 0(f) = 10 V + a(2 k ii) /, cos 107f, w here is the fundam ental com ponent of the em itter current. We o b tain / , by first noting that, w ith an average em itter cu rren t o f 2.6 mA, gin = 1/(10 i) and there fore ginR = 1. In additio n , K co = [kT/q)( 2) = 52 mV and thus Vy/V^ 2.5. C onse quently, from Fig. 4.8-5 we estim ate / i / / dc % 1.5; thus / , = 3.9 mA and
MO
= (-10V)
(7 .8 V )
cos
1 0 7r.
4.9
CLAMP-BIASED SQUARE-LAW DEVICE
131
4.9 CLAM P-BIASED SQUARE-LAW DEVICE
In m any large-signal ju n ctio n F E T circuits the bias is established by clam ping the positive peaks o f the gate to source voltage to zero (or the turn-on voltage of the gate to sou rce diode). In particu lar, m ost FE T s em ployed in self-limiting oscillators are biased in this fa sh io n ; hence we shall analyze the large-signal characteristics for this type of circuit in this section. W e begin o u r analysis with the clam p-biased square-law am plifier m odel shown in Fig. 4.9-1, which is a close first-order approxim ation to the actual ju nction F E T am plifiers show n in Fig. 4.9-2. C learly, in this m odel, if the R aC G tim e constant is
Co
H fK
v,(r)
K, cos woi
0
(Ideal)
Q>
. 2
V (f)
io= /ns0 o.
jS^) Ifc s> V %<H
Fig. 4.9-1 Large-signal clamp-biased square-law tuned amplifier.
Fig. 4.9 -2 Clamp-biased junction FET circuits.
132
4 .9
m uch g reater th a n T = 2n/co, the cap acito r voltage charges to th e peak value o f v t(t) th ro u g h the d io d e an d rem ains co n stan t at th a t v a lu e ; hence Vdc = K and vGs = ^ ( c o s aj0t - 1). (4.9-2) (4.9-1)
T h u s we observe th a t th e in p u t voltage vGS has its peaks clam ped to zero. C onse quently iD (f) has th e form show n in F ig 4.4-3, w ith I p = / DSS, Vx = Vt + Vp, and V J V X = 1 + V J V X. T herefore, w ith the aid of Eq. (4.4-10) (for Vx/ V l < - 1 or V\ < Vp/2) an d Fig. 4.4-5 (for 1 < V J V i < 1 o r F, > V ^ 2 ) we can plot / 0//p, l j l p, an d I 2/ I p vs. V J V p as show n in Fig. 4.9-3, where I 0, h , an d I 2 are the average, the fundam ental, an d the second-harm onic com ponents of in respectively.
H Fig. 4.9-3 Plot of I J I pvs. VJVf for a peak-clamped sine-wave drive to a half-square-law amplifier (n = 0, 1, 2). If Z L is a high-Q r parallel R L C circuit tu n ed to the fundam ental o f iD (t) w ith a resistance R L, the o u tp u t voltage v j t ) is given by
v 0( t ) V p o R l I
d s s j
- cos V ,
( 4 .9 - 3 )
*p
4 .9
CLAMP-BIASED SQUARE-LAW DEVICE
133
w here I J 1 Pcan be determ ined from Fig. 4.9-3 once - VJVP is specified. F o r exam ple. i f / DSS = 4 m A , Vp = 4 V, Vt = 2 V, VDD = 1 0 V ,a n d /? L = 2 kfi, then - V JV p = \ and in tu rn / j / / p = / i / / DSS = 0.5; hence
vo(0 = (1 0 V ) (4 V ) cos cot.
In this exam ple th e m inim um value of vB = vDS is 6 V ; since this is greater th an Vp, we can be sure th a t the F E T rem ains w ithin its saturation region, for which the square-law m odel of Fig. 4.9-1 is valid. (In general, an F E T rem ains w ithin its satu ratio n region if vDG > Vp, o r equivalently, vDS vG S > Vp for all time.)
zh V p
Fig. 4 .9 -4 P lo t of =
SmO
III
\i p)
for a peak-clam ped sine-wave drive to a half-squkre-law
amplifier.
134
4 .9
F o r the clam p-biased m odel o f Fig. 4.9-1 we m ay also define a large-signal average fundam ental tran sco n d u ctan ce G = = a g 0 ^ (4 9_4)
w here gm0 = 2 IDSS/ - Vp is th e sm all-signal transconductance evaluated a t vGS = 0 (cf. Eq. 4.4 8). A plot of IJ1 P 2 ( - Kj/Kp)
gmO
vs. V JV P o btained directly from Fig. 4.9-3 is show n in Fig. 4.9-4. W ith Gm obtained from Fig. 4.9-4, v0(t) may be w ritten in the equivalent form v = Vdd ~ GmR LVy cos (o0t. (4.9-5)
T he effect of a 0.7 V diode tu rn -o n voltage can be included in the previous results by defining the d ra in curren t at this turn-on voltage as / ss and substituting a p p ro priately.
Effect of Drain Resistance

In the analysis to this point, we have assum ed th a t iD is a half-square-law function of vGS an d is independent of v0 = vDS. T his assum ption is justified only if R L is small com pared w ith the effective o u tp u t resistance of the square-law device. If R l is n o t small, a m ore exact m odel for iD m ust be employed.
Fig. 4.9 -5 Typical set o f FE T d rain characteristics.
Figure 4.9-5 illustrates a typical set of drain characteristics for an Af-channel ju n ctio n F E T which clearly indicates th at no characteristic for constant vGS is horizontal (a condition which w ould have to be satisfied for iD to be independent of vDS). O n the contrary, each constant-i;Cs characteristic has a slope which, when extrapolated, causes all o f the constant-yGS characteristics to m eet a t a com m on
4 .9
C L A M P -B IA S E D S Q U A R E -L A W D E V IC E
135
point Va on the negative i /)s avis I hus. i! lor i ,;s -< D = / DSS| l
Vp, (4.9-6)
V o s > V p,
then for any o th er value of vD S we o b tain from the geom etry of Fig. 4.9- 5
, 4
7 )
where 1/r0 is the slope of the t;GS = 0 characteristic. E quation (4.9-7) includes the effect of v DS on iD. If we now em ploy the expression for iD given by Eq. (4.9 7) in the m odel of Fig. 4.9-1, in which Z L is a high-Q r parallel R L C circuit tuned to the fundam ental frequency of iD an d having a resistance R L , we obtain Vd d + V p D ^DSS I +
r OI D S S r 0> DSS
I DlR L cosa>0t
x I -|- cos u> 0t + y cos 2 w 0t + I ,

\ p p p I
(4.9-8)
where l 0/ I p,I J I p,an d / 2/ / p are the coefficients presented in Fig. 4.9-3, and I m is the am plitude of the fundam ental com ponent of iD. The fundam ental com ponent of iD can also be o b tain ed from Eq. (4.9-8) in the form
Vp p + I'pj 1 1 _ /D. = 'dss 1 + ,----- 71 r o I DSS I Ip
IDI^lU o
ro \I p
\-r +
/_2_
2 /p
< 49 9>
H ence Eq. (4.9 9) m ay be solved for I Di to obtain / 11 + Vdd +. Vp\ ! i * DSS I 1 +

/ D1 = -------'
1 +
R l [ r lDSS. ! /p
* * i + h
(4 .9 -1 0 )
r0 \ l P h
2/
I
where
_________ e ______
L.
R jlo , h 1 + 1^ +
ro\Ip
Up]
VDD + Vp
I DSS = I D SS I 1 + r olDSS
is t h e v a l u e o f
iD o b t a i n e d
w ith
rGS
0 and
rDS = VD D
136
4 .9
Vx cos utt
Fig. 4.9-6 Plot of l Di/ID Ss vs- K/VP with Figure 4.9-6 includes a plot of h In r0 \ I P
as a parameter.
2l p
for values of R J r 0 of 1, j , an d 0. T he curve for R J r 0 = 0 corresponds to the / 1 (/ / p curve o f Fig. 4.9-3. As an exam ple of using the curves of Fig. 4.9-6, we consider the circuit show n in Fig. 4.9-7. W e observe for this circuit th at rB!a = (2 m A )| I + i ^ J hence from Fig. 4.9-6 we o b tain I D1 = (2.8)(0.41)mA = 1.15 mA. In addition, since th e reso n an t frequency o f the d ra in circuit is 107 rad/sec and the circuit Q t = 10, v0 = (20 V) - (11.5 V) cos 107f. Since v(t) > Vp, th e F E T rem ains w ithin its satu ratio n region an d th e assum ed F E T m odel is valid. 2.8 mA, ^ - I and - i;
PROBLEMS 20 V
137
PROBLEMS
4.1 A ssum e th a t v,{t) = 3 V sin a>0t in Fig. 4 .P -1. D eterm ine the dc, fundam ental, an d secondharm onic com ponents o f i2(l) for values of Vic o f 0, 2 V, and 4 V. Sketch the o u tp u t waveshape for each case. Ideal diode
4.2 Assume th a t the diodes in Fig. 4 .P -2 are ideal. F ind the dc, fundam ental, second-harm onic, and third-harm onic com ponents o f i2 k(1(r) in this circuit. 4.3 H ow w ould the results o f P roblem 4.2 be changed if the m agnitude of the battery in the lower branch were increased to 3 V? 4.4 Assuming th at the diodes in Fig. 4 .P -3 are ideal, sketch the w aveshape of v(t) and calculate its third-harm onic com ponent.
138
1V
Figure 4.P-2 1 k ii
4.5 Assuming ideal diodes in Fig. 4.P 4 , sketch va(t) and determ ine the dc, fundam ental, secondharm onic, and third-harm onic com ponents.
(l^)cos o v
Figure 4 .P -4
PROBLEMS
139
4.6 Assume a device with the characteristic show n in Fig. 4.P 5. F o r this device,
f ("i - vn ) 2^1 0,
ii > ^-h.
v ,< K Th,
where Vlh = + 2 V and [i = 4 0 0 /xA/V2. E valuate the large-signal average transconductance for this device for the case where i = Vic + Vy cos tot while and K.c > 2 V
y, < IK. - VJ4.7 A ssum ing th at Vic = 0 and V, = 3 cos cot, find the dc, fundam ental, second-harm onic, and third-harm onic com ponents of i2 in the device o f Problem 4.6. 4.8 Sketch the o u tp u t cu rren t w aveshape for a device with an exponential current-voltage relationship i2 = 1 x i o - V l/0 026A when = 0.520 V cos cot. Specify the co nduction angle. F ind the dc, fundam ental, second-harm onic, and thirdharm onic com ponents of this current. W hat is the large-signal average transconductance for this device w ith this driving w aveshape? 4.9 In the circuit of Fig. 4 .P -6, the diode conducts the sam e current as the em itter of the tra n sistor when vB E = t> diod(.. If / dc = 2 mA, Vcc = + 6 V, and Z L is a 2.7 k ii resistor, how large can Vx be before there is 2 % disto rtio n in the o u tp u t voltage v(t)? If Z L is replaced by a parallel tuned circuit resonant at a>0 and w ith a resistive term o f 2.7 k ii, how large can Vt be before there is a 2 % d ep artu re in linearity between the peak am plitudes of input and o u t put ac voltages? (Hint: N ote the sim ilarity o f this circuit to the differential pair of tra n sistors.) 4.10 In the circuit o f Fig. 4 .P -6, assum e th at a 5 0 f i resistor is placed both in series with the diode and directly in series with the em itter. P lo t a curve of collector current vs. baseground voltage over the range 1.95 > ic > 0.05 mA. C om pare this curve with the a p p ro priate d a ta from Fig. 4.6-2 and explain the significance o f the resistors in extending the signal-handling capacity of the amplifier. W hat are the sm all-signal voltage gains (R, = 2.7 kii) for the tw o different cases (R E = 50 fl and R E = 0)? State and explain assumptions. 4.11 D eterm ine the o utput-tuned circuit voltage in Fig. 4.P-7. The tuned circuit is resonant at oj0 and has Qr 20.
140
ZL
+
y I COSOJ 0 l
Figure 4 .P -6
son
. ac short circuit
Figure 4 .P -7 4.12 The F E T in Fig. 4 .P -8 is silicon and has an 1DSS m agnitude of 6 mA and a Vp m agnitude of 4 V. W hat value o f K, will m ake the o u tp u t dc current equal to 1.8 mA? W hat value o f ac voltage will result in this case? W hat is the circu its voltage g ain ? H ow m uch pow er is being dissipated in the F E T durin g this operatiori? T he tuned circuit is resonant at 107 rps. 4.13 a) F o r the circuit o f Fig. 4 .P -9, determ ine an expression for v(t) assum ing a high value of
Qt
b) D eterm ine the m inim um value of Q r w hich keeps the total harm onic d istortion below 1 %.
PROBLEMS
141
f
+
(lOV)cos 10
........................
<
(
+
"
^/(Vl) 1 5kn - =;c
>
1
"V
ao=107 rad/sec
4.14 F o r each of the circuits in Fig. 4.P-10, determ ine an d sketch v(t) an d i^t). In each case v,{t) = (260 mV) cos 107i. 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 F o r the circuit show n in Fig.4.P -11, determ ine v(t) where L = 5 /xH, C = 2000 pF, and v ,(t) = (5 V) cos 107f. R epeat R epeat P roblem 4.15 for L = 3.3 /jH an d C = 330 pF. P ro b lem 4.15 with D , rem oved and with L = 10 and C = 1000 pF.
a) F o r the circuit of Fig.4.P-12, determ ine the sm all-signal voltage am plification A v = v j v t. b) M ake a plot o f v vs. vt as i> , varies from 8 V to + 8 V. W hat is the effect o f the em itter resistors?
142
PROBLEMS
143
9+
Ideal diodes Figure 4.P-11
Figure 4 .P -1 2
FO URIER EX PAN SIO N S
The general a p p ro ach to finding the average value or any harm onic com ponent o f a repetitive pulse train of period T = I n / w is to m ake a F o u rier series expansion of it. In m aking such expansions, we choose the tim e origin so as to m inim ize term s and m ake use of various trigo n o m etric identities to consolidate term s. The final form o f the series is q u ite dependent on the variables chosen to express the w aveshape an d on the p articu lar identities used to simplify the expression. M ost of the p eriodic w aveform s f ( t ) th at we are interested in result from passing a dc-plus-cosine wave th ro u gh a no n lin ear nonm em ory (no energy storage) device ; hence th e o u tp u t w aveform s possess sym m etry a b o u t the t = 0 axis a n d th u s m ay be expanded in a F o u rie r cosine series o f the form
00
f ( t ) = a0 + a , cos cot + a2 cos 2 cot + = a0 + Y, a cos na)t where (4. A 1)
and (4.A-2) It is usually convenient to change the independent variable from tim e to an angle in rad ian s by defining 6 = cot and then, since the w aveshapes are sym m etric a b o u t 6 = 0, to m ultiply by tw o a n d integrate from 0 to n. As functions of 6, a0 an d oBtake th e form s
FOURIER EXPANSIONS
145
Slope G
Fig. 4. A - l T rain of sine-wave tip current pulses.
L inear Sine-W ave Tips F o r the train of sine-wave tip current pulses show n in Fig. 4.A-1 we observe th at i2 = 0 for |0| >\<j)\ (in the interval n < 6 < n), where , i2(t) has the value i2(t) = G(Vl cosc ot Fx); therefore, /, = -(*
n J o
(4.A-5)
G(Ft cos 0 - F J cos 0 d6 F js in 2 < t>
2Gl V1(f>
Vx sin 4 >
(4.A-6)
By noting th at G = I p/( 1 cos < f> ) and G Vx = I p cos < /> /( 1 cos < p) and em ploying the identity sin 2< /> = 2 sin </>cos 0 , we can further simplify the expression for to obtain Ip sin (f> 1 n 1 cos (/> (4.A-7)
146
FOURIER EXPANSIONS
In a sim ilar fashion, we obtain l p sin (p n sin 0 cos n 2. (4.A-9) 1 cos < />
(4.A-8)
N orm alized plots o f I J l p vs. conduction angle (2< f> ) are given in F ig 4.2-3 for values of n from zero to five. N egative values of the coefficients in the plot are indicated by a m inus sign after the designation of the p articular curve; th at is n = 4 implies that the fourth h arm onic is negative. F o r small values of < f>we can approxim ate
to obtain
and (4.A-10) F ro m Eq. (4.A-10) it is a p p a re n t th a t the ratio of / to / 0 approaches 2 as < j>approaches zero. T his, o f course, is a p ro p erty possessed by any narrow pulse train. F o r a pulse as wide as 90, however, /[//<, = 1.88 and l 2/ I 0 1.56; even for a 120 pulse, / j/Zq is 1.80, which is w ithin 10% of the very narrow pulse ratio value of 2. Square-Law Sine-W ave Tips F o r the train of square-law sine-wave tip cu rren t pulses show n in Fig. 4.A-2, we observe th a t i2 = 0 for |0|>|</>| (in the interval n < 9 < n ) , where, as in the previous case, < /> = c o s - 1 (VJVi). In addition, for |0| < |</>|, i'2(f) is given by h(t) = coscof - Vx)2, (4.A-11)
*P n
or equivalently, (4. A - 12)
FOURIER EXPANSIONS
147
where
l I D S S ( V, - K,) 2
P~ \ v P 2 is the peak value o f i2 an d cos (j) = / , of i2(f) is given by . C onsequently, the fundam ental com ponent
21 )2 cos 0 dd 2/ , C* r (cos 0 cos 4> (1 cos (f> )2 n Jo 2/ p I sin (f> + Y2 sin 3</>-</> cos (j> (1 cos (j))2 In a sim ilar fashion, we obtain < j) ^ sin 2< /> + y cos 20
(1 COS ( j) ) 2
(4. A 13)
- i sin 2 0 + sin 40 21 4 6 48 r 7 1 (1 COS 0) and 2 /p (4 - n 2) sin n < f> + (n 1)(n 2) sin n< j) cos 2 0 + 3n sin {n - 2)< j> n (n2 l)(n 2 4)(1 cos 0 )2
(4. A 14)
148
F O U R IE R E X P A N S IO N S
N orm alized plots o f I J l p vs. cond u ctio n angle (20) are given in Fig. 4.4-4 for n = 0 , 1, an d 2. F o r sm all values of < f> , we o b tain the lim iting form s o f the F o u rier coefficients given by / 8 < b n 15 and 2In 8 7i 15 (4.A-15)
H ere, as in th e case o f the linear sine-wave tip, the sine and cosine term s are ap p ro x i m ated by the first several term s in their M acL auren expansions. A gain we observe th at, for sm all values o f < j> (i.e., a sm all conduction angle), the ra tio of / to I 0 ap proaches 2. In additio n , we observe that, w hen the conduction angle (2 < j> ) is as wide as 150, l x/ l 0 = 1.83 ; hence for all narro w er pulses l i / l 0 ~ 2 is a good ap p ro x im ation.
CHAPTER 5
REACTIVE E L E M E N T A N D N O N L IN E A R E L E M E N T C O M B IN A T IO N S
In this chap ter we study the effect of com bining nonlinear com ponents with single reactances and w ith tuned circuits. We begin w ith the problem of capacitively coupling a periodic voltage to a general nonlinear load, and show th at such coupling norm ally results in a dc bias shift which is a function of the ac input signal am plitude. Such an interrelatio n sh ip rules out the use of superposition in such circuits. We consider b o th steady-state and transient operations of such circuits. W e then apply the solution of this general problem to the capacitively coupled tran sisto r am plifier, w here again we investigate b o th steady-state op eratio n and transient operations. In addition, we obtain results not only for the transistor am plifier w ith a co n stan t curren t bias but also for the resistively biased transistor amplifier. In both cases we o btain universal curves which m ay be applied to any transistor. W e then study the effect o f nonlinear loading on a tuned circuit. W e show that, if the circuit Q is sufficiently high, then the nonlinear load functions as an equivalent linear load which can be readily determ ined graphically. Finally we consider the case where low-index AM signals are applied to a clam ping -type circuit, and write a transfer function which is useful in later chapters. F o r the reader who has not previously been exposed to this or sim ilar m aterial we recom m end th a t he not try to absorb this ch ap ter com pletely before proceeding to .the subsequent chapters. Specifically, if he restricts him self to the steady-state phenom ena of this ch ap ter as well as the m aterial in Section 5.5, he will be prepared to u n derstand m ost of the m aterial of the rem aining chapters. He should then return to the tran sien t p o rtio n of this chapter when the need arises. 5.1 CAPACITIVE COUPLING TO NONLINEAR LOAD In m any applications we m ust capacitively couple an ac driving source to a nonlinear load as show n in Fig. 5.1-1. Such coupling is usually r'equired to block any dc com ponent of the driving source from the load. This situation arises if v^t) represents the o\itp u t of one stage of a large-signal am plifier while the nonlinear load represents the in p u t to the subsequent stage. T he basic difficulty in analyzing the apparently simple circuit of Fig. 5.1-1 is th at, because of the n o n lin ear load, superposition is no longer valid. T hus the timevarying and dc com p o n en ts of the currents and voltages w ithin the circuit are in general related. T his interrelationship m akes a general closed-form solution for
149
150
R E A C T IV E A N D N O N L IN E A R E L E M E N T C O M B IN A T IO N S
5 .1
vo(t\ M O , an d (f) in term s of vt(t) practically im possible. H owever, if we assum e th at v (f) is periodic and th at the series coupling capacitor C is an effective short circuit com pared w ith the n o n lin ear load over the frequency range occupied by t,(i) [that is, th a t vc(t ) contains only a dc com ponent Vc , or at w orst a slowly varying com ponent com pared w ith f,(t)], then in principle we m ay determ ine the steady-state expressions for u0 .(i), vc(t), and ;0(r). In addition, in m ost cases, we are able to calculate the transient build-up to steady state if v^t) is applied at t = 0. F ortunately, in m ost cases of prac tical interest, the above assum ptions are valid. In the tim e d o m ain th e assum ption th a t the capacitor is an effective short circuit corresponds to the assum ption th at the circuit time co nstants are such that the capacitor voltage rem ains essentially constant over a cycle of v^t). C onsequently, if Vj(t) is applied at f = 0, the capacitor voltage slowly adjusts itself to its steady-state value vc = Vc = - Vdc, an d in tu rn v0(t) approaches vt{t) + Vdc. Since in the steady state the average value of the capacitor current m ust equal zero, and since the capacitor current and n onlinear load current are equal, vc = - Kc m ay be found as th at value w hich causes the average value of the load current to equal zero.
Piecewise-Linear v-i Characteristic

If the vB -i characteristic is piecew ise-linear in form, we can determ ine Vc = Vdc by the following m ethod. W e assum e a value of Vc , apply t)0(t) = u;(t) Vc to the nonlinear characteristic, and with the techniques of C h apter 4 determ ine i0(t ) and the average value of i0(t), th at is, i0 = l c . We then repeat this procedure until we obtain enough values to plot a sm ooth curve of Vc vs. I c . T he point at which the curve intersects the I c = 0 axis determ ines the steady-state value of Vc = Vic , from which the steady-state values o f v(t) an d i0(t) follow directly. As an exam ple o f this m ethod, consider the nonlinear characteristic to be described by the piecew ise-linear curve of Fig. 5.1-2 and t ,(i) = (3 V) cos wt. Figure 5.1 2 also indicates tw o ad d itional characteristics which com bine in parallel to yield the original characteristic. [This superposition o f characteristics is perform ed only to focus atten tio n on the stru cture of 0(r).] If we now assum e th a t the capacitor C is an ac short at a> and th at its voltage is given by Ff , then
v (t) = 3 V c o s c o t Vc
5.1
and
CAPACITIVE COUPLING TO NONLINEAR LOAD
15 1
'(f) = 'ol(f) + 'o2(0 , where 01(0 = i(t) ~ (2 V) 2 k il
and i2(f) is a periodic train of sine-wave tip pulses of peak am plitude Ip = and conduction angle 2(f> = 2 cos , vc + (2 V) 3 V (3 V) - (2 V) - Vc 2 kn
The average cap acito r current l c is given by Ic

\\ h e re .
^ o
^01
ô2
Vc - 2 V
2 k fi
and io2 is the average value of the train of sine-wave tips, which can be determ ined directly from Fig. 4.2^1 once a value of Vc is assum ed (Vx = Vc + 2 V). Table 5.1-1 tabulates values for io1, io2, and I c for several values of Vc . These d a ta are also plotted in Fig. 5.1 3, from w hich it can be observed th a t I c = 0 for Vc = - 1.33 V. C onsequently, in the steady state Vr = - 1 .3 3 V and vQ (t) = - ( 3 V) cos coi + (1.33 V).
NL , - (3V) cos oil Fig. 5.1 -2
I1 "' H
Nonlinear characteristic for the circuit,of Fig. 5.1-1.
152
5.1
Table 5.1-1 T abulation o f
, io2, and Ic vs. Vc
K>V -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
i i,m A
}o2, mA 1.5 1.09 0.76 0.48 0.26 0.09 0 0
lC
'1 +
.2 - m A
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0 .5 -1 -1 .5 -2
3 2.09 1.26 0.48 -0.24 -0.91 -1 .5 -2
Actually, one should see by inspection th at only two points need to be com puted to solve such a problem . Since the right-hand b ranch in Fig. 5.1-2 contains an ideal diode, i02 m ust be positive; hence for iol (in a branch with only a resistance and a battery) to ju s t balance it, the cu rrent in the left-hand branch m ust be negative. Therefore, Vc m ust be greater th an 2 V to m ake i0l negative. O n the o th e r hand, if Vc exceeds zero, th en io2 will be zero, so th a t tw o reasonable initial choices for Vc are 2 V and 1 V. Since I 0 is a relatively slowly varying function o f voltage in the region o f interest, straight-line ap p roxim ations for both currents will be re a so n a b le ; hence, a simple in terp o latio n is possible to o b tain Vc 1.33 V. T his problem focuses atten tio n on the clam ping phenom enon which occurs in capacitively coupled n o n lin ear circuits. The term clam ping refers to the shift in the average value o f th e load voltage v0 w ith drive level. W ith v,{t) = 0, in the steady state v0 = 2 V ; hence, as the am plitude of vt increases from 0 to 3 V, the average value
5.1
C A P A C IT IV E C O U P L IN G T O N O N L IN E A R L O A D
153
of v(t) shifts from 2 V to 1.33 V. A further increase in the level of r,(f) causes the average value of v0(t) to decrease still further. W e thus see dram atically th a t in such a nonlinear circuit the to tal o u tp u t voltage cannot be obtained by the superposition of independent ac an d dc com ponents, as it can be in a linear circuit.
Analytic v0-i0 Characteristic

If the v0-i0 characteristic is described by an analytic relationship, it is possible th at Fc , va{t), and i(f) m ay be o b tained w ithout resorting to a graphical analysis. F o r exam ple, consider the circuit show n in Fig. 5.1-4, for which i0(t) = Ise qvlkT - I dc. (5.1-1)
F o r this case, if we assum e th at u,(f) = F, cos a>t and th at C is a short circuit at the frequency co such th a t vc(t) = VC = - V dQ, then i(t) = I seqVdkTe 3ccos ' - / dc, where, as usual, x = qV^/kT. In addition, I = Ic = I seqVclkTIo(x ) - / dc, (5.1-3) (5.1-2)
where I 0(x ) is the m odified Bessel function of order zero. Hence, in steady state, where Ic = 0, we have k T , / dc kT, , , VAc= - V c = \ n - p -------- l n / 0(x) q h q kT = KicQ - In I 0(x) = VdcQ AV, (5.1-4)
w here is the value o f w ith Vx (or x) equal to zero and A F is the bias depression (or th e v ariatio n in clam ping voltage) induced by the driving voltage. Thus, for the given n on-linearity a n d drive function, Vdc is a sim ple analytic function o f / dc and x (or Fj).
Fig. 5.1 -4 . N o n lin ear block consisting o f a cu rren t gen erato r an d a diode.
154
5.1
F o r values o f x larger th a n 4(V 1 > 104 mV), one m ay ap p ro x im ate the / 0(x) Bessel function term to w ithin b etter th a n 4 % (within 6 % for the x > 3) by
from which it follows th at kT kT In J(x) = F, - In 2nx = V, (23.8 mV) (13 mV) In x. q 2q Therefore, for x > 4, Fdc = FdcQ - F, + (23.8 mV) + (13 mV) In x. (5.1-6)
Since the (13 mV) In x term varies by less than 32 mV as x varies from 5 to 50 (130 to 1300 mV), one sees th at Vdc will vary alm ost in a straight-line fashion with F, over th is region. T he value of Vdc 0 will be a function of b o th I s (a ju n ctio n param eter) and / dc (a circuit param eter). Since the n a tu ral logarithm of 10 is 2.3, a 10 to 1 change in one of these q u an tities will result in only a 60 mV change in Fdc0. Figure 5.1-5 plc* vs. x and F, for the case w here I s = e 30 mA = 1 0 16 A (a typical value for an in teg rated-circuit silicon diode) an d for / dc values of 0 .1, 1.0 , an d 10.0 mA. F o r / dc = 1.0 mA, FdcQ = 30 x 26 = 780 mV. H ence for x > 4, one can ap p roxim ate K.c quite closely as (780 + 24 + 26) m V Vx or (830 mV) F ,.
W hat this im plies is th at as far as calculating voltage levels is concerned, the co n stan t curren t source an d actual exponential diode com bination may be replaced by an ideal diode in series w ith a battery as show n in Fig. 5.1-6. This ideal clam ping circuit clam ps the to p of F, to the positive battery v o ltag e ; hence Vdc = ~ V C is alw ays ju st the battery voltage m inus F ,. Therefore, to w ithin the precision allow ed by the ap proxim ation, peak values of driving voltage greater than 830 mV will result in negative values of Fdc, while small values will result in positive values o f vd c . O nce Vdc = Vc is know n, it m ay be inserted into Eq. (5.1-2) to determ ine i0(t). As an exam ple of using the m odel of Fig. 5.1-6, consider the circuit show n in Fig. 5.1-7. F o r this circuit, we first replace the L R com bination by a current-source app ro x im atio n an d then use the m odel of Fig. 5.1-6 to arrive, in a sim ple fashion, at the o u tp u t ac signal voltages and dc o u tp u t level. O nce the o u tp u t voltages are know n, one can revert to the basic diode equ atio n or to the curves of C h ap ter 4 to determ ine the diode or source currents. C onsider the practical case w here the reactance of L is large with respect b o th to the loss term and to the equivalent diode im pedance, so th at the ac cu rren t through the inductive bran ch m ay be assum ed to be negligible.
C A P A C IT IV E C O U P L IN G TO N O N L IN E A R L O A D
155
T hen from the view point of dc current, the inductor-resistor com bination may be replaced by a co n stan t-cu rren t generator. T hen the circuit of Fig. 5.1-7 may be replaced by the circuit of Fig. 5.1-4 and finally by the m odel of Fig. 5.1-6. In this circuit, the final value o f / dc is also constrained by the additional dc circuit relationship
= vc .
If we assum e th a t I s = e " 3 0mA (as in Fig. 5.1-5), then with a drive voltage Vt = 425 mV an assum ption o f / dc = 1 mA w ould lead to a battery voltage in the
156
REACTIVE AND NONLINEAR ELEMENT COMBINATIONS
5.1
Fig. 5.1-6 Voltage-clamping model for exponential diode and current source combination.
m odel o f Fig. 5.1-7 of 840 mV. (This is 10 mV m ore than the value used previously, because weXised the actual value o f x instead of an estim ated value.) Since Vc = 840 425 = 415 m V, th en if r = 500 Q (a possible value for a 1 H to rro id al coil) the circuit relatio n sh ip w ould lead to / dc = 415/500 = 0.83 mA. N ow the m odel could be recalculated for the / dc = 0.83 mA case instead of for the 1 mA assum ed initially. If this is done, the change in the battery voltage will be less th an 5 mV o u t of 840 mV or m uch less th an 1 % ; hence such an additional cycle o f calculation is p ro b ab ly n o t w arranted. If r = 50 Q, then o u r initial calculation w ould lead to / dc = 8.3 mA. A recalcu lation w ould lead to an increase in the battery voltage o f 26 In 8.3 = 55 mV and hence in / dc o f 1.1 mA = (55/50) mA. A further recalculation w ould only increase the battery voltage by 26 In (9.4/8.3) = 3.2 mV o r less th an 0.4% and hence w ould rarely seem necessary. In the real w orld one seldom has the sim ple case show n in Fig. 5.1-4. In practical circuits one often h a s a driving voltage source w ith a nonnegligible source im pedance w hile a t the sam e tim e th e d io d e (or tran sisto r jun ctio n ) m ay have either a deliberately added o r an inherent series resistive com ponent. T h e circuit th a t we shall consider is show n in Fig. 5.1-8. (The case o f a finite source im pedance an d a resistanceless diode m ay be transform ed in to the form ol Fig. 5.1-8 by ad d in g equivalent c u rre n t sources to m ove the /dc gen erato r to the o th e r end o f the source resistance. T he am o u n t o f the variation in the dc voltage across the cap acito r is identical in the tw o cases.)
5.1
CAPACITIVE COUPLING TO NONLINEAR LOAD
157
Vx costo/
Figure 5.1-8 In this case (5.1-7) = V1 cos cot Vc . N ow the c ap acito r will n o t pass dc, hence /(i) = 0 or equivalently i^t) = I dc. T he circuit will ad ju st itself to the value o f dc cap a cito r voltage th a t causes i'(t) = /dc. A general relatio n sh ip betw een Vc and i0(t) does n o t seem p o ssib le ; however, solutions are possible for the tw o lim iting cases where IdcR k T /q and where I dcR k T lq . (The second case is equivalent to g in R 1.) O n the basis o f o u r experience w ith the curves o f Section 4.8, we p lo t the bias depression A F fo r these tw o extrem e cases, norm alized as in Section 4.8, and find th a t they form a tight set. W e then conjecture th a t the I dcR = k T /q case falls halfway betw een the o th er tw o ; th u s we have the w herew ithal to estim ate Vc = VCQ + A F for all practical cases. W hen R is zero we revert to Eq. (5.1 4) to form A F = Vc - VCQ = (kT/q) In I 0(x) an d norm alize it to Vco, which is k T /q in the R = 0 case. W hen IdcR kT /q , the physical diode resistor co m b in atio n m ay be replaced by th e m odel show n in Fig. 4.8-3 to o b tain the circuit show n in Fig. 5.1-9. F o r this circuit the quiescent value of VCQ = VdcQ is I icR + K 0 , and the norm alizing voltage R WV^
5 Z (Ideal)
Figure 5 .1 -9
I 58
5.1
Ko = / dcK. In ad d itio n th e ideal diode rem ains forw ard biased for VlIVco < 1, the circuit o p erates linearly, an d no bias depression A F = VdcQ - Fdc exists. F o r V JVC 0 > 1, i0 becom es a periodic tra in of sine-wave tip pulses and Fdc adjusts itself to cause i'0 = / dc. T his is precisely the problem th a t was solved in Section 4.8, from which we o b tain th a t Fc = FlC o s 0 - F0 = - K dc and V*cQ ~ Vds AV V1 n ^ ^ ------- = = 1 + T T cos < t> . C O C O 'C O T h u s Vc an d in tu rn A V /V c0 can be evaluated in term s o f values o f < j) given in T able 4.8-1. N ow b o th these curves, norm alized w ith respect to kT Ko ------ ^ idc^ idc(r in + K)> 4 are show n in Fig. 5.1-10. T h e d o tted curve halfw ay betw een the extrem e cases is the conjectured curve for IdcR = k T / q o r R = r in. As an exam ple of the above analysis, let = 2.6 mA, R = 10 ohm s, F, = 520 m V, an d V0 = k T / q In (/dc/ / ES) = 0.65 V in the circuit o f Fig. 5.1-8. W ith these values we observe th a t VCQ = -0 .6 7 6 V, g inR = 1 , Vco = ldc(R + r in) = 52 m V an d F j/Fc0 = 10; hence from Fig. 5.1-10 we o b tain A F /F C 0 a 7, from which (5.1-10) and Vco from the (5.1-9)
K
Figure 5.1 10
5.2
follows
T R A N S IE N T B U IL D -U P TO ST EA D Y STA TE
159
vc = (- 0 .6 7 6 V) + (7)(52m V ) = -0 .3 1 2 V and v(t) = (312 mV) + (520 mV) cos cut. W ith this value of v0(t) one can retu rn to the characteristics o f Fig. 4.8 2 and o b tain a reasonably accurate p o int-by-point p lo t of the diode-resistor current. F o r exam ple r 0(f) - V0 has a peak value o f 282 m V ; thus (vB (t) - V0)maJ V co % 5.4 in this exam ple. This value determ ines a norm alized peak cu rrent from Fig. 4.8-2 of lop/1dc ~ 8.6 or Iop % 22.4 mA. W ith R = 0 but w ith the sam e drive voltage, and the same /dc and I ES, the capaci to r dc voltage w ould be + 1 9 3 mV, while the peak cu rrent w ould be approxim ately 29 mA o r 30 % larger. H ence an apparently sm all source resistance or series resistor can have a reasonably large effect on b o th dc, ac, an d peak values of the circuits voltages an d currents. T he key to the effect th a t the resistor will have is the size of /dcR w ith respect to (k T / q ) = 26 m V o r equivalently the size o f g {nR with respect to 1.
5.2 T R A N S IE N T B U ILD -U P T O STEA D Y STA TE
If v;(t) in Fig. 5.1 1 is periodic an d applied to the circuit at t = 0, we can calculate the transient build-up of Vc and r(f) to their steady-state values com puted above. Clearly in this case VL = K c-(r) is a function of tim e; however, in order to obtain a reasonable solution, we continue to assum e th at this function of tim e is varying sufficiently slowly so th at Vc(t) is essentially constant over any com plete cycle of ,(f). W ith this assum ption, vjt), ijt), and Ic = Ic(t) can be evaluated directly in term s of K c(f) by the sam e m ethod em ployed in obtaining their steady-state values. In p articu lar, the Vc- I c curve ob tain ed to determ ine the steady-state value of Vc = Fcss (cf. Fig. 5.1-3) now relates the slowly varying capacitor current Ic(t) to the capacitor voltage K c(r) by an expression of the form M 0 = f(V d t)l The capacitor itself relates I c(t) to Vc(t) by the expression (5.2-2) (5.2-1)
hence, by elim inating I c(t) from Eqs. (5.2-1) and (5.2-2), we obtain the first-order nonlinear differential eq uation for Fc(i) in the form (5.2-3) If./ ( Vc) is know n in analytic form, we can solve Eq. (5.2-3) directly, as we illustrate in Section 5.3. O n the o th e r hand, we can expand f ( V c) in a T aylor series ab o u t the
160
5 .2
steady-state value o f Fc = Fcss to o b tain

rA V c _ fit; \
, ^ / ( I 'c s s ) , , / T/ -, ,
d 2f ( V Cs s ) ( V c P c s s ) 2
L ~dt - j{Vcss) + ~ d V ^ Vc ~ Kcss) + ~ J v l = G(VC FCSS) + b2(Vc Fcss)2 + -, where I css = / ( F css) = 0, G = - d f( ,V css)/Vc , and , 1 S"f(Vcss) b- - J \ ^ v T
2!
+ " ' (5.2 4)
for" a 2 '
T he advantage of the T aylor series expansion is that, in general, only a few term s m ust be kept to closely ap p ro x im ate f ( V c) over the range of interest of Vc \in addition, if f ( V c) is available only graphically, as in Fig. 5.1-3, the coefficients of the first few term s of the T ay lo r series can be determ ined by stan d ard curve-fitting techniques to closely ap p ro x im ate the Vc- I c curve. As a first ap p ro x im atio n to the tran sien t build-up, we keep only the first nonzero term in the T aylor expansion to obtain C ^ = - G ( F C - Fcss), (5.2-5)
w here G is the slope o f th e Ic Vc curve evaluated a t Vc = Fc s s . E q uation (5.1 5) is linear, with the solution VcU) = i^css + [Vc (0 + ) Vcss] e - i'}u(t), (5.2-6)
where x = C/G. F o r the nonlinearity o f Fig. 5.1-2, w hich results in the Vc- I c curve show n in Fig. 5.1-3, if !;,-(() = (3 V) cos wt is applied a t t = 0, then j/c(0 + ) = - 2 V , Vcss = - 1 .3 3 V, and G = 0 .7 2 m Q ;
hence Fc(f) = [ - ( 1 .3 3 V) - (0.67 \ > - ,/r]u(f) and v0(t) = [ - V^t) + (3 V) cos cuf]w(f), where t = (1.39 kQ)C. A sketch of v0(t) is show n in Fig. 5.2-1. Since Fc(t) varies only betw een 2 V an d 1.33 V, the linear ap proxim ation for the Fc- / c charac teristic is quite valid. W hen term s beyond the first term of the T aylor series expansion for f ( V c) are kept, then the solution to Eq. (5.2^4) is obtained in the following m anner. We rearrange the eq u atio n in the form ~ Gdt _ (Vc ~ W dVc - (b2/G)(Vc - Vcss)2 (5-2~?)
we expand the d en o m in ato r o f the right-hand side in partial fractions, and we integrate term by term . W e illustrate this procedure for the case w here f ( V c) m ay be ap p ro x i m ated by the first tw o n o nzero term s in its T aylor expansion, i.e., where C f = - G ( V C - Vcss) + b2(Vc - Fcss)2. (5.2-8)
5 .2
T R A N S IE N T B U IL D -U P T O ST E A D Y ST A TE
161
I
.]
-4.33 V
t= C /G G = 1/1.39 k il 1.33 V
'A
1.67V
Fig. 5.2-1 O u tp u t transient when a 3 V peak sine wave is suddenly applied to the circuit of
Fig. 5.1-2.
F o r this case, Gdt ~C~ dVr (Ve l'e ssa i dVc K: ~ Krss | (^2/G){VC (bj/G )dVc 1 ~ ( b 2/G)(Vc css i ^css)] (5.2-9)
U p o n integrating an d rearran g in g term s, we obtain Vr(t) = fU Ke~1 1 ' + --------------------- -t/i 1 + (b2/G)Ke (5.2-10)
css
w here K is a co n stan t o f in tegration and t = C/G. W hen b2 is zero, this equation of course reduces to the linear case. U nless K b 2/G is appreciable with respect to unity, the influence of the square term is always small. In any case, b 2 does n o t influence the length of the transient. In m ost cases b2 affects merely the initial slope and the values o f V^t) for t < x. A sim ilar result can be o b tained if f ( V c) consists of a linear plus a cubic term . Specifically, if Eq. (5.2-4) has the form
dV c - = G { v c dt Vc ss) + b 3( v c vc s s y \
(5.2-11)
then the solution for V^t) takes the form K e - ,/t

V ^t) = Vcss +
V'1 + ( b i / G ) K e : t l x
(5.2-12)
w here K is a co n stan t of integration and t = C/G. Again, unless b 3K /G is appreciable com pared to unity, the fc3-term has no influence. And again the tim e of the transient
162
5 .3
is set entirely by t = C/G, as it is for any polynom ial approxim ation, of w hatever order, of f ( V c) o r for an exact analytic expression for f ( V c). F o r the diode nonlinearity of Fig. 5.5-1, l c = f ( V c) is given by Eq. (5.1-3) and G = d W s s ) = < l h qVcssl>T[o(x) = Vv kT kT (5 2_ 13)
As we shall see in the next section, the transient is governed by the tim e constant (cf. Eq. 5.3-11)
r , r = kTC . x = C/G i'd c
W ith a know ledge of the rate at which Vc varies, we are now in a position to determ ine the value of C w hich justifies our assum ption th at Vc(t) is constant over a cycle o f v,{t). If th e p eriod o f v^t) is T, an d if t > 20T, then V(t) varies less th an 5% in the tim e interval T. C onsequently, if C > 20 G T = 4071(7 co or coC - > 40 tt, G (5.2-14)
w here to = 2n/T, then o u r assum ptions are justified. In m any practical situations the inequality of Eq. (5.2-14) m ay be relaxed by a factor of 2 or 3 w ithout any notice able effect on the expressions derived.
5.3 C A PA C IT IV E L Y C O U P L E D T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R C O N S T A N T C U R R E N T BIAS
Since a great m any large-signal ac tran sisto r am plifiers are capacitively coupled, we shall study this coupling problem in detail in this section. W e begin by analyzing the capacitively coupled am plifier show n in Fig. 5.3-1, which is biased from a constant current source / dc and driven at its em itter term inal (com m on base) by the input voltage y,(i). We then show, in Section 5.4, th a t the analysis is essentially unchanged if the drive is applied to the base with the em itter capacitively bypassed (com m on em itter) or if the bias is developed by the m ore conventional schem e of resistively dividing - V cc and applying it to the base w ith a resistor R E placed in the em itter circuit. In all cases, we assum e, however, th at the input volt-am pere characteristic of the tran sisto r m ay be m odeled by an exponential relationship of the form iE = l ESe*r*BikT = ( 5 J 1}
th a t th e co llector-to-em itter voltage never reaches zero an d saturates the transistor, th at the collector current m ay be m odeled by a current source ai , where a i l . over the entire range of em itter currents, and th at the internal reactances of the
5.3
T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R C O N S T A N T C U R R E N T BIAS
163
Fig. 5.3-1 Capacitively coupled tran sisto r amplifier.
transistor, such as charge storage, may be neglected. These assum ptions provide a n . excellent first-order ap p ro x im atio n to the perform ance of m any transrstor am plifiers for values of \Z L\ less th an 100 kQ an d frequencies up to the tens of m egahertz. F o r the circuit o f Fig. 5.3-1, we first determ ine its steady-state behavior with V ; ( t ) a periodic drive and then determ ine how the circuit builds up to steady state. In addition, in Section 5.6 we develop the transfer function of the netw ork for the case where vt) is an A M wave of low m o d u latio n index. This transfer function proves to be useful for evaluating the steady-state stability of transistor oscillators and the o u tp u t signals of tran sisto r limiters. If we assum e for the circuit o f Fig. 5.3-1 th at the coupling cap acito r C is sufficiently large th a t its voltage vc rem ains constant at Vc = Fdc over a cycle o f then the m odel o f Fig. 5.1-6 is im m ediately applicable. F o r a given inp u t voltage, we determ ine the value of the battery and hence of the clam ping level an d the cap acito r voltage. W e then determ ine the em itter current (the diode cu rren t in the m odel) from the know n dc value of current, Vc , and the driving voltage w aveshape. F o r exam ple, assum e th a t the w aveshape of Fig. 5.3-2 is applied as vt { t) in the circuit of Fig. 5.3-1. As a reaso n ab le ap p ro x im atio n to aid in fixing the battery voltage in the model, we m ight m odel the in p u t as a 200 m V peak sine w av e ; hence x % 7.7. F o r such an x, the ( k T / 2 q ) \ n 2 n x term becom es approxim ately 50 mV. If we assum e th at / dc is 1 mA and th a t I s is 10 16 A, then kT I In K dcQ = 760m V . < 1 I es
164
5.3
Fig. 5.3-2 Plot of i,()and i(t)/IP = w{t) vs. t. H ence, to a very good appro x im ation, the em itter voltage will be clam ped to a peak voltage of + 8 1 0 m V ; thus the cap acito r voltage will be - 6 1 0 m V . (If the 200 mV peak signal is to reach 810 mV, the cap acito r voltage m ust add 610 mV to it.) T he em itter cu rren t can be expected to flow prim arily du rin g the m ost positive interval of the driving signal.f Since this interval consum es only one-eighth of the to tal period, the cu rren t d u rin g this interval m ust be eight tim es the average value, or 8 mA. O nce the cu rren t is know n to flow prim arily in narrow pulses, it follows from C h ap ter 4 th a t the fundam ental com ponent is approxim ately twice the dc value; th a t is, IEl x 2 /dc. T herefore, if Z L is a h ig h -g parallel R L C circuit tuned at ( j l > = 2 n / T w ith a parallel resistor R L, then the ou tp u t voltage v j t ) may be closely approxim ated by v j t ) = Vcc + 2aIdcR L cos cut. (5.3-2) If the stairstep w aveshape were replaced by a 200 mV peak sine wave, then the sam e clam ping level an d cap acitor voltages w ould exist. F o r this case, the ratio of the peak current to the average current is
tT h e currents that flow when the input to the emitter proportional to e810/26/e710/26 = e3 8 - 45. Hence the period is 45 times the current flow during the adjacent current flows in one flat-topped pulse will lead at most to
is 810 mV and when it is 710 mV are current during the maximum voltage segments. Thus assuming that all the about 3 2 % error.
5.3
T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R
C O N S T A N T C U R R E N T BIA S
165
for x > 4. T h u s for x = 7.7 and / dc the general shape o f the curren t pulse, of a b o u t 104. F igure 4.5-5 indicates again, if the load is a tuned circuit, the
= 1 mA, I P x 1 mA. Figure 4.5-3 indicates while Fig. 4.5-4 indicates a conduction angle th at for this value of x, / , = 1.85/dc; hence o u tp u t voltage can be found as (5.3-4)
v0(t) = - Vcc + 1.85a/dc/?L cosa>.
If the load is tu n ed to som e h arm onic of the input driving w aveshape, then either Fig. 4. 5-5 o r the tables of 2/(x)//0(x) th a t app ear in the A ppendix at the back of the b o o k m ay be used to d eterm ine vjt). A m ore general a p p ro ach to the circuit of Fig. 5.3-1 is to define a w aveform function W(t) as the ratio of the actual em itter current, ij t ) , to the peak em itter cu rren t I P. If the cap acito r voltage has reached a steady-state value Vc = VAc, then
p = E se1v <iclliTe qvim lk T ^
( 5.3- 5 )
t) = i ESe^v^ kTe9vM)lkT, and W(t) = eqVi^ lkT/eqVi"'* liT = m / l r.
(5.3-6)
(5.3-7)
T he w aveform function contains the tim e-variable portion of i^ f); hence if I P an d W(t) are know n, then i^ t) is know n. The average o r dc value of i^ t) will be I P tim es the average value o f W ( t) : /dc = W ) = b m . (5-3-8)
T h u s if / dc an d v,{t) are know n, one first evaluates or plots W(t), which is only a function of t?,(i), an d finds its average value W(t). If H^r) and / dc are know n, then IP is fixed. H ow ever, fixing I P fixes K.C and com pletes the solution. W hen an unbypassed series resistance exists in either the base o r em itter circuits, th e results o f Sections 4.8 an d 5.1 for the added resistance case are again directly applicable.
Transient Buildup
If the periodic in p u t r,(i) is applied at t = 0 to the circuit of Fig. 5.3-1, during the build up to steady state the slowly varying com ponent o f capacitor current is given by /, = /,.(() = I ESe ~ qVc(,)lkT eqVi(,)/kT Jdc = C ^ . at (5.3-9)
H ence the differential eq u atio n for Fdc(t) = - Vc(t) takes the form C } + dt W (t)= I ic
( 5 .3 - 1 0 )
166
5.3
We m ay integrate Eq. (5.3-10) in a straightforw ard fashion to obtain caV*At)lkT _ VdJlEs)e ' m '/ W(t) + K e ~ ,n (5 3-11) '
w here t = C k T /q I dc = C /g in, K is an a rb itra ry co n stan t o f integration, and in = i W ^ ' s the sm all-signal in p u t conductance of the tran sisto r in Fig. 5.3-1. If we assum e th a t for t less th an zero t;, = 0, then e ~qvim,JkT _ /dc I es and K = e - > r' '!kT - W(t). W ith this valu of K , Eq. (5.3-11) reduces (for r > 0) to qVaMIkT o r equivalently,
I Ac
(5.3-12)
[lJ l ES)e qVimJkT W ( t ) + [e - i v' ^ kT - W {t)]e~,lx'
(5 .3 -13a)
VdA t ) = - v t
kT I + l n = ---------------------------------------------(5.3 13b) q W + (e-* Vl*lkT - W )e ~ th
N ow , in the steady state, W = Iic/ I P and e~'h = 0 ; thus Eq. (5.3-13) reduces to V = kT I kT + \n - ^
.9
KicQ
____ In W.
< 7
(5 .3 -13c)
! es
T his exact form for VdQ also results if the waveform function is em ployed to evaluate the steady-state tran sisto r response in a fashion discussed previously in this section. By n oting th at l(f) = / SeiFdc(,)/ * V '" "t r H/(i) an d em ploying Eq. (5.3-13a), we m ay also ob tain (for t > 0) m U JLW )] W + (e~qVim*lk T - W )e~,/z'
where, of course, W(t) = eqVii,)lkTleqVim' lkT. As t -* oo, Eq. (5.3-14) reduces to the expected form iE = PW(t). F o r v,{t) given by_the staircase w aveform of Fig. 5.3-2, W (t ) has the form shown in the same figure, W = g, and r imaj = 200 m V ; hence, for this case, with k T / q = 26 mV and I J I ES = 5 x 1012, e( ) M dctHW ] 1 + (3.7 x lO 3 - l ) e - " ' (5.3 15a)
5.3
T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R C O N S T A N T C U R R E N T BIAS
167
and Fdc(r) = (614 mV) - (26 mV) In [1 + (3.7 x 10 3 - l)i-,/t]. (5.3 15b)
T able 5.3-1 presents values for Fdc(f) and the peak em itter current I P(t) vs. r/t for the expressions given in Eq. (5.3-15). [IP(t) is the coefficient of W (t ) in Eq. (5.3-14) or Eq. (5.3-15a).] In addition, a sketch of i^t), given by Eq. (5.3 15a), is show n in Fig. 5.3-3. It is a p p aren t from Fig. 5.3-3 th at at t = 0, when r,(r) adds directly to ^,.(0) = 1 ^ ( 0 ) across the in p u t exponential characteristic o f the transistor, an exceptionally large em itter current flows w ith w aveform W{t). The average value of this large current, flowing prim arily th ro u gh the coupling capacitor, very rapidly decreases Vdc an d in turn reduces the peak value of the em itter current. In p articular for tjx = 1
Table 5.3-1
M l ) vs. t/ T
T abulation of values for Vdc(t) and
t/x 0 1 2 3 4 5
h i' ) 2200/ dc 12.6/dc 9.25j ic 8.437dc 8.15/ dc 8'dc
VdcUl mV 760 626 618 614 614 614
168
5.3
the peak value o f the em itter current has fallen from 2200/dc, (f/r = 0) to 12.7/dc. By the tim e f/r = 4, steady state has been reached for all practical purposes. The practical difficulties w ith this solution are th at for any appreciable v,{t) the tu rn -o n cu rren t is so eno rm ous th at the bulk of the em itter current transient is over by the tim e t = O.IO t o r less. T he practical consequences of the dem and for this large cu rren t are several. F irst, C m ust be very large o r the assum ption o f a small change of cap acito r voltage per cycle is violated. Second, the supposedly very large instantaneous currents lead to appreciable voltage drops across internal transistor (or diode) resistances, so th a t we cease to have the true exponential voltage-current relationship th at was assum ed. W e have instead a resistor-transistor com bination of the type assum ed in Section 4.8. T he actual transient in a real circuit is som ew here betw een the extrem e value suggested by Fig. 5.3-3 and the value obtained from a resistor battery m odel form ed by the techniques o f Sections 5.1 and 4.8. T he reason is prim arily th at the presence of the resistance lim its the initial em itter current am plitude for 0 < t < O .I t w ithout appreciably affecting the rem ainder of the transient. F o r the case where vt(t) = Vt cos cor, Wx(t) has the form show n in Fig. 4.5-3,
hence from Eqs. (5.3 13b) an d (5.3-14) we obtain (5.3-16) and (5.3-17) A sketchS)f iE(t) in this case has essentially the sam e form as the sketch of Fig. 5.3 3, except th a t the pulse shape is given by WJ,t). C onsequently, here again the em itter current starts w ith a very large peak value and rapidly decreases tow ard its steadystate level, w hich it essentially a ttain s for t > 4r. Again the internal tran sisto r re sistance or the g en erato r impedancte lim its the initial value of the em itter current. At this point, it is a p p a re n t th at the response tim e of the circuit o f Fig. 5.3-1 is governed by the tim e c o n stan t t = C /gin. Therefore, if u,(i) is an A M wave and the envelope of this AM wave varies slowly com pared w ith t , the circuit essentially reaches steady state for each envelope value. C onsequently, any steady-state transfer function relating the peak value of v,{t) to a current or voltage in the circuit of Fig. 5.3-1 can also be used to relate the tim e-varying envelope of r,(i) to the corresponding current or voltage. F o r exam ple, w ith v t(t) = F jcoscoi, the fundam ental steady-state collector current is given by 2h ( x )
'c i = a /d c -T T T c o s w f ,
o'
( 5 .3 - 1 8 )
5 .4
T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R R E SIST O R BIA S
169
where x = q V J k T . H ow ever, if vt { t) = g(t) cos a>t and g(f) varies slowly in com parison with t, then 21 qg(t)/kT] ci = i d cI, 0[qg(t)/kT] r , /t. x T COSOJf(5.3-19)
Again we n ote from Fig. 4.5-5 th a t if g(f) is large in com parison with k T /q for all values of f, Eq. (5.3-19) reduces to icl 2a / dc cos tot and the circuit strips the AM inform ation from ic l , thus functioning as a limiter. N ote carefully th a t if the circuit of Fig. 5.3-1 is used to process AM signals, the value of the coupling capacitor C m ust be arrived at by a com prom ise. The value m ust be large enough to ap p ear as a short circuit at the fundam ental frequency of v,(t), an d yet it m ust be sm all enough so th a t r = C /gin is sm all in com parison with the tim e over which the envelope of the AM wave varies. Such a com prom ise is possible only if there is a wide separation (of a factor of a t least 100) between the m axim um m odulation frequency an d the carrier frequency. In Section 5.2 we saw th a t the coupling capacitor appears as a short circuit at the frequency to if
T = >
207,
Sin or equivalently,
> 407t. (5 .3 -2 0 )
&in T hus Eq. (5.3-20) p u ts a lim it on the m inim um value of C. T o obtain an inequality for the m axim um coupling capacitor value when using the circuit of Fig. 5.3-1 to process in put A M signals, it w ould be desirable to o b tain a general expression for the cap acitor voltage and the em itter cu rrent as a function o f the envelope o f vt(t) an d the cap acito r value. W ith such a general expression, the m axim um cap acito r value which produces the desired em itter current could readily be determ ined. U nfortunately, a general relationship is m athem atically in tra c ta b le ; however, a sm all-signal transfer function relating low-index envelope variations to small variations in cap acito r voltage and em itter current is possible. In addition, the m axim um coupling cap acito r value obtained from the sm all-signal analysis again provides an excellent estim ate of the value required for large-signal operation. This sm all-signal transfer function will be derived in Section 5.6.
5.4 C A PA C IT IV E L Y C O U P L E D T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R R E S IS T O R BIAS
In this section we co ntinue o u r analysis of the large-signal capacitively coupled tran sisto r am plifier by considering the circuit show n in Fig. 5.4-1, which is biased in a conventional fashion. H ere, in ad d itio n to a coupling capacitor C E, a base bypass
17 0
5 .4
y
"
^2
R t+ R 2 _ ^1 R 2
- T+RT
Fig. 5.4-1 Capacitively coupled tran sisto r amplifier w ith conventional bias.
cap acito r is included to ensure th at the entire periodic ac signal v,{t) appears across the em itter-base ju n ctio n . W e again begin by determ ining the steady-state behavior of the circuit. T his analysis is som ew hat m ore involved th an the corresponding analysis of th e circuit o f Fig. 5.3-1, because the depression in the dc em itter-base voltage caused by the application of results in a change in the average em itter curren t from its quiescent (vt = 0) value. H ence, in addition to the average em itterbase voltage, the average em itter cu rren t m ust be determ ined as a function o f v/[t) before the to tal em itter cu rrent and in tu rn the o u tp u t voltage can be evaluated. F o rtu n ately , as we shall dem onstrate, the change in the average em itter cu rrent w ith in p u t drive level is usually a second-order effect in m o st well-designed transistor a m p lifiers; hence IEQ m erely replaces /dc in all previously derived results. F o r the few circuits which a re exceptions to the rule, we develop the set o f universal curves for Gm(x)!gmQ show n in Fig. 4.5-5 w hich directly replaces the curve o f Gm(x)/gm o f Fig. 4.5-6 in the analysis of n a rro w b an d circuits w ith sinusoidal drives. W e determ ine the steady-state average em itter current I E0 as a function of i by first com puting the depression AK of the em itter-base voltage from its quiescent value when vt is applied, and then we em ploy A F to com pute the shift in I E0 from its quiescent value I EQ. W hen x > 4 for sinusoidal drives, the clam ping m odel of Fig. 5.1-6 m ay be used in tw o successive ap p ro x im ations to provide a very rapid answ er for this circuit. (See P ro b lem 5.5 a t th e end of this ch ap ter for an example.) In the analysis of the circuit o f Fig. 5.4-1 we again assum e th a t the tran sisto r does not saturate, th at ic = a.i\E or iB = (1 - a)iE, th at internal tran sisto r reactances are negligible, and that iE = I ESe ^ BlkT
5 .4
T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R R E SIST O R B IA S
171
Fig. 5.4 -2 N arro w b an d transistor amplifier.
W ith these assum ptions an d the Thevenin equivalent of the base circuit show n in Fig. 5.4-1, the quiescent em itter-base voltage Kicfl and the quiescent em itter current I eq [which exist p rio r to applying v,itj] are related by the equations J *e Vic Q feTi I n -r
Q I es
(5.4-1)
and
r BB
r cQ
EQ ~ R e + (1 - a )R b
(5.4-2)
In general, Eqs. (5.4-1) an d (5.4-2) are difficult to solve sim u ltan eo u sly ; however, if we assum e I ES = 2 x 10 16 A and k T / q = 26 mV an d tab u late VAcQ vs. I EQ as show n in T able 5.4-1, we find th a t VdcQ experiences only sm all variations a b o u t 760 mV for values o f I EQ betw een 0.1 mA and 10 mA. T here fore, for m any practical circuits, VdcQ m ay be closely approxim ated by f V, and with this value o f K,cQ, Eq. (5.4-2) simplifies to
I _
V rr - ( | V) 'B B _______
EQ~ R e + ( 1 - x )R b
(5.4 3)
The value of I ES = 2 x 10 16 A corresponds to a silicon transistor integrated on a chip. F o r a non in teg rated silicon transistor, I ES x 2 x 10 14 A and VAqQ m ay be ap p ro x im ated by 650 mV. F o r a germ anium transistor, / s % 2 x 10 7 A and 220 mV provides a reasonable ap p roxim ation for VdcQ.
172
5 .4
Table 5.4-1 T ab u latio n of VdcQ vs. l EQ with kT/q = 26 mV and l ES = 2 x 10 16 A

Fdce,m V 700 760 820 880 I EQ, mA 0.1 1 10 100
If we wish the quiescent point to rem ain fixed, independent of tem perature or p roduction variatio n s in the tran sisto r param eters, I EQ m ust be insensitive to these variations. If I EQ does not vary, I CQ = ol1 e q rem ains fixed, since a x 1 and in tu rn VCEQ, which is a function of 1EQ, I CQ, and the bias circuitry, is stable. W e observe from Eq. (5.4-2) that, to keep I EQ independent of transistor param eters, the following conditions m ust be satisfied : R e (1 - x )R b and VBB VAcQ. (5.4 4b) T he greater the strength of the above inequalities, the greater the bias stability w ith respect to tran sisto r p aram eter variations. If R E x R B and VBB x 10 VdcQ, excellent bias stability is achieved in m ost applications. If now the periodic in p u t v^t) is applied an d b o th C B and C E are assum ed to be ac short circuits over the frequency range occupied by t>,(r), the em itter current for the circuit of Fig. 5.4-1 is given by iE = i Ese v ^ r e M T = I ESe > VdJkTe lvJkTW(t), (5.4-5) (5.4 -te)
w here Vdc is the dc voltage which develops across the com bination of C B and C E. W e observe here th a t th e em itter cu rren t w aveform is still determ ined by eqVi(t)lkT and is therefore in v arian t w ith changes in bias configuration. In addition, we observe that, if Vi(t) were inserted in series w ith C B and C E were retu rn ed to ground, Eq. (5.4-5) w ould rem ain u n ch anged; hence, if r,(f) = Vl cos cot, the only difference betw een driving th e em itter an d driving the base w ould be the shift in the em itter curren t by h alf o f a carrier cycle. If we again define the steady-state em itter-base voltage bias depression A F a s A V = V dcQ- V dc, then the expression for the em itter cu rren t m ay be rew ritten as ,E(f) = I EQe- *yikTeqViJkTW(t), (5.4-7) (5.4-6)
w here I EQ = l ESeqVa',QlkT In addition, the average em itter current I E0 is given by h o = I EQe ~ q*vlkTeqViJkTV m (5.4-8)
5.4
T R A N S IS T O R A M P L IF IE R R E SIST O R BIA S
173
In the steady state, I E0 is also constrained by the bias circuitry to have the form j E0 _ Vss - Fdc R e + (1 - o c )R b
eq
AF R e + ( 1 - a)RB
_ 7
I Q(
AV\ V j '
where Vx = l EQ[RE + (1 a)KB] = VBB VdcQ is the sum of the quiescent voltage w hich appears across R B an d the quiescent voltage which appears across R E. C o m bining Eqs. (5.4-8) an d (5.4-9), we ob tain an expression for the steady-state bias depression A V : AV 1 + e,AK/*r = eqviJ k T W{t). (5.4-10)
B e c a u se o f th e tr a n s c e n d e n t a l n a tu r e o f th e e x p re s s io n fo r A V g iv e n in E q.
(5.4-10), it is im possible to o b tain an explicit solution for A F in closed form. F o rtu nately, however, for Vx > 520 mV [which is alw ays true in a well-designed circuit cf. Eq. (5.4 4b)], the value of A V satisfying the equation g tW k T = (5.4- 11)
differs by lessthan 5 % from the value of A F satisfying Eq.(5.4-10), and the agreem ent is closer w ith higher values of F^.t C onsequently, with the ap proxim ation for A V given in Eq. (5.4 11) we o b tain the closed-form expression
lt
___
(5.4-12)
A K = ^ m + In W(t). Q W ith the aid o f Eq. (5.4-9) we also ob tain

IEO I EQ\ 1 +
(qvimJ k T ) + In W qVJkT
(5.4-13)
By n oting [from Eqs. (5.4-7) and (5.4-8)] th at i ^ t ) / l E0 = W(t)/W{t), we m ay finally
f Assume that AF, satisfies Eq. (5.4-11). Therefore, equating Eqs. (5.4-10) and (5.4-11), we obtain
q \ V / k T \ v/kT _ + qV J kT 6
or equivalently,
AF, - A V _ AV kT I qAV/kT\ + qVJkT I ~ <jAF " (
However, in (1 + x) < x ; therefore,

AV, - AV
<
AV and, for q V J k T > 20,
~ q V Jk T
AK - AF, < 0.05. AF
174
5 .4
w rite the expression for the to tal em itter cu rrent in the form
(_
IeM =
1 EQ
4)
w here I P = I E0/W . C onsequently, by em ploying Eq. (5.4-14), we can determ ine the steady-state expression for it) for any bias arrangem ent sim ilar to the one show n in Fig. 5.4-1, once the form o f v,{t) is know n. As an exam ple of determ ining the steady-state value of iE(t) as well as the steadystate o u tp u t voltage, we consider the circuit show n in Fig. 5.4^2 with v,{t) of the form show n in Fig. 5.3-2 applied. W e assum e th a t the transistor is silicon and not p art of an integrated circuit, so th a t VdcQ st 0.65 V, an d th at a = 0.99. F ro m the bias circuitry we observe th at VBB = (5V )(1.2kfl)/5.1 kQ = 1.18 V hence and R B = 1 .2 k i)||3 .9 k fl = 916 0 ; t ' m
1.18 V - 0 . 6 5 V EQ ~ 510Q + 9 .1 6 Q
an d Vk = 1.18 V 0.65 V = 0.53 V. In addition, since vimitx = 200 mV, k T / q = 26 mV, an d W = g, we o b tain from Eq. (5.4-13) I E0 = 1.02 mA( 1.276) = 1.3 mA, which leads directly to it) = 8(1.3 m A )W (t) = (10.4 mA)W(i), w here W(t) is the train of n arro w pulses show n in Fig. 5.3-2. Since the tuned collector circuit has Q T 16 an d is resonant at w = 107 rad/sec, the o u tp u t voltage is given by v0(t) x (a)(2)(1.3 mA)(1.6 ki2)cos 107f - (5 V) = (4.16 V) cos 107f - (5 V). H ere again, since the em itter cu rrent pulses are narrow , we have approxim ated the am plitude of the fundam ental com ponent as twice the average value. In solving this problem we have assum ed th at the tran sisto r does not satu rate or, equivalently, th a t the collector voltage rem ains m ore negative than the em itter voltage at all times. T o check this assum ption we require, in ad dition to > 0, an expression for the em itter voltage vE. Clearly, vE contains the dc com ponent and the ac com ponent u,(i); therefore, VE(t) = -(0 .6 6 2 V) + v,{t). F igure 5.4-3 show s a sketch of u(t) and d0 on the sam e set of coordinates. F rom this sketch, which also includes i^t), it is ap p are n t th at d,, < vE at all tim es and satu ratio n does not occur. As a second exam ple, we consider f,(i) = V1 cos cot applied to the circuit of Fig. 5.4-1. F o r this drive the bias depression A V obtained from Eq. (5.4-12) is
5 .4
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER RESISTOR BIAS
175
Fig. 5 .4 -3 W aveforms for the circuit of Fig. 5.4-2.
Table 5.4-2
X
In / 0(x)
In l 0(x 6.058 6.998 7.943 9.850 11.77 13.70 15.64 17.59
0 1 2
3 4 5
0
0.2359 0.8242 1.585 2.425 3.305 4.208 5.128
8
9
10 12
14 16 18
6
7
20
I 76
5.4
Table 5.4 2 includes values of q A V / k T In I 0(x) vs. x for values of x betw een 0 and 20. In addition, w ith p,(i) = VI cos cot, the average em itter current reduces to / - / [~i + b l M \ . I e o ~ 1eq1 1 + qVxi k T y as a result, the to tal em itter cu rrent is given by (5.4-15)
-a --
"
.?. /o rW
cos mot
(5.4-16)
A plot o f I e o / I e q vs x o b tain ed from Eq. (5.4-15) with q V J k T as a p aram eter is given in Fig. 5.4-4. W ith the aid o f Fig. 5.4-4, once the quiescent values of I EQ and Vx and the input level Vv (or x) are know n, the total em itter current o r any of its harm onics can be determ ined.
Fig. 5 .4 -4 P lo t o f I E o / I e q vs- * w ith q V J kT as a param eter. Values o f Vk show n in brackets are obtained w ith kTjq = 26 mV.
5.4
177
F o r exam ple, consider v\ = (208 mV) cos 107f applied to the circuit of Fig. 5.4 2. Since for this circuit I EQ = 1.02 mA, Vx = 0.53 V, and K, = 208 mV, if kT/q 26 mV,
then x = 8 and
qV JkT%
20. From the curves of Fig. 5.4-4 we obtain
1E 0
EQ
= 1.3
and in turn (1.33 mA)e8

*e ( 0
/ 0(8)
= (9.24 mA)l%(i). In addition, the fundam ental com ponent of ijfr) has the value i1(t) = (1.33 m A ) ^ i ^ cos cot 0\v)
1.871
and thus vQ (t) = (4.0 V) cos cot (5.0 V). N o te carefully th at Fig. 5.4-4 provides a set of universal curves th at can be used when tj = V, cos cot for any bias circuit values and for either germ anium o r silicon transistors. H ow ever, when dealing with narro w b an d am plifiers and oscillators, it is m ore convenient to develop a sim ilar set of universal curves for the large-signal average fundam ental tran sco n d u ctance Gm (x), where G Jx) = ocl E l Vi I Cl Vi
and / 1 and I c , are the coefficients of the fundam ental com ponents of the em itter and collector cu rren ts respectively. W ith the aid of Eq. (5.4 16) we can express Gm (x) in the form In J0(x) 27, (x) / \ ^ EQ 1+ nM = qV JkT loM SmQ 1 + In / 0(x) 21 Ax) q V J k T _ x / 0(x) (5.4-17)
where gmQ = a I Eq / k T is the small-signal transconductance evaluated at the quiescent
point. The norm alized curves of Gm (x)/gm Q vs. x with q V J k T as a param eter are given in Fig. 5.4 5. O nce Gm (x) is determ ined for any p articular set of bias values and input voltage levels from the universal curves o f Fig. 5.4-5, the o u tp u t voltage v0 of a narrow band am plifier m ay be expressed directly as v0(t) = ( V1 c o s (o t)G J x )R L - Vc c , (5.4-18)
where R L is the resistance of the collector-tuned circuit at the resonant frequency co.
178
5.4
Fig. 5.4-5 Plot of Gm (x)/gm Q vs. x with q V J k T as a parameter. Values of Vx in brackets are obtained with kT/q = 26 mV. F o r exam ple, if we again consider i >,(i) = (208 mV) cos 107f applied to the circuit of Fig. 5.4-2, then Vx = 530 mV and I EQ = 1.02 mA. If we let kT/q = 26 mV, then x = 8, q V J k T x 20, and gmQ = q I EQ/ k T = 39.2 m m ho. F ro m Fig. 5.4-5 we ob tain Gm(x)/gQ = 0.307; hence Gm(x) = 12 m m ho. Finally, since R L 1.6 kQ, v0(t) is given by v0(t) = (5 V) + (208 mV)(cos <yf)(12 m m ho)(1.6 kf2) = (5 V) + (4 V )cos cot, which is in exact agreem ent with the expression derived by the previous m ethod. In m ost well-designed circuits of the form show n in Fig. 5.4-1, vim a% is m uch less than Vx or, equivalently, (cf. Eq. 5.4-4b). F o r this type o f circuit, ( q v ^ / k T ) + ln W 1 qVJkT (5.4-19)
(since In W^must be negative and sm aller in m agnitude th an qvimtJ k T , the n u m erato r of Eq. (5.4-19) is alw ays less than qvimaJ k T ) and Eq. (5.4-13) for the average steadystate em itter cu rren t simplifies to (5.4 20) = I EQE qu atio n (5.4-20) is intuitively satisfying, since a small ac input voltage can at m ost effect a small dc bias depression, this, when com pared with a large VB, has little effect
5.4
179
on the average em itter current. In such a circuit the em itter resistor R E can be replaced by a current source I EQ with no effect on any of the current or voltage waveshapes w ithin the entire c irc u it; however, with such a current source bias, all the results of the previous section, as well as all the results of Section 4.5, are directly applicable. F o r the case w here t>,(r) = V, cos cot, the inequality of Eq. (5.4 19) is equivalent to (cf. Eq. 5.4-16) In I 0(x) 1. qVJkT Clearly, then, if
IT
(5-4 21)
^ > 2 0 l n / 0(x)
(5.4-22)
for a p articu lar drive level and bias configuration, I E0 may be approxim ated by I EQ w ithin .5%. Figure 5.4-6 plots Vk, given by an equality in Eq. (5.4-22), vs. x. T hus for any circuit biased as show n in Fig. 5.4 1 having values of Vk and x which determ ine
Fig. 5.4 -6 Plot o f I'- vs. a for the condition where 1E0 I EQ = 1.05 or 1\ = 2Q( k T q ) In / 0(.v).
180
5.4
a p o in t a b o v e th e c u rv e o f F ig . 5 .4 - 6 , I E0 m a y b e a p p r o x im a te d by I EQ w ith less th a n
Gm(x)/gmQ m ay b e a p p r o x im a te d by H ^ / x I 0(.x) w ith less x c u rv e o f F ig . 5 .4 - 5 o r, e q u iv a le n tly , th e c u rv e o f F ig . 4 . 5 - 6 to d e te rm in e Gm(x)/gm Q fo r a n y g iv en v alu e o f x. It tu rn s o u t in p ra c tic e th a t th e o p e ra tin g p o in ts o f m o st

5/0 e rro r. In a d d itio n , th a n 5 % e rro r. T h is a p p r o x im a tio n c o r r e s p o n d s to e m p lo y in g th e q V j k T = c ir c u its w ith s ta b le b ia s c o n fig u r a tio n s an d r e a s o n a b le d riv e lev els a re a b o v e th e cu rv e o f F ig . 5 .4 -6 .
Example 5.4-1
Solution.
F o r th e c irc u it sh o w n in F ig . 5 .4 -7 , d e te r m in e a n e x p r e ss io n fo r r 0(f).
T h e first th in g to n o te is th a t we h av e an N P N tr a n s is to r r a th e r th a n a tr a n s is to r is id e n tic a l w ith th e vEB-iE c h a r T h e m a in
P N P tr a n s is to r a n d th a t we a re d riv in g th e b a s e a n d n o t th e e m itte r. H o w e v e r, sin ce th e vBE-iE c h a r a c te r is tic fo r a n N P N a c te r is tic for a P N P tr a n s is to r , d riv in g th e b a se o f a n N P N tr a n s is to r h a s th e sam e effect o n th e e m itte r c u rr e n t a s d riv in g th e e m itte r o f a P N P tra n s is to r. c h a n g e in sign. A t q u ie s c e n c e (v\ = 0), if w e a s su m e th a t th e tra n s is to r is s ilic o n {VdcQ = 0 .6 5 V ). 9 .3 5 V d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o c a se s is th a t th e q u ie s ce n t v alu e o f VEB e x p e r ie n c e s a
I eq = 5 l k n = 183
and
^ = 9-3 5 V -
5.5
NONLINEAR LOADING OF TUNED CIRCUITS
181
Since for this exam ple x = 5, the operating point (x, VJ falls well above the curve of Fig. 5.4-6, and thus I E0 % I EQ. Since the tuned circuit in the collector is resonant at w = 108 rad/sec, which is the fundam ental frequency com ponent of iE(t ), and since for the tuned circuit Q T = 20, only the fundam ental com ponent of iE(t) contributes appreciably to C onse quently. r may be expressed as (cf. Eq. 5.3-12)
= (10 V) - 1.787(1.83 m A )(2kQ ) cos 108f = (10 V) - (6.5 V) cos 108f. A lternatively we can determ ine g mQ = 70.4 m m ho, and from the V- = x curve of Fig. 5.4-5 o b tain G J 5 )/g mQ = 0.359, from w hich it follows th at Gm (5) = 25.2 m m ho. Therefore, I'oit) = + Vcc - Gm(x)RLVi cos 0Jt = (10 V) - (25.2 m m ho)(2 kQ)(130 mV) cos 108r = (10 V) - (6.5 V) cos 108t T here is a m inus sign in the expression for va(t) because the collector current flows dow nw ard through the tuned circuit.
5.5 N O N LIN E A R L O A D IN G O F T U N E D C IR C U IT S
In this section we shift o u r atten tio n to the properties of a parallel R L C circuit which is driven by a periodic current source i(t) and which is shunted by a nonlinear nonreactive load as show n in Fig. 5.5-1. The current source (f) is assum ed to have a period T = 2n/oj0 , where a>0 is the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit; and the loading, alth o u g h nonlinear, is assum ed to m aintain the Q of the circuit reasonably high. W ith these assum ptions, we first show th at in the steady state the output voltage va(t) rem ains approxim ately sinusoidal despite the presence of the nonlinear load and th at the n onlinear load m ay be m odeled by an equivalent linear resistance.
Fig. 5.5-1 Nonlinear loading of parallel R L C circuit.
182
5.5
W e then develop a graphical technique for determ ining the steady-state am plitude of y(t) as a direct function of the fundam ental com ponent of i',(r). C ircuits o f th e type shown in Fig. 5.5-1 arise when the o u tp u t of one largesignal n arro w b an d am plifier (or lim iter) drives the nonlinear input characteristic of a subsequent large-signal am plifier, o r in the case of an oscillator, when the output o f a n arro w b an d am plifier drives its ow n nonlinear input characteristic. Clearly the determ in atio n o f the relationship betw een v0(t) and i,{t) is a necessary step in the calculation o f the overall am plification o f a chain of narro w b an d am plifiers or of the loop gain o f a sine-wave oscillator. T o begin o u r analyses, we observe th a t since (i) is periodic it m ay be expanded in a F o u rier series of the form
00
h(t) = ho + I it cos co0t +

n=2
I in cos (na)Q t + 0in),
(5.5-1)
w here the tim e axis has been chosen in such a fashion th at the phase angle o f the fundam ental com p o n en t of i(f) is equal to zero. In addition, because of the periodicity o f i,(t), in the steady state all other currents and voltages in the circuit m ust be periodic w ith period T ; in particu lar, i(t) m ust be periodic and therefore expressible in the form
oo
*.(0 = Z I on cos {no)0t -I- 0J .
n =0
(5.5-2)
W ithout affecting the o u tp u t voltage vB (t), the nonlinear load m ay be replaced by the infinite arra y of harm onically related current sources contained in i0(t), as show n in Fig. 5.5-2. N ow the circuit is assum ed to have a high value of Q T, where for the nonlinear circuit Q t is defined as the ra tio o f the to tal resistance R T seen looking into term inals a-a' (cf. Fig. 5.5-1) a t the reso n an t frequency <o0 to the reactance o f L or C evaluated at co0, th a t is,t
R r
'
R t
s I iX v l(g>0 it i )|
T v c(co0 j )| ' | X
(5 .5 -3 )
Therefore, the reso n an t circuit presents a low im pedance [less th an | A'c(ct0)|] at dc an d all harm onics o f co0. If, in addition, |iin ion|max < I n for all n # 1 (a condition which is satisfied by alm ost all practical periodic waveforms), then the dc and h a r m onic com p o n en ts of it { t) an d i0{t) are essentially shunted to gro u n d an d contribute very little to the w aveform o f T hus v(t) m ay be closely approxim ated by a sinusoid o f th e form v0U) = K cos (a>0t + 0ol). (5.5-4) T he phase angle o f v0(t) m ust o f course be identical with the phase angle 0ol of the fundam ental co m p o n en t o f since the nonlinear device possesses no energy storage. (The read er should convince him self o f this fact.) t This definition is clearly consistent with the definition given in Section 2.2.
5 .5
183
( ,! = / , ! COS W o t
i'i, = / * cos (n<iJof + 0,) 1, = /. cos (ncuo/f 0 )
Fig. 5.5-2 Current-source representation of non-linear load. A simplified circuit for determ ining v0(t), from which the dc and harm onic com ponents of i',(f) an d i(t) have been om itted, is show n in Fig. 5.5-3. T he problem in determ ining v0(t) in term s of i,it) is now reduced to evaluating Vj an d 60l. At resonance, however, it is ap p aren t from Fig. 5.5-3 that /, cos aj0r = ( K ,G + / ,) cos (to0f + 0O|); hence 60l = 0 and I ox = In - VXG. (5.5-6) To evaluate Vl we em ploy a m ethod sim ilar to the one used in Section 5.1 to determ ine Vc . We assum e a value for which, of course, specifies v jt) = Vx c o s w 0f. W ith this value of v0{t) applied across the nonlinear load, we determ ine i0(t) and, either analytically or graphically, determ ine the am plitude of its fundam ental coefficient I0 l. This procedure is repeated for a sufficient num ber of different values of V{ until a sm ooth curve of I oi vs. Vx is obtained. This curve represents the relationship between Vx and I ol required by the n onlinear load. T he linear portion of the circuit, however, requires that Vx an d I ol be related by Eq. (5.5-6). Therefore, if the load line of Eq. (5.5-6) is plotted on the sam e set of coordinates as the Vl-IBl curve, as show n in Fig. 5.5-4, the intersection of the load line and the curve determ ines the steady-state values of V, an d I o l. W ith Vt know n, /(t) can readily be com puted.
v J l ) = V,
(5.5-5)
cos (oj0/ + 0i)
184
5.5
F ig . 5 . 5 - 4
G r a p h i c a l m e t h o d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e v a l u e s o f Vj a n d l o i .
It is desirable to w rite an expression for Q T in term s of the steady-state values of V{ (F1SS) an d I 0l (I o1Ss ) such that, once K1SS is found, the assum ption o f high Q T can be checked. T o accom plish this goal, the m odel of Fig. 5.5-3 is further simplified by replacing the o u tp u t cu rrent source by an equivalent linear conductance, G N, = v ,' which m aintains the sam e currents and voltages thro u g h o u t the netw ork. This simplified m odel is show n in Fig. 5.5-5, from which it is im m ediately ap p aren t th at Qt where w 0C G + G nlss 1
u> 0L(G
+ Gnls s)
(5.5-7)
'iss M ore im p o rtan t, however, is the fact th a t nonlinear loading across a high-Q tuned circuit has the sam e effect as linear resistive loading. We now dem onstrate the above m ethod with several examples.
Fig. 5 .5 -5 Sim plified m odel with nonlinear load replaced by equivalent linear conductance.
5.5
185
Example 5.5-1 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.5-6, find r0(t).

Solution. We assum e Q T > 10 and w rite ^(f) = V, cos 107f. A pplying this voltage to the nonlinear load, we observe th at i0(t) is a square wave, with a peak-to-peak am plitude of n, which may be expanded in a F ourier series of the form i0(f) = (2 mA)(cos 107r j cos 3 x 10 7r + 5 cos 5 x 10 7r ) The resonant circuit, with a high value of Q T, appears as an effective short circuit to the com ponents of /(f) at oj = 3 x 107 rad/sec, 5 x 107 rad/sec, etc; hence. r(f) is obtained by m ultiplying the input current, less the fundam ental com ponent of /(f), by the tuned-circuit im pedance evaluated at to = 107 rad/sec, th at is, vB (t) = (4-2 mA)(2 kQ) cos 107f = (4 V )cos 107f. It is ap p aren t th a t the sam e value of v0(t) would be obtained by replacing the nonlinear load by a resistor of value 1 G nlss C onsequently, 2 k f i ||2 kQ 7 and our assum ption is justified. ( 107 rad/'sec)(5/iH ) V1SS 1SS K iss 4V 2 mA ____ = 2 k il
Example 5.5-2 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.5-7, determ ine an expression for r 0(f).
Solution. We again assum e Q r > 10 and write v j t ) = V{ cos 107f. A pplying this v o lta g e to th e se rie sd io d e-b a tte ry -re sisto rco m b in a tio n ,w eo b se rv eth at,fo r Vx < 2.5 V, i j t ) = 0 ; thus /, = 0. F o r V, > 2.5 V, the w aveform of i j t ) is a periodic train of sine-wave tip pulses o f peak am plitude Ip = (V, Vx)/R and conduction angle 2 < j> = 2 c o s ' X (V JV X ), w here Vx = 2.5 V and R = 1 0 kQ. T able 5.5-1 includes values of 1P and l 0l for values of betw een 2.5 V and 5 V (cf. Fig. 4.2^4), and Fig. 5.5-8 includes a plot of ol vs. F , .
186
5.5
Table 5.5-1 yv 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 IP,HA hi
0
50
0 12
30 52 75 98
100
150
200
250
Figure 5.5-7
In addition, since K irch h o ffs cu rrent law m ust hold for currents at the resonant frequency o> 0 flowing into the tuned circuit o f Fig. 5.5-7, we o b tain the load line
which is also p lo tted in Fig. 5.5-8. The tw o curves intersect at I olss = 67 A and îss = 4.3 V. C onsequently, _ L _ _ irO G nlss 1 n Qt 65 kQ|| 10 kQ (107 rad /sec)(5 ^H )
(which justifies the h ig h -g assum ption), and finally, v(t) = (4.3 V) cos 107i.
Example 5.5-3 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.5-9, calculate u0(f)Solution. W e note th a t this exam ple is identical to the previous exam ple except th at the resistance in series w ith the diode is equal to zero. Clearly, then, when m aking a table for I ol sim ilar to T able 5.5-1, we find th at Jo1 = oo for all values o f Vt > 2.5 V. C onsequently the curve for I ol vs. Vt takes the form show n in Fig. 5.5-10.
5 .5
Again plotting
on the sam e set of coordinates, we obtain Vlss = 2.5 V, I giSS = 250 nA, - i = 10 kQ,
VNLSS
188
5.5
500 n /
250
2.5 V Figure 5.5-10
5 Vs
V.
and
H ence the m eth o d of solution is justified. N o te th a t in this problem , although a battery an d diode are placed directly across the tu n ed circuit, th e voltage rem ains sinusoidal o f the form v = (2.5 V )cos 107f ; hence the m ajo r effect o f the diode is to clam p the peak-to-peak am plitude of the reso n an t circuit voltage to twice the b attery value. T he diode does not, as is som etim es erroneously believed, clip th e to p o f v0(t) an d leave the b o tto m unchanged. Such a w aveform obviously ca n n o t exist, since its average value w ould be different from zero an d thus could n o t be sustained across an inductor. T he circuit o f th is exam ple finds application as an F M lim iter. Clearly, variations o f the inp u t cu rren t a b o u t th e j mA p o int result in the sam e peak o u tp u t voltage of F, = 2.5 V. O nly w hen the in put cu rren t d ro p s below | mA does Vx d ro p below its 2.5 V level.
Example 5.5-4 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.5-11, assum ing th a t no collector
satu ratio n occurs an d th a t b oth input and o u tp u t tuned circuits have high values of Q t an d b o th resonate a t co0 , d eterm ine an expression for u,(i) an d t>(l). Also determ ine the effective linear loading th e tran sisto r applies to the input parallel resonant circuit. Solution. Since Q T for the in p u t tuned circuit is assum ed to be high, Vi(0 = K cos o> 0t and vBE = F, cos co0t + Fdc. T h u s if an ex ponential relationship is assum ed to exist betw een iE and vBE, i^ t) is given by
t) = l ^ V J k T ^ co soot
an d in th e steady state th e am plitude o f the fundam ental com ponent of em itter current I El is given by
2 /j(x )
5.5
N O N L IN E A R L O A D IN G O F T U N E D C IR C U IT S
189
9+ K,
/c o s a > 0t
Q-*~oo
Figure 5.5-11 Since ic = aiE and iB = (1 a)/, the am plitudes of the fundam ental com ponents of the collector and base currents are given by 2 /,(* ) Ic 1 = < *Ic and I bi (1 01 2/,(x ) a)I dc ac I(x)
/(*) respectively. N ow to obtain an expression for Vt (or x ) we equate the fundam ental com ponents of the cu rrents entering the inpu t-tuned circuit to obtain , R, or equivalently, I Vl I x 21 ,(x) /dc(1 , 2 / >W a) 70(x)
(i - a)/d c a - a)/d cR, (\ ~x)!dc ~ 0 - ijgin K, ~ l o M '

where gin = q IAJk T . By plotting the load line I (1 - a )/dc x (1 - a)ginR ,
on the sam e set of co ordinates as 21 (x)/10(x) vs. x, as show n in Fig. 5.5-12, we obtain x ss and 21 (xss)/I0(xss) as the co ordinates o f the intersection of the two curves; thus
190
5.5
v. =
kTx ss
cos a)0t.
Specifically, if 1/(1 a)/dc = 2 and (1 a)gin/?i = 6, by plotting 2 x/6 on the coordinates of Fig. 4.5-5 we obtain
xss 2, 21,(2) /o(2)
= 1.35,
and
v^t) = (52 mV) cos <y0f.
With 2 1 i(x ss)/10(xss) known and the output-tuned circuit Q assumed to be high, v0(t) can immediately be written as
v0(t) = Vcc ~ Ici 1^2 c o s co0t
= Vcc - a/dc i d c ir r ^ T ^ 2 cos g)0t.

Io(xss)
The equivalent linear loading on the input-tuned circuit is given by

r I Cl
o\
NL~ J ~ W l ~ ~ T ~ ' ( } where p = a/(l a) and Gm is the large-signal average fundamental transconductance of the transistor, which is plotted as a function of x and normalized to gmin Fig. 4.5-6. For this bias configuration, gm = aIdcq /k T ; GNL may also be expressed in the form G
dm Sm gm'
---
N L
(5.5-9)
where gJ f i is the small-signal input conductance looking into the base with the emitter grounded. If the emitter, rather than the base, is driven as shown in Fig. 5.5-13, the equivalent linear loading on the input-tuned circuit is
G jSL = in ~ ( 5 .5 - 1 0 )
gm
If either the base or emitter is driven and the bias is developed as shown in Fig. 5.4-1, the algebraic expressions for GNL remain unchanged; however, gm = a.lEQq /k T and G J g m must be obtained from Fig. 5.4-5 rather than Fig. 4.5-6.
5.5
191
Ct oo
s
Figure 5.5-13 Exam ple 5.5-5 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.5-14, determ ine the o u tp u t voltage v0(t) and the resistance seen by the input current in the steady state. Assume that Q t > 10. Solution. F o r the circuit of Fig. 5.5-14 we first note that, since Q T is high and the circuit is driven by a cu rren t source a t its resonant frequency, then v0(t) m ust have the form u,(r) = Vt cos a > 0f. We then observe that, since C is large, it appears as a battery Vdc in the steady state. C onsequently the ideal diode-battery com bination lim its Vt to K dc (cf. Exam ple 5.5-3) and in turn v(t) = V\ ( c o s o v - 1). N ow , to evaluate V, as a function of I, we note th at with v0(t) clam ped to zero the diode co nducts only at the peak of v0(t) and thus i'D (f) flows in extrem ely narrow pulses; hence iD (t) m ay be represented as Q O iD (0 ~ J Ddc 1 + 2 X cos na)0t\. (F or a periodic train of very narrow pulses, the am plitude of the harm onics is twice the average value.) H ow ever, since the average value of the capacitor current i(f)
Vi(t)= V\ COS C ll0i oo -o
Figure 5.5-14
192
5.5
m ust be zero in the steady state, then , _ ^ I d *' - - * - - J - z Thus the fundam ental com ponent of iD(t) has a m agnitude o i 2 V x/R. W hen 2 V J R is added to the fundam ental com ponent of iR, Vl/ R , the sum is equal to the input driving current, / = 3 V JR . C onsequently we finally obtain I R (cos , v0 = 0)0t 1).
In addition, the equivalent resistance seen by '(f) is given by R - Vl- R K nl ~ i ~ y U p to this point we have assum ed th a t a high value of the loaded Q T in the circuit of Fig. 5.5-1 keeps va(t) sinusoidal of the form v0(t) = K, cos u)0t. W e shall now treat the problem m ore quantitatively by obtaining an expression for the total harm onic d isto rtio n (T H D ) o f vB (t) as a function of the loaded Q T and the nonlinear load. Thus, once a specific n o n lin ear load is specified, we may determ ine Q T to keep the T H D below a desired level. At the outset o f the analysis we assum e th a t the T H D is sufficiently small (say below 5 %) so th a t the current waveform s obtained assum ing v j t ) = Vx cos oj0t in the circuit of Fig. 5.5-1 very closely approxim ate the actual current waveform. W ith this assum ption th e expression for i0(t), and in tu rn the expressions for the ion{t) sources of Fig. 5.5-2, can be o b tained using the steady-state value of K ,. C onsequently, the harm onic d isto rtio n com ponent of v j t ) can be obtained by determ ining the con trib u tio n s of the various harm onic current sources of Fig. 5.5-2 flowing through the parallel R L C circuit. Specifically, if we define
I n i i in h in l max
(/ is the am plitude of the total m h-harm onic current com ponent flowing into the parallel R L C circuit) and
/. = |/,1 /oil
then from Eq. (3.5-4) Z u ( jn u ) q) THD = Y n=2 Z 11 (ju>o) (5.5 11)
where Z , ,(./to) is the input im pedance of the parallel R L C circuit. Since the Q of the parallel R L C circuit is assum ed to be high, then from Eq. (3.4-12) ZuUnwo) ^ ZnO coo) C, n
~ co0C n2 - T
5 .5
193
E quation (5.5-11) can therefore be rew ritten in the form

2
(5.5-12) It is ap p aren t, however, th at
hence h i = G + G nl 11 G and the T H D reduces to the desired form
(5.5-13)
where Q T = co0C/{G + GNL). F o r any nonlinear load, the ratio I J I n may be d eter m ined in the steady state. If the m axim um tolerable T H D is specified, then Eq. (5.5-13) m ay be solved (em ploying the first few term s in the series) to yield the m inim um perm issible value of Q T. As an exam ple of this technique, let us determ ine the m inim um value of Q T which keeps the T H D less th a n 0.01 (1 %) for the circuit in Fig. 5.5-9. In this circuit the steady-state value of v(t) is given by v(t) = (2.5 V )cos 107t; therefore, the ideal diode conducts only o n the positive peak of v(t), an d i0(t) is constrained to flow in extrem ely narrow pulses. H ow ever, for narrow pulses, / = / = / ,. In addition, since Iol = In - V & = (\ mA) | mA,
then I 0J I n = j . S ubstitution of this ratio into Eq. (5.5-13) yields (cf. Eq. 3.5-5)
It is now a p p aren t that, to keep the T H D below 0.01, Q r m ust be greater than 47. A value of Q T = 10 yields a T H D = 0.047 (* 5 % ). Sm oothly Varying N onlinearities If the n onlinear load show n in Fig. 5.5-1 has no ab ru p t changes in slope, we can often appro x im ate its v0-i0 characteristic by a polynom ial com prising the first few
194
5 .5
term s of its M acL auren expansion, th a t is, L(t) = a0 + a ^ t ) + a2[v0(t)]2 + a 3[u0(t)]3 + . (5.5-14)
If the v0-i0 characteristic is know n analytically, then the coefficients a m ay be eval uated in the form (5.5-15)
I\> = 0
a"
n ! dv,
H ow ever, if the v0-i0 characteristic is available only graphically, then a polynom ial of the desired o rd er can be fitted to the characteristic by stan d ard curve-fitting techniques. O nce a polynom ial form for the v-i0 characteristic is obtained, it is a simple m atter to determ ine the equivalent linear loading on a high-Q tuned circuit and the resultant level o f v(t). Specifically, if u0(t) = Vl cos oj0t and we approxim ate i(t) by a polynom ial of ord er 3, then i0(t) = a 0 + ajK , c o s o v + a 2V \ cos2 cu0t + cos3 co0t. (5.5-16)
E q u atio n (5.5-16) m ay be arranged in Fourier-series form by use of the trigonom etric identities co s3 co0t = | cos a)0t + 5 cos 3<y0i T hus a2Vi , L i0(t) = a0 + , 3fl3 I/2| + -V j j c o s co0t and cos2 to0t = j + j cos 2 u> 0t.
+ ~ ^ V \ cos 2co0i + ~ V i cos 3<w0t, from which we observe th at /i = V M x + & 3V \) and Gnl = ^ Hence, if I n an d G are know n, then / ., = G Vl + Vl(al + | a 3.V2) = a , + & 3V l
(5.5-17)
(5.5-18)
(5.5-19)
(5.5-20)
and a cubic eq u atio n for o btaining V, is obtained which m ay be solved graphically o r analytically. F o r exam ple, if ^ a t G = 1 m m ho, 4 m m ho a3 = , and I n = 5 mA,
then the steady-state value o f p(i) is (1 V) cos co0i and the equivalent linear loading o f the n onlinear load is GNL = 4 m m ho.
5 .6
TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR LOW-INDEX AM INPUT
195
5.6
TRANSFER FUNCTIO N FOR LOW -INDEX AM INPUT
In this analysis we apply a low -index AM signal o f the form v,{t) = [V, + Ui(f)] cos 0)0t, w here ^ ( t) to the generalized capacitively couplea input circuit show n in Fig. 5.6-1 an d determ ine the resultant AM variations on the envelope of the fun dam ental com ponent of i',(t). W e then ad ap t the analysis to the specific transistor am plifier show n in Fig. 5.3-1.
v ,(f ) =
V\(t) cos u ) / = [ Vx+ i.(0 = /o (0 + A (0 cos u * +
V |(/> ]
cos
uM
A i0 =l4c+kAt) /j(0 = /i + ii(i) K (0 = K + n>(0

Fig. 5.6-1 G eneralized capacitively coupled nonlinear in p u t circuit.
Because of the nonlinear load, variations in the envelope of u,-(t) produce varia tions not only in the envelope of i,(f) but also in Vc and the average value of i',(r). The form of these variations, which we assum e to be small in com parison with the quiescent values of the respective p aram eters [i.e., the values obtained with v t(t) 0], is show n in Fig. 5.6-1. If sm all variations are assum ed, it is ap p aren t th at
M O = G n t M 0 + G i0v0(t),
i0(t) = G0 lv l(t) + G00v0(t), and, in addition,
*o(0
(5.6-1)
J v o ( t) dt
(5.6-2)
where
G G 0,
dio
d L SVX Q-pt and 8V, Q-pt
_ d i,
dVc Q-pt II O o o
d l0 W c 0-pi
196
5.6
[Q-pt denotes Vc = K.C an d V ^t) = KJ. T hus, by expressing Eqs. (5.6-1) and (5.6-2) in Laplace transform n o ta tio n a n d elim inating /0(i) and v0(t), we obtain G Yl(p) = Ji (P) K (p ) l/r GioGo, P + C c " - ~ G ^ i P +
(5.6-3)
where / t(p) = and Fi(/>) = i?[>j(r)]. The transfer function Yj(p) perm its the determ in atio n of ^(r) once the form of v t(t) is known. F o r the capacity coupled tran sisto r am plifier of Fig. 5.3-1, /.(t) = iE(t) [ESeqVci,)lkTeqV'(1),kT cos cat (5.6 4)
= W
where x(i) = qVAt) kT '
1 + 2w
i CO S(U t+
I Eo(t ) = i ESi 0[ m e qVc(mT, and
hence
S I EO q l de Q -pt
^00
svc
S I EO
= kT
O
in
(5.6-5a)
r'
dx
Q - pt
^01
SV>
= g
Q-pt
dx 'SVx
i iW f o to
[nok: ^ 2/i(x )
= /,< * )],
(5.6 5b)
G io and
S I El
(5.6-5c)
e- p ,
g in / 0 t o
G =
a / 1 s Vi le-pt
d/ F1 Sx
dx dV
Q - pt
(cf. Eq. A -l 1).
(5.6-5d)
5.6
TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR LOW-INDEX AM INPUT
197
C onsequently, Y,(p) is given by 1*i (P) = 2gin

P + w h e re r = C /g in a n d
W
x l 0(x)
A(x) P +
(5.6-6)
/ i(x) Jo(x ) A(x) = 1 /.(* ) 1 x l 0(x) (5.6-7)
A p lo t o f A(x) vs. x is given in Fig. 5.6-2. It can be show n (by differentiating Eq. (5.6-8)) that d dx h(x) I q(x )
I l(x ) x / 0(x)
(x) =
1
(5.6-8)
thus, for sm all values of p (or u>), Y(p) is given by

YM * ^ ( 0 ) = g in d x I 0(x)
d 2/,(x )
(5.6-9)
which is, of course, the admittance which relates small static variations in K, to / 1. F ro m the pole-zero d iagram for Yt(p) it is a p p aren t th at the m axim um frequency com ponent ajm of ^ ( i ) o r V ,(t) m ust be a t least an octave below A (x)/t, for any given value of x, to perm it the use of the static transfer function relating I E1 an d Vx for the case of dynam ic envelope variations. T his restriction m ay be expressed in term s of the inequality
co_t to ~C
-jf\= /(x )
ginA(x)
2-
(5.6-10)
Since A(.x) decreases with increasing x, the m axim um perm issible value of the coupling capacitor w hich satisfies Eq. (5.6-10) also decreases. F o r exam ple, if
x = 10 ,
A(x) = 0.0059
and Si.
< 0.0118.
H o w e v e r, fro m E q . (5.3 20), u>C/gin > 4 0 7 t ; th e r e fo re , fo r c o r r e c t o p e r a t io n o f th e
circuit o f Fig. 5.3-1, we require u>

> 1.06 x 1 0 4.
198
5 .6
Fig. 5.6-2 Plot of A(x) vs. x.
Even though this restriction m ay be relaxed som ew hat, we see th at if the circuit is to function as a n a rro w b an d lim iter, w hich necessitates large values o f x for its correct operation, there m ust exist a large separation between the m axim um m odulation frequency an d the carrier frequency. If this separation is n o t achieved, the circuit fails to lim it properly, even though its static transfer characteristic indicates th a t it should. C onsequently, in lim iter applications, the single-ended tran sisto r is not particularly satisfactory and the differential pair, which m ay be operated w ithout a coupling capacitor, finds m ore w idespread use.
PROBLEMS
199
PROBLEM S
5.1 Show that a reasonable approximation for the steady-state values of the source current,
/s(i), an d the o u tp u t voltage, vjt), for the circuit o f Fig. 5.P 1(a) is given by the results show n in Fig. 5. P -1(b). Assum e th a t C is an ac short circuit. 5.2 F ind the steady-state value of v(t) in Fig. 5.P-2. H ow m uch average pow er is consum ed in the 1 k ft resistor after the cap acito r voltage reaches equilibrium ? 5.3 The repetitive w aveshape show n is applied to the circuit in Fig. 5.P-3. F ind the dc capacitor voltage and the shape and am plitude o f the silicon diode current. 5.4 Sketch the collector cu rren t w aveshape an d find the collector voltage an d the dc capacitor voltage in Fig. 4.P-4.
30 usee 0V 260 mV
OJ
3 usee
L T 0
iD = Ise " m,kT (a) 30 usee 30 usee - 580 mV /s = 2 x - mA
2 mA
18 m A
I T
3 usee
is(t)
840 mV
HJ
I I
3 usee
LT
?(/)
(b)
Figure 5.P -1
200
1000 IiF
Figure 5.P-4
5.5 Use the m odel o f Fig. 5.P-5(b) w ith the assum ption th at all o f the 5 mA flows through the diode to determ ine an initial value for in the circuit of Fig. 5.P 5(a). T hen approxim ate I r Vi J R and refine / = (5 mA) / to find a second (and final) value for K dc. F ind the ou tp u t collector voltage for this final case. C om pare the results with those obtained em ploy ing Fig. 5.4-5. 5.6 W hat is the em itter-current conduction angle in the circuit of Fig. 5.P-5(a)? W hat is the approxim ate value o f the peak em itter current in this circuit? H ow large m ust the capacitor be if co0 = 1 x 10 and the cap acito r voltage should vary less than 2 % over the period o f a sine wave after equilibrium is reached? 5.7 F o r the circuit of Fig. 5.P-6, find the dc voltage across the 10,000 p F capacitor, the funda m ental com ponent of the diode current, the equivalent linear loss resistance of the diode, and the ac pow er loss in the 1 k il resistor. Explain and justify your assum ptions. 5.8 Assume th a t the voltage source o f Fig. 5 .P -6 is replaced by a coil of QL = 150 at 108 rad/sec a n d :a sinusoidal current source of rad ian frequency 108 rad/sec and peak am plitude of f mA: T he coil is tuned to resonance w ith the effective input capacitance of the tw o capac itors. W hat is the fundam ental diode current? W hat is the loaded Q of the tuned circuit?
PROBLEMS
201
ac short circuit
(a) C
(b)
Figure 5 .P 5
100 p F
Figure 5.P -6
202
5.9
Explain how the results o f P roblem s 5.7 and 5.8 w ould be m odified if the radian frequency were reduced to 107 rad/sec.
5.10 F ind the o u tp u t voltage, v0{t), and the fundam ental and third-harm onic diode currents for the circuit o f Fig. 5.P-7. 5.11 F in d the to tal harm onic disto rtio n in v(t) in the circuit of Fig. 5.4-7. 5.12 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.P -8, determ ine an expression for v(t) a n d vjt). ac short circuit
(1 m A) cos WoI ^
:C =2000pF
:2 k ii
5 pH
=2 0 0
C D4
v (0
W o-l/V ZC
Figure 5.P -7
L = 2 x e -30 mA
PROBLEMS
203
5 .1 4
5.13 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.P- 9, find u,(f) an d v0(t). Also sketch iE2{t). F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 5.P-10, determ ine an expression for v(t) an d the equivalent linear loading across the tuned circuit for each of the following nonlinear loads and input current levels / , . In each case find the T H D present in i'Jt): a) 1 1 = 4 mA, iD = l se ,,,kT (see Fig. 5 .P -lla ), b) / 1 = 2 mA (see Fig 5.P-1 lb), c) / , = 2 mA, i = (20/jV/V3) ^ + (IO/iV/V5)^5, d) / j = 2 mA (see Fig. 5.P 1 lc), e) / , = 1.5 mA (see Fig. 5 .P -lld ). 5.15 F in d the dc voltage across the in p u t capacitor in the circuit of Fig. 4.P-11. E stim ate the shape (conduction angle and peak value) o f the collector cu rren t pulse for this case. R epeat for the case in w hich the source im pedance is reduced to 5 Q. W h at is the form an d m ag nitude of v j t ) for this case? D oes the tran sisto r saturate?
204
' 1mA
(b) Ideal Ideal
20 k n
Figure 5.P-11
CHAPTER 6
S IN U SO ID A L O SCILLATO RS
In this chapter we com bine the results of all the previous chapters to explore the design and analysis of a num ber of sinusoidal or alm ost sinusoidal oscillator circuits. O nce the w aveshape of the output of such a circuit is specified as sinusoidal, then the two properties th at rem ain to be defined are the operating frequency and the o u tp u t am plitude. A good p ortion of this ch apter will be devoted to exam ining the frequency- an d am plitude-determ ining m echanism s of various circuits, the stabilities of these m echanism s with variables such as time, tem perature, or supply voltage, and the interrelationships betw een am plitude and frequency. T here are m ethods of p roducing sinusoidal signals by filtering separately p ro duced square waves or im pulse chains o r by the nonm em ory shaping of triangular w av es; however, the discussion o f such circuits will be reserved for C h apter 11. B oth from the view point o f the techniques em ployed and from th at of the prac tical division o f circuits, it is convenient to consider m ost o f o u r circuits as belonging to one of tw o classes. In the first class we com bine a tw o-port active device with a twoport passive netw ork in a feedback configuration. In the second type we com bine a one-port active device in parallel with a one-port passive netw ork. O bviously some circuits m ay be considered from either viewpoint. In spite of this, the division is still useful. We shall first consider the feedback type of circuitry. In subsequent sections we shall consider the one-port or negative-resistance circuits. All sine-wave oscillators m ust, at the m inim um , contain a) b) c) an active device w ith pow er gain at the operating frequency (the circuit m ust supply not only an o u tp u t signal b u t also its own input driving signal), a frequency-determ ining elem ent o r netw ork, and an am plitude-lim iting an d stabilization m echanism .
In practical circuits these functions may becom e quite interm ingled. H owever, initially we shall consider these o p erations separately so that the necessary or desir able properties of each one m ay becom e evident.
6.1 O P E R A T IN G FR E Q U E N C Y AND M IN IM U M GAIN C O N D IT IO N S FO R LIN EA R -FEED B A C K O S C IL L A T O R S
In o rd er to sustain sinusoidal oscillations, a netw ork m ust have a pair of complex conjugate poles in the right-half com plex plane when pow er is applied a t t = 0 . T hese right-half plane poles, when excited by therm al noise o r the step generated by closing the pow er switch, give rise to a sinusoidal o u tp u t voltage with an expon
205
206
SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
6.1
entially grow ing envelope. If such a netw ork has been designed to sustain a constantam p litu d e sinusoidal o u tp u t voltage, then, as the envelope o f the noise-induced sine wave increases, it causes a change in the value of one o r m ore o f the netw ork p aram eters (usually the am plification) in such a direction th a t the com plex conjugate poles m ove to w ard th e im aginary axis. Finally, a t som e predeterm ined am plitude of the grow ing sinusoid, the poles reach the im aginary axis and a constant-am plitude sinusoidal o u tp u t is realized. If for som e reason the o u tp u t increases further, the poles m ove in to the left-half plane a n d the o u tp u t decreases tow ard the desired level, w here again th e poles lie on the im aginary axis. W e now see th a t the basic requirem ent for a sinusoidal oscillator consists of a p air o f sm all-signal com plex conjugate right-half plane poles, which determ ine the frequency o f oscillation, plus a m echanism for m oving these poles tow ard the
im aginary axis as the envelope o f the o u tp u t w aveform increases. This m echanism determ ines th e steady-state oscillation am plitude. In o rd er to o b tain right-half plane poles, we require som e form o f feedback. Figure 6.1-1 illustrates a generalized feedback am plifier w hose transfer function is given by V0{p) V&p) AH^jp) AH ,(p)
1- AHM HM
i -
w here A L{p) = A H i(p)H2(p) is defined as the loop g a in o f the amplifier. It is a p p aren t th a t the poles o f th e feedback am plifier are the zeros o r ro o ts of l - A L{p) = 0. (6. 1- 2)
T hus if Eq. (6.1-2) has a p air o f com plex conjugate ro o ts in the right-half plane, v0(t) will be a grow ing sinusoid even with ^(i) = 0. T he process o f designing a sinusoidal oscillator now becom es clear. We select a suitable pole-zero p attern for A L(p) = A H 1{p)H2(p) which causes one p air o f com plex conjugate ro o ts of Eq. (6.1-2) (and no o th er ro o ts otherw ise unw anted oscillations m ight occur) to cross the im aginary axis at a pre determ ined frequency w0 as A (or A) is increased. We also determ ine the m inim um value /l min of A which places the ro o ts on the im aginary axis, and choose A som ew hat larger than this value to ensure self-starting. We then incorporate som e nonlinear
6.1
FREQUENCY AND GAIN CONDITIONS FOR LINEAR-FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS
207
m echanism which reduces A to A min as the o u tp u t oscillation grow s tow ard a desired am plitude. Finally, we choose a netw ork having the desired A L{p) and com bine w ith it the desired n onlinear am plitude limiting. T o arrive a t pole-zero p attern s for
A P)
= A H t( p ) H 2(p)
which are capable of producing oscillations, we start with the sim plest pole-zero configurations an d plot the loci of the ro o ts o f Eq. (6.1-2) as A is increased from zero to infinity an d is decreased from zero to m inus infinity. We then increase the com plexity o f the pole-zero diag ram and repeat the ro o t locus plot until a num ber of pole-zero d iagram s capable o f p roducing com plex conjugate right-half plane roots are obtained. T his ap p ro ach im m ediately indicates th at A L{p) m ust have two or m ore poles to cause Eq. (6.1-2) to have right-half plane com plex conjugate roots. F o r exam ple, with . , , Aciip + w 2) A l(P) : ;------r o2(p + a>!) the ro o t locus is show n in Fig. 6.1-2 as A is increased (a) and then decreased (b) from zero. W e see from the figure th a t a pole does indeed enter the right-half plane as A is increased. H ow ever, since it is a real-axis pole, the result is a grow ing exponential w aveform an d n o t a grow ing sinusoidal oscillation.
J C
jiii
, ^ Au>i(p+ui)
l ( p)
u> p
u, )
> 0
<T
A< 0 U l2
U|
W2
tL|
C T
Locus with increasing A (a)
Locus with decreasing A
(b)
Fig. 6.1-2 Root locus of AL(p) with a single pole. We also find th a t if A L{p) has two poles and no zeros, oscillations are impossible. T he simplest pole-zero com bin atio n for A L(p) which is capable of producing right-half plane ro o ts in Eq. (6.1-2) is the com bination o f tw o poles and one zero. T he root locus for this case with A { )= A( lP L (p + W,)(p + 0)2) is show n in Fig. 6.1-3, from which we observe th at positive feedback, A > 0, is required for oscillations. It is ap p aren t th at for A > 0 the zero m ay m ove som ew hat into the left-half plane w ith o u t destroying the possibility of oscillation.
208
6.1
JW AP)= Au)\p (P + cdiKP+ cd) u 2 A< 0
-to,
Fig. 6.1 -3 Root locus of A L(p) with two poles and a zero. T o determ ine the frequency of oscillation a> 0 (i.e., the point at which the roots cross the im aginary axis) an d the m inim um gain A for oscillations (i.e., the value of A which ju st places the ro o ts on the im aginary axis), we assum e A = A min. W ith -4 = A min, p = jco0 m ust be a solution of Eq. (6.1-2). Hence A L(j(O0) = 1, o r equivalently, A L(ja)0) = 1. J m A L{jC0) = 0.
(6.1-3)
(6.1 4a) (6.1 4b)
E quatio n s (6. l- 4 a and b) provide a necessary condition for oscillation (this condition is know n as the B arkhausen criterion) and thus a set of two equations for solving for A min and io0. T he B arkhausen criterion m akes sense intuitively, since it states that at the frequency o f oscillation co0 the signal m ust traverse the loop with no a tte n u a tion and w ith no phase shift. W ith A L{p) = A w xpj{p + (,)(p + co2).
A l (jojo) =
. ,
'4mina ,la,o(-,la,2 Wo) 2 - = 0. cooicji + a> 2) + ((0c l > 2 w0)

o j0
s / c l > 1 u>2 ,
from w hich it is ap p aren t th at co0 = y/co]u>2. In addition, Eq. (6. l-4a). w ith yields
J )t A L(jco0) =
W t
C , + co2
1,
fr o m w h ic h w e o b ta in
^min
(O,
6.1
209
F ig u r e 6 . 1 4 illu s tr a te s a s m a ll-s ig n a l o r lin e a r m o d e l fo r a c irc u it w ith th e p o le z e ro d ia g ra m sh o w n in F ig . 6 .1 - 3 . F o r th is c ir c u it A L(p) is giv en by
th u s A = A '2. o ;, = R L. a n d oj2 =__\;RC. If 1/ R C = R L, th e n w e h a v e th e sp e c ia l c a se w h e re w , = w 2 = w 0 = l / v L C a n d A min = 2 o r 4 min = N 2. A n o th e r w a y to c o n s id e r th e c ir c u it o f Fig. 6. 1 3 is to a sk a t w h a t s in u s o id a l fre q u e n c y th e p h a s e sh ift a r o u n d th e lo o p is z e ro . T h e first s ta g e h a s a sin g le p o le a t - R / L : h e n c e its p h a s e g o e s fro m z e ro to 90 a s oj g o e s fro m z e ro to in fin ity . T h e s e c o n d s ta g e h a s a z e ro a t th e o rig in a n d a p o le a t - 1 R C ; h e n c e its p h a s e g o e s fro m -(-90 to z e ro a s io g o e s fro m z e ro to in fin ity . If 1 /K C = R L. th e n th e o v e ra ll z e ro p h a s e -s h ift p o in t is a t = 1 R C . (A t th is p o in t th e m a g n itu d e o f th e p h a s e shift fro m e a c h c ir c u it is 45.) A t th is fre q u e n c y e a c h n e tw o rk h a s a n a tt e n u a ti o n o f 3 d B : h e n c e a g a in p e r s ta g e o f v 2 is r e q u ir e d to ra ise th e lo o p g a in b a c k to u n ity . T h is g a in d o e s n o t h a v e to b e s p r e a d th r o u g h th e c irc u it, b u t c a n b e c o n c e n tr a te d in o n e p o in t. In s te a d o f tw o real-a.x is p o le s a n d a z e ro a t th e o rig in , A L(p) c a n b e c h o s e n to h a v e a p a ir o f c o m p le x c o n ju g a te le ft-h a lf p la n e p o le s a n d a z e ro a t o r n e a r th e o rig in . T h e r o o t lo c u s fo r th is c a se w ith A L(p) =
Apw0
(6.1 5)
+ l a p + Mq
is s h o w n in Fig. 6 .1 -5 . H e r e a g a in w e o b s e r v e t h a t o s c illa tio n s a re p o s s ib le o n ly fo r 4 > 0. H o w e v e r, th is p o le - z e ro c o n f ig u r a tio n h a s tw o a d v a n ta g e s o v e r th e c o n fig u ra tio n w ith re a l-a x is p o le s. F ir s t, a s m a lle r / l min is r e q u ir e d to p r o d u c e o s c illa tio n s. Specifically, for this pole-zero pattern we fin d , employing the Barkhausen c r ite r io n , th a t 0) 0 = w 0 and
2a 1 A min = r = ,
io0
Qt
210
6.1
jw Alp) p2 f 2a/H A< 0 A> 0
a W o w0
Fig. 6.1-5 Root locus for A L(p) with two complex conjugate poles and a zero at the origin.
w here Q T is the Q of the passive circuit w ithin the feedback loop. Clearly, then, as Q t increases, th e required am plification o f the active elem ent w ithin the feedback loop decreases. A second advantage o f the com plex conjugate poles of A L(p) is increased fre quency stability. If spurious poles and zeros should ap p ear in the pole-zero p a tte rn o f A L(p) because of p arasitic capacitance and inductance, the ro o t locus is m odified som ew hat. H ow ever, if the poles o f A L(p) are sufficiently close to the im aginary axis to start with, then the m odified loci are still constrained to cross the im aginary axis relatively close to co 0. T his frequency stability m ay be observed from a different p o int o f view. If the passive netw ork h as a high Q r , its phase shift varies rapidly w ith frequency in the vicinity o f co'0 (cf. Fig. 2.2-7). T herefore, spurious phase shifts introduced by parasitic elem ents w ithin th e feedback lo o p require only a small change in frequency from oS0 to p ro d u ce a com pensating phase shift from the high-Q r netw ork an d a net zero phase shift aro u n d th e loop. T hus the higher the value o f Q T, th e sm aller the devia tio n from oi\o to th e frequency co0 a t w hich zero loop phase shift exists an d oscillations are possible. F o r exam ple, w ith A L(p) given by Eq. (6.1-5), the phase (f>o f A L(joj) in the vicinity o f oj0 ' is given by
( 6. 1- 6 )
w'0 and d
d a > tOb
2Q t
(O 'o '
T hus, w ith Q = 104 (typical of a q u a rtz crystal), a 1 (0.0176-rad) shift in the overall loop phase shift leads to only an 87 rad/sec o r a 13.8 H z shift in frequency in an < t0 = 108 rad/sec oscillator.
6.1
211
Fig. 6.1 -6 O scillator circuit with A,_(p) having a pair of complex conjugate poles and a zero at the origin.
F ig u re 6.1 6 illu s tra te s o n e o f m a n y s m a ll-s ig n a l o s c illa to r c irc u its w h o se lo o p tra n s fe r A , ( p ) c o n ta in s a p a ir o f c o m p le x c o n ju g a te p o les a n d a ze ro at th e o rig in . F o r th is c irc u it. A L(p) is g iv en by , , , ( g mn / G T)(2ap ) p + 2ocp +
1/.'/>> =
w h ere co0 = 1 N
----- -,2 i
oj0
' (' l
a = G r / C , a n d G T = G L + n 2G in. T h is c ir c u it c o u ld b e re a liz e d 1 c a sc a d e d w ith a c o m m o n R e g a r d le s s o f h o w
by a n y o f th e tr a n s fo r m e r lik e n e tw o rk s sh o w n in T a b le 2.5
b a s e tr a n s is to r , a c o m m o n g rid trio d e , o r a c o m m o n g a te F E T .
th e c irc u it o f F ig . 6 . 1 - 6 is im p le m e n te d , th e m in im u m g m re q u ire d fo r o s c illa tio n at
(Uq ==
is
= 7 -
(6 -1 -8 )
w h ich d e c re a s e s w ith d e c re a s in g G T o r, e q u iv a le n tly , w ith in c re a s in g Q r = co0 C / G T . F ig u r e 6 . 1 - 7 illu s tr a te s th e r o o t lo c i fo r s e v e ra l o th e r p o le -z e r o p a tte r n s fo r A L(p) w h ich a re c a p a b le o f o s c illa tio n s . In c lu d e d in th e figu re a re th e c o r re s p o n d in g v alu es o f w 0 a n d A min. T h e n e tw o rk s w h ic h y ie ld lo o p g a in s w ith su ch p o le -z e r o d ia g ra m s a re e x p lo re d in s u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s an d in th e p ro b le m s a t th e end o f th e c h a p te r. It s h o u ld b e n o te d in p a ssin g , h o w e v e r, t h a t b e c a u s e o f th e c lo s e n e s s o f th e p o le a n d z e ro in F ig . 6 .1 7 (b ) (th e M e a c h a m b rid g e ), s p u rio u s p o le s a n d z e ro s h av e v ery little e ffe ct o n th e y -a x is c ro s s in g o f th e r o o t s ; th u s th is c o n fig u r a tio n sh o u ld s u rp a ss th e o th e r s in its a b ility to m a in ta in a s ta b le fre q u en cy . In n o c a s e is th e r o o t lo c u s p lo t n e c e s s a ry to so lv e a n o s c illa to r p ro b le m . I t d o e s h e lp in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e a c tio n o f th e c ir c u it a n d a ls o in d e te r m in in g w h e th e r it is p o s sib le fo r a c ir c u it to o s c illa te a t a s e c o n d u n d e sire d fre q u e n cy . A n a lte r n a tiv e m e th o d o f e x p lo r in g th e o s c illa tin g p o te n tia l o f a c ir c u it is to p lo t th e p h a s e a n g le o f A L(ja j) vs. o) a n d to d e te r m in e w h e th e r 0 o r 2 n o f p h a s e e x ists a t a fre q u e n cy w h e re \A,(j(i>)\ e x c e e d s u n ity (cf. E q . 6 .1 -3 ).
212
6.1
Wien bridge A>0 (a)
A (n)= (P2 ~ 2aP+<*>lU2) C i -f*> 2
Ya
tUO=tUa vib
A l(p Y'4m m=
A ( p 2 - 2 a \ p f c 2)
(p2 + 2a2p + ^2) 02 n i.
M eacham bridge X
j 10
--0
/u'o
(b)
A> 0
a2 a i
> 0 = (1 0 AL(pY
Phase shift 1 JU1
(^+<Ul)(p+W2) (P + U > 3 ) /
X
-C2\
A< 0
(c)
+ l> 2- # - Am ,n = _ (2 + j C 3+ C 3+ C 2 C C j C ] >
J0 - VCJ, J2 -C2C 3 01, 0),
xvx0Ji J V
AL (p) =
j ( p + u iX p+ti)2)(P+ W 3)
Phase shift 2 JtU
/ < ^3 <^3 <^2 +y i )

Jo =
^ ^<0
(d )
^1
- UJ w2 ^
oil u> 2a> 3 W , +W2 + C l> 3
Fig. 6.1 7 R oot loci for several A,(p) capable of producing oscillations.
6.2 A M P L IT U D E -L IM IT IN G M E C H A N IS M S
So far we have ignored the problem of the determ ination of the am plitude at which the oscillations stabilize. At least four different m ethods or com binations of m ethods of am plitude stabilization are em ployed in practical circuits. a) O ne or m ore tem perature-sensitive resistors (a therm istor, a low -voltage light bulb, or a sem iconductor resistor) are used to build an attenuator. T his powersensitive a tte n u a to r is constructed so th a t its a tte n tu atio n X increases with increasing drive level. It is inserted in the feedback loop in which the sm all-signal am plification
6 .2
AMPLITUDE-LIMITING MECHANISMS
213
_______ A~UVl)Ao________
I V\ A ttenuator Amplifier " ]
COS U V
Total loop amplifier
Input operating amplitude
Fig. 6.2-1 N o n lin ear atten u a to r as loop am plitude stabilizer. exceeds the m inim um required for oscillation. The result is a curve of loop gain scale factor A vs. a tte n u a to r in p u t drive such as the one show n in Fig. 6.2-1. T he therm al tim e co n stan t of the a tte n u a to r is m ade long in com parison with the period of the lowest frequency expected from the oscillator; hence in the steady state the a tte n u a to r is linear. If, in addition, the signal levels in the active device are kept w ithin the lineat range of the device, low -distortion sinusoidal signals exist th ro u g h o u t the loop. The long therm al time constant im poses a lim itation both on the lowest fre quency of o p eratio n and on the rate at which such oscillators can be swept or changed in frequency. This ap p ro ach is widely used in audio- and video-frequency laboratory signal generators, particularly those of the RC netw ork types. It is particularly applicable for ad ju stin g R , a n d /o r R 3 in the W ien bridge and M eacham bridge oscil lators show n in later sections and in the problem s at the end of the ch a p ter.t b) A second technique, which also produces low -distortion sinusoidal oscillations at all points th ro u g h o u t the feedback loop is the use of an am plitude detector (any of the types discussed in Section 10.2 or Section 10.4) to provide a control signal, p ro p o rtio n al to the am plitude of the sinusoidal output, to inversely control the gain of some am plifier w ithin the oscillator loop. Again the gain should decrease with increasing am plitude, so th at a characteristic sim ilar to Fig. 6.2-1 results. T here is
+ H undreds of com m ercial therm istors (negative-temperature-coefficient resistors) exist. Resist ance values for 25C are available from I i i or less up to 1 M ii, with therm al time constants from 2 sec up to 200 sec o r more. N o t all com binations are available, n or are all units satisfactory from the reactive view point for blind insertion into any network. M any units have only 20% tolerance and all are subject to variations with am bient tem perature. Any tungsten filam ent lam p with a rating of 6 W or less may be used as a positive-tem peraturecoefficient resistor. H o t resistances may be ten times as great as cold resistances. If the operating tem perature is considerably above the am bient (but below incandescence), then the am bient variations will be m uch less significant than for a therm istor. Cold resistance (25C) values range from below 1 O for 1 V flashlight bulbs to perhaps 400 i i for a 3 W, 120 V light bulb. Several o f the references in Section 6.7 contain extensive d ata on such units. Later examples will contain illustrative d ata on som e units.
214
6.2
no necessity for either the am plitude detector or the gain-controlled am plifier to have a linear characteristic w ith respect to the envelope of the detector drive signal. T he gain-controlled am plifier, however, m ust have a linear transfer characteristic if the oscillations th ro u g h o u t the loop are to have low distortion. As in case (a), the m ore steeply the variable-gain curve cuts through the required gain line, the better the am plitude stability will be. c) A third an d very com m on form of am plitude stabilization uses the nonlinearity of the active device to provide the am plitude-lim iting feature for the circuit. In such cases the active device m ust be followed by a narro w b an d filter, which passes only the oscillation frequency, in o rd er to rem ove the harm onics generated by the n o n linear active elem ent an d th us m aintain a sinusoidal o u tp u t signal. M ost tuned oscillators sim ilar to the one show n in Fig. 6.1-6 do provide the necessary filtering a t the o u tp u t of the active device. If the nonlinear device is a com m on base transistor, then its effective tra n s conductance at the oscillation frequency is Gm (x), which is plotted vs. x in Fig. 4.5 6. Clearly, if for x = 0 (Kt = 0) and Gm (x) = gm0 the sm all-signal value o f A L {jcL>0 ) is som e n u m b er M w hich is g reater th an unity, then when pow er is applied to the oscil la to r at t = 0 th e am plitu d e o f the sinusoidal in put to the tran sisto r grow s until it reaches a value Ki0 (or x 0) for which A L ( j a ) 0 ) [or equivalently, Gm (x)] has decreased
Fig. 6.2-2 Characteristic for self amplitude stabilization. by a factor o f M from its sm all-signal value. Therefore, x 0 an d in tu rn Vl0 k T x J q m ay be o b tain ed by determ ining a t w h at p o in t Gm(x)/gmQ = 1/M as illustrated in Fig. 6.2-2. F o r exam ple, if M 2, then from Fig. 4.5-6 x 0 = 3.3. As we shall see, any o f the no n lin ear characteristics o f fundam ental current vs. sinusoidal drive voltage of C h ap ter 4 m ay be used as the basis for an am plitude stabilization scheme. d) A fourth m eans of am plitude stabilization is presented by the problem of Exam ple 5.5-3, w here a d io d e-b attery com bination is used to limit the o u tp u t sine wave from a tuned circuit. W hile it is alw ays possible to add an external diode and pow er supply, such additional circuitry m ay becom e available naturally in tran sisto r or ju n ctio n F E T
6.2
AMPLITUDE-LIMITING MECHANISMS
215
9V rc= 12 V
^ ;v
Fig. 6.2 3 C ollector-base limiting.
circuits when .he collector-base or drain-gate diode is driven to the edge of con duction once per cycle. Figure 6.2 3 illustrates the situation. From Eq. (4.5-13) and Table 4.5 1 we can evaluate the peak amplitude of the fundamental com ponent of the collector current, / , , in terms of / dc and the peak amplitude of r,ii). In this case, i, 0.98
x
1.79 = 1.75 mA.
iovv if i-jr were large enough we would have a peak tank voituge of R Tl t 17.5 V '. Since I ( ( - 17.5 V. the collector-base diode of the upper transistor} conducts when ,(0 exceeds 12 7 V ; this limits the output tank voltage to a sinusoidal peak amplitude ; f 12 7 V provided that Q T > 10. N ote that for the oscillator is derived from . ,it): hence onot' limiting from collector saturation occurs. wc l ;.ow the peak tuned . irc.i voltage i.nd m turn rhe feedback network yields iiv va'ii-.- of rM} With -ti> ; !i; .* -.A ta n then determine / . The ratio t J; I , _ ;d d the equ,valent : near loading of the tuned-collector circuit, from which we can determine Q f and, in turn. ihe iiis;orlk r? of the output sinusoid.
216
S IN U S O ID A L O S C IL L A T O R S
6 .3
6.3 F R E Q U E N C Y STABILITY
O n e o f the m ore im p o rta n t attrib u tes of an oscillator is its ability to m aintain an o u tp u t frequency w hich is independent of changes in tem perature, supply voltage, circuit loading, hum idity, etc. U ndesired frequency variations can, in general, be broken in to tw o b ro ad categories: d ire ct frequency variations and in direct frequency variations. D irect frequency variations result from changes in the p a ra m eters which directly co n tro l co0. F o r exam ple, for the oscillator o f Fig. 6.1-6 co0 is given by co0 = 1 /^ /L C ; hence, if L or C varies w ith tem perature, a > 0 also varies w ith tem perature. Q u an titativ ely this variation in a> 0 m ay be expressed in the form ^ - - L f e 4L + ^?A c) to0 co0 \ o L oC I
_
(6.3-1,
AC' 2 \ L + ~C
where Aco is the variation of the oscillation frequency resulting from variations of AL an d A C in the inductance and capacitance respectively. C learly a 1 % increase in L o r C results in a j % decrease in co0 . Therefore, for the case o f an L C oscillator of the form o f Fig. 6.1-6, the m ain frequency-determ ining elem ents, the inductance and the capacitance, m ust be stabilized against tem perature variations, stray loading, etc. T em p eratu re stability is usually accom plished by trying to choose an inductor and cap acito r (or resistors an d capacitors in an R C oscillator) with equal an d opposite tem p eratu re coefficients, thereby causing the variations to cancel in Eq. (6.3 l).f Stray capacitive o r inductive loading is usually m inim ized by coupling the L C tuned circuit to the active elem ent by m eans o f a step-dow n transform er, as show n in Fig. 6.4 9. Still further frequency stability against tem perature m ay be accom plished by placing the m ain frequency-determ ining elem ents in an oven. T his is often d o n e w hen a crystal is em ployed in lieu o f the L C tuned circuit in the oscillator. In general, direct frequency variation of co0 m ay be expressed as A<a 1 " dw0 = 2. A ai> ft)0 a>0 .= i (6.3-2)
w here th e a / s are the various circuit p aram eters on which o;0 depends. C learly the highest direct frequency stability is achieved by choosing an oscillator configuration for which a)0 depends on th e fewest n u m ber o f param eters (a;) and then stabilizing these param eters against environm ental changes. A lternatively the param eters may be chosen in such a way th a t their net variation w ith am bient changes results in a small value Aco.
t Typical L and C tem perature coefficients are tabulated by Eisenberg: B. R. Eisenberg, F re quency Stability o f a C lapp V C O , IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement , IM -18, No. 3, pp. 221 ff. (Sept. 1969).
6 .3
F R E Q U E N C Y S T A B IL IT Y
217
T he oscillator w hose pole-zero d iag ram is show n in Fig. 6.1-5 and the M eacham bridge oscillator (Fig. 6.1-7b) are tw o exam ples of oscillators w ith values of co0 which depend on a sm all nu m b er of param eters. C onsequently these pole-zero diagram s represent op tim u m configurations for achieving a high direct frequency stability. Indirect frequency variations are a result of parasitic reactances w hich introduce ad d itio n al poles an d zeros, w ith unknow n locations, into the pole-zero diagram of A L(p), thereby changing the frequency o f oscillation. U nfortunately m any of these reactances are functions o f tem p erature and supply voltage (e.g., o u tp u t capacitance of a tran sisto r is a function o f the collector-to-em itter voltage an d therefore the supply voltage). T o see how these parasitic poles an d zeros affect oj0 , we recall th at a> 0 is the radian frequency a t w hich the net phase shift of A L(p) is zero. Since the parasitic poles and zeros introduce ad d itio n al phase shift (let us say A < j> ), the frequency of oscillation m ust shift by an a m o u n t Aco which causes the m ain frequency-determ ining elem ents of A L(p) (the know n poles an d zeros) to supply a phase shift o f -A(f> and thus m ain tain zero phase shift aro u n d the feedback loop. F o r exam ple, if we have a crystal oscillator th at operates near the nom inal series reso n an t frequency, co0, of the crystal, then if the rest o f the circuit suddenly in tro duces an ad d itio n al phase shift of + 1 deg, the operating frequency shifts until the transm ission th ro u g h th e crystal produces an additional com pensating 1 deg of phase shift. It is a p p a re n t th a t if the crystal has a variation o f phase angle with fre quency o f 1 deg/H z, then only a 1 H z shift in frequency results. T hus the g reater the phase v ariation A(f> o f A L{j(o) for a change in frequency Aco from <y0 , the greater the indirect frequency stability. C onsequently we define the indirect frequency stability S F as A < f> SF L A O j j CO q
d < !> co0

(IC O
(6.3-3)
w here A0 is the phase variation of A L(ja>) due to a change in frequency A w from co0. T he larger the value o f S F, the better the circuit functions in com bating parasitic changes in frequency. Specifically, if parasitic elem ents in the feedback loop change the phase by A < f> , the resu ltan t change in frequency from to0 is given by Aco = ------- . (6.3-4)
N ote, how ever, th a t S F predicts variations in a> 0 only for those cases where the m ain frequency-determ ining poles an d zeros o f A L(p) are stable; i.e., direct' frequency stability has been accom plished. In order to com pare circuits, it is instructive to evaluate S F for the several oscil lato rs for w hich the pole-zero diagram s o f A J jj ) were presented in Section 6.1. In each case we m ust evaluate
218
6 .3
however, since < t> = I * . .

i1
w here < /> ,-s are the angles co n trib u ted by the individual poles and zeros o f A L(p), then SF wo =i dm C onsequently, by evaluating S F w 0 (6.3-5)
dw
for a single real-axis pole and zero, a pair of com plex conjugate poles, and a pair of com plex conjugate zeros, we m ay apply superposition to obtain SF for any of the pole-zero diagram s for A L(p).
Fig. 6.3-1 Pole-zero diagrams of a single real-axis zero and a pair o f complex conjugate zeros. The phase angle for the real-axis zero at cu, shown in Fig. 6.3- l(a) is given by
o
(6.3-6)
thus Sp i (o, d < t>11 ' dw !, O/Wi + (o/'w i )2 (6.3 7)
A real-axis pole - w , would have the same m agnitude of S F but a negative sign. Is is ap p aren t that, if the real-axis pole or zero lies at the origin (w, = 0), its net co ntribution to the indirect frequency stability is zero. This is so because the phase
6.3
FREQUENCY STABILITY
219
o f th e p o le o r z e ro re m a in s c o n s t a n t a t + j i / 2 o r n /2 re s p e c tiv e ly , in d e p e n d e n t o f th e v a r ia tio n in <o. In a d d itio n , it is a p p a r e n t t h a t if w , is c lo se to in fin ity its c o n t r i b u tio n to S F is sm a ll.
The phase angle 4>3 of the pair of complex conjugate zeros shown in Fig. 6.3 1(b) is given by
$3 =
+ $ > ~ ,an
lan
i< * > + li -
x
(6.3 -8)
thus
d< j>3 | (y0 7 !
2<X(o0{(o'o + <4) / "<2 2\2 , 1 2

- Mo)
+ 4 a z('J5
w h e re ui'q ~ or + [i2. F o r th e u s u a l c a se w h e re oj'0 = o>Q (th e W ie n b rid g e a n d th e M e a c h a m b rid g e ), S F3 sim p lifie s to
S Fi = = 2 Q t ,.
a
(6.3 lU)
where 0 !: - (o0/2a is the effective Q of the zeros. Again, for a pair of complex con jugate poles, the magnitude of S F3 is unchanged but the sign is reversed. Similarly the sign would be reversed if the zeros were in the right-half complex plane with the same Q i z . If we apply the above results to the oscillator for which A L(p) consists of two negative real-axis poles at a>, and <o2 and a zero at the origin as shown in Fig. 6.1 3, we obtain
Sr = - - . -
('Jo ; "Tir r ," 7 !+ (cij0 'f.'j,) 1+
f + 0.
(6. . M l )
if we introduce the fact that

St
= < 0 ii 0 2, then S F simplifies to

,6 , ,,,
(I) I + W2
1 + lOfiOJ 2
he ro.iiiu- .-.ign merely implies that < j> is decreasing with increasing o>; hence a os!;: vc ' \ 6 from the rest of the circuit requires a negative A poles of A r (p) lie at the same point, li; adt'j'o>.<ii. the m aximum is n!>] hr-. sd so that even if the pole p o r tio n s dit-r b i f i d o r of !4. ha*iecrcase-.i or:!', 'r> y a factor of 2 from its m aximum vaiuc t o r the oseihatoi lor which 4,(p) has a pair < > ompie'- conjugate poles at - x ;/ (where or f{2 - u)t: < ,> 2) and a zero at th: or s r r.iay he written 'iirctfiy on) Lq. (6.3-10,1 as
SF= - 2 Q r ,
(6.3 13)
220
S IN U S O D A L O S C IL L A T O R S
6 .3
U > 2 Fig. 6.3-2 Plot of - SF vs. tl/2 for A L(p) = A(oj)/{p + w)(p + w2). w here Q T is th e Q of the passive netw ork yielding A L{p). Clearly, as anticipated in the previous section, the higher the value o f Q T, the greater the im m unity to changes in frequency due to parasitic elements. F o r the W ien bridge oscillator for which A L(p) is shown in Fig. 6.1-7(a) and for w hich col = (o'o = (0 , 0) 2 , SF m ay be w ritten directly as the superposition of Eqs. (6.3-10) (with a negative sign) and (6.3-12); thus
S F = - 2y / ^ 2 - 2Q Tz.
+
CO2
(6.3-14)
It is quite a p p a re n t th a t the indirect frequency stability of the W ien bridge oscillator exceeds th a t of th e oscillator w ith tw o negative real-axis poles by 2 Q Tz, while its frequency stability is essentially the sam e as th at of the parallel R L C oscillator with com parable Q T. F o r the M eacham bridge oscillator for which A L(p) is show n in Fig. 6.1-7(b) an d for which w 0= co'0, S F m ay be im m ediately w ritten as S F = - 2 ( g r + QTz), (6.3-15)
w here QT an d Q Tzare the Q s of the poles and zeros respectively. As we shall see, in m any cases Q tA
w here A is the voltage am plification of the active device w ithin the oscillator loop. H ence with A = 100 we can o b tain an SF 26 tim es th a t of the pole pair alone. Thus,
6 .3
F R E Q U E N C Y S T A B IL IT Y
221
if the poles of A L(p) are the result of an R L C netw ork with Q r = 100, then S F % - 5200. If the poles are due to a crystal w ith Q T 5000, S F can be increased to S F x 260,000. F o r either of the phase shift oscillators for which A L(p) is given in Fig. 6.1-7 (c and d), SF may be immediately written as
3
= - 1
1= 1
O)0M , - r ? 1 ; \2
1
(6.3-16)
(a > o M )
which, for the special casef where wo ai = ft> 2 = ia3 = = or a)l = co2 = a > 3 = y/3o) 0 v 3 [Figs. 6.1 7(c) an d (d) respectively], reduces to
y l3
This value is significantly less th a n th at obtainable w ith the W ien bridge or M eacham bridge oscillator o r w ith the oscillator show n in Fig. 6.1-6 with a high value of g r in addition, for the phase shift oscillators a> 0 depends on a>1,(o2, and a> 3 ; hence these oscillators have p o o r direct frequency stability. In tern al phase shifts are caused n o t only by reactances w ithin active devices o r am plifiers b u t by dc blocking capacitors, by transform er couplings, and by the presence o f h arm o n ic term s in the active device voltage o r cu rrent ouput. In all cases, the higher the S F, the less troublesom e these effects will be. As we proceed th ro u g h this ch apter it will be useful to bear in m ind th a t it is generally desirable in any oscillator circuit to provide the m axim um possible isola tion between the device an d the netw ork. F o r one thing, this isolation will increase the circu its frequency stability, since the frequency-affecting device reactances are norm ally functions b o th o f the Q -point an d o f tem perature. M ost useful oscillator circuits achieve this isolation by w hat am o u n ts to a gross im pedance m ism atching betw een the device in p u t an d the netw ork o u tp u t im pedance and between the net w ork input im pedance an d the device o u tp u t im pedance. F ro m this p o in t of view oscillator circuits can be classified into the four forms show n in Fig. 6.3-3.. In this figure the device is show n as driving the netw ork, which in tu rn w orks in to the in p u t im pedance o f the device. T he term cu rren t-d riv en implies th at the netw o rk in p u t im pedance is sm all in com parison to the o u tp u t im pedance o f the device; the term voltage-driven implies th a t the netw ork input im pedance is large in com parison to the o u tp u t im pedance of the device. All such classifications are relative. T hus a 50 fl device input im pedance m ay be considered as an open circuit if the netw ork has an o u tp u t im pedance of 5 Q. M o st o f the circuits o f the next three sections will be o f the type show n in Fig. 6.3-3(a). T he bridge circuits o f Section 6.8 are norm ally of the form show n in Fig. 6.3-3(c), while certain of the crystal oscillators, as well as som e of the circuits of Section 6.10, illustrate the o th e r tw o farms.
t This case results in the m axim um value o f SF.
222
6.4
Gvt)
v(t)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 6.3-3 (a) C urrent-driven netw ork w ork ing into an o p en circuit, (b) C urrent-driven netw ork w orking into a sh o rt circuit, (c) V oltage-driven netw ork w orking into an o p en circuit, (d) V oltage-driven netw ork w orking into a sh o rt circuit.
T h is g e n e ra l c la s s ific a tio n is o fte n useful w hen o n e is c o n s id e r in g th e use o f a n e w d e v ice in a n o s c illa to r c ir c u it o r w h en o n e is c o n s id e r in g a p o s s ib le n ew c ir c u it c o n fig u r a tio n . I n su ch c a s e s it is u su a lly d e s ira b le to go b a c k to th e b a s ic p rin c ip le s r a th e r th a n m e re ly to try to c o n v e r t s o m e e x is tin g circ u it.
6.4 S E L F -L IM IT IN G S IN G L E -T R A N S IS T O R O S C IL L A T O R
T h e m a jo r ity o f a c tu a l o s c illa to r s in c o m m o n a p p lic a tio n a re se lf-lim itin g s in g le tr a n s is to r o s c illa to r s o f th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 6 .4 -1 . In th is s e c tio n we sh a ll e x a m in e th e p ro p e r tie s o f th is ty p e o f o s c illa to r , a n d in su b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s we sh a ll e x te n d o u r a n a ly s is to th e c a se s w h ere the a c tiv e e le m e n t is re p la ce d by a d iffe re n tia l p air o r a ju n c t io n field e ffe ct tra n s is to r.
6.4
SELF-LIMITING SINGLE-TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR
223
Fig. 6.4-1 Prototype single-transistor Colpitts oscillator. A lthough the frequency-determ ining netw ork in this (Colpitts) oscillator is a tapped capacitive transform er, any of the transform erlike netw orks show n in Table 2.5-1 can be em ployed w ith o u t altering the analysis. Some of the other configurations are show n in Fig. 6.4 2. F o r the circuit of Fig. 6.41 the quiescent em itter current is given by , ^ _ VEE VBEq _ ' r e ~R e
0.65 V for a silicon tran sisto r and 0.22 V for a germ anium transistor. where V, BEQ T hus the sm all-signal input conductance at the em itter is given by
gin Q
kT
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6.4-2 Other configurations for single-transistor oscillators, (a) Hartley oscillator, (b) Tunedcollector oscillator.
224
6 .4
nQ r'Q t >100
g>io
gm = g ja
C = C ,C 2/( C ,+ C 2)
n = C ,/ (C, + C2)
iy /n r
Fig. 6.4-3 Small-signal model for single-transistor oscillator. an d the sm all-signal tran sco n ductance has the form SmQ ^SinQ
If we assum e QT > 10, QE > 10, and nQ T QE > 100, then the capacitive transform er m ay be replaced by the transform er m odel of T able 2.5-1 to yield the sm all-signal oscillator circuit show n in Fig. 6.4 3. C learly the sm all-signal m odel is identical to the m odel show n in Fig. 6.1-6, from w hich we observe th a t grow ing oscillations occur w ith a frequency o f a > 0 = 1/^ /L C provided th a t SmQ > SmQm n or equivalently, G l + n2GE SmQ > gmQmin = n(1 _ n/a) (6.4-2)
= Gl +
+ grn Q m , ;
If the inequality of Eq. (6.4-2) is satisfied, the oscillation grow s until the tran sisto r nonlinearities reduce A L(ja)0) to unity, at which level the oscillation stabilizes. T o determ ine at w hat am plitude (V,) the ac collector voltage v,(t) stabilizes, we assum e 1) 2) th a t collector sa tu ra tio n does n o t occur and th a t the passive circuit QT is sufficiently high so th at for large-signal operation the second an d higher h arm onics o f r,(r) and v,(t) are negligible, and consequently the capacitive transform er can be replaced by its ideal transform er m odel given in T able 2.5-1.
W ith these assum ptions, on a large-signal basis, v,(t) = V, cos ft)0

and
Vi(t) = Vi c o s c q t + Vdc,
( 6 .4 - 3 )
6 .4
S E L F -L IM IT IN G S IN G L E -T R A N S IS T O R O S C IL L A T O R
225
| Ideal J
C C 1C 2A C 1 + C 2 ) , n = C i/(C i + C 2) , ciô 1 /V L C
Fig. 6.4-4 Large-signal model for the circuit of Fig. 6.4-1. where V, = nV, an d Vic is the average value of the em itter-to-base voltage. In ad d i tion, the circuit for o b tain in g v,(t) m ay be m odeled as show n in Fig. 6.4-4. In this m odel the nonlinear tran sisto r input characteristic has been replaced by its equivalent linear conductan ce Gm(x)/ a(cf. Exam ple 5.5-4) and only the fundam ental com ponent of collector curren t G ^ x )!7 ! cos co0r has been retained, since all o ther harm onic com ponents are effectively shunted to ground by the h ig h -g r tuned circuit. The transco n d u ctan ce Gm(x ) is given by Eq. (5.4-17). It is a p p aren t th at the large-signal m odel of Fig. 6.4-4 is identical to the smallsignal m odel of Fig. 6.4 3 except th at Gm (x) replaces gm(2; therefore, A L(jco0) = 1 for th a t value o f x = qV 1/ k T for which Gm (x) = gmQr
o r e q u iv a le n tly ,
G l + n2GE n(l n/a) '
(6.4-4)
G Jx) gmQ
B y p lo ttin g th e c o n s ta n t
21 x ) X10(X)
1+
In Jq ( x ) qVJkT_
G l + n2GE g mQn( 1 - n/a)
(6.4-5)
G l + n2GE gmQ(l - /) on the characteristic o f Fig. 5.4-5, we obtain (with the app ro p riate value of Vx) the value o f x, an d in tu rn Vt , for which the oscillation stabilizes. W ith Vx and n know n, V, = V J n is readily determ ined and the problem is solved. In alm ost all self-lim iting oscillators, Q T is high (to keep the o u tp u t voltage sinusoidal) an d n 1 (since the o u tp u t voltage am plitude is usually required to be large in com parison with V,). W ith these two conditions (QT 1 and n 1), certain sim plifications result. T he first is th at Eq. (6.4 5) m ay be closely approxim ated as
226
6 .4
T he second is th at the to tal conductance GT shunting the tuned circuit of Fig. 6.4-4 may be appro x im ated by GL. T he to tal conductance Gr is given by G t = G l + n2GE + n2Gm(x)/cc. (6.4 7)
W ith the substitution of Gm(x ) given by Eq. (6.4-4) into Eq. (6.4- 7), G r simplifies to Gt = G l + n2GE 1 n/a (6.4-8)
which is the desired result. T he im plication here is that if n 1 the total loss reflected through the transform er is negligible in com parison with G L. Similarly, (o0C Qt *
oj0C
G, '
(6.4 9)
In addition, for 1 it is readily dem onstrated that Q e ~ Q t ~ nQr , where + C 2) Qe GE + Gm(x)/oc and " a) 0C nQr = "*' n[GE + G J x ) / a ] (6.4 10)
hence Q T 1 and n 1 ensures not only th at v,(t) and vt(t) are sinusoidal but also that the capacitive transform er may be replaced by its ideal transform er model. [The reader should convince him self of the validity of Eq. (6.4-10).] Exam ple 6.4-1 sion for v0(t). F o r the C olp itts oscillator show n in Fig. 6.4-5, determ ine an expres
6 .4
227
Solution. F or the oscillator show n in Fig. 6.4-5 we note that C = r u)0 = = 1000 P F <
1+
\ __ = 107 rad/sec, JLC C, C 1 + C2 1 80
VA = 9.3 V, 9 3V 2 0 k n a 4 ( '5 m A ginQ ~
k J
_ _L ~ - 56 Q ~
&"C
and Q T * co0C R l = 100. Since Q t 1 and n : 1, i>,(f) and are sinusoidal and the model of Fig. 6.4 4 is v a lid ; thus the oscillation grow s at a> 0 = 107 rad/sec and stabilizes at th at value of x for which Gm(x)/gmQ = 0.448 [cf. Eq. (6.4-4) or Eq. (6.4-6)]. Therefore, from Fig. 5.4 5 (Vx = 9.3 V sr o>), we obtain x % 3.5 and in tu rn V, = 99 mV, V, = V J n = 7.9 V, and finally Vu = (10 V) + (7.9 V) cos 107t, which does not satu rate the transistor. T otal Harmonic O utput D istortion To o btain an expression for the total harm onic distortion (TH D ) of v,(t), we assum e that the d isto rtio n of v,(t) and i\(t) is sufficiently small so that in the circuit of Fig. 6.41 has the form + ) cos V . f . I oW
We then replace the tran sisto r input by a current source iE(t) and reflect iE(t) through the capacitive transform er [by taking a N o rto n equivalent of the circuit to the right of Gl and assum ing that GE is negligible in com parison with < 0(^1 4 C 2) over the frequency range, o j > a>0 , occupied by iE(t) - I E0] to obtain the circuit model show n in Fig. 6.4-6. F o r this circuit the am plitude of the fundam ental com ponent of v,(t) is given by
21,(x)
228
6.4
Fig. 6.4-6 Circuit for obtaining THD of v,(t). w hereas the am plitude o f the fcth harm onic com ponent of v,(t) is given by (6.4-12) If the Q T of the circuit of Fig. 6.4-7 is high, then i ZuUkcoo) (cf. Eq. 3.4-11). In additio n , for n 1, G l + n2GE ~ GL \ therefore (cf. Section 3.5). a> 0C(k - 1)
t h d n
where
JJ
I
a)0C
i k y 2 I *2 * 1/
r/ M i lh (x)]
2 f < M - >
U w l2 U iW j A p lo t o f D(x) vs. x o btained by num erical evaluation of the significant term s of D(x) is presented in Fig. 6.4-7. F o r large values o f x, 1
h(x)
a n d th u s D(x) app ro ach es th e upper asym ptote
6 .4
229
F o r small values of x, / 2(x) x j- % / i(x) 4 I k(x) /,(x ) for k = 3 ,4 ,...
(cf. A ppendix at back of boo k ); therefore, D(x) approaches the lower asym ptote 2 / 2(x) 3 /[(x) x 6
These asym ptotes are also illustrated in Fig. 6.4-7. F rom Fig. 6.4-7 it is ap p aren t th at, if the oscillator stabilizes with x = 10 (V, = 260 mV), then T H D = 0.642/Q r . C onsequently Q T m ust exceed 64.2 to keep the harmonic d isto rtio n below 1 %. Clearly the smaller the value of x at which the oscillator stabilizes, the sm aller the distortion. U nfortunately, a sm all steady-state value of x often results in p oor am plitude stability, as we shall see in th e following paragraphs.
230
6 .4
Amplitude Stability
T he am plitude stability of an oscillator is the sensitivity of the o u tp u t oscillation am plitude V, to variations in supply voltage, tem perature, etc. In particular, the am plitude sensitivity factor is defined quantitatively as
S , - ^ .
AH/H
(6.4-14,
where /j is the p aram eter w ithin the oscillator w hich is subject to variation, Afi is the am o u n t o f the p aram eter variation, and AV, is the corresponding variation inV,. Sm all values o f are d e sira b le ; the sm aller the value of , the sm aller the change in V, w ith changes in fi. W ith this definition we m ay evaluate the various am plitude stability factors for the oscillator o f Fig. 6.4-1 by first w riting the o u tp u t voltage in the form v(t) = - Vcc + V, cos co0t, w here V, = V J n = k T x /q n an d x is the solution o f the equation GJjx) = 2 I J x ) I"
gmQ
(6.4-15)
l n / 0(x)~l =
<IVx/kTJ
G l + n2GE
*/oW L
"(1 - n/<x)gmQ
W e then vary the p aram eter of interest (p.) the desired am o u n t (A/i) and determ ine the resultant value x from Eq. (6.4-5) or Fig. 5.4-5. This value o f x im m ediately yields the new value of V, = k T x /q n from which AV, m ay be com puted and in tu rn Su evaluated. C onsider, for exam ple, th e evaluation o f S for the oscillator o f Exam ple 6.4-1 as replacem ent o f C 2 causes the transform er ratio n to increase from 1/80 to 3/160 (an increase o f 50% th a t is, An/n = j). W ith the new value o f n = 3/160, Gm(x)
EmQ
Gi * - = 0.298;
ft&mQ
therefore, from Fig. 5.4-5 (Vx x oo) we o b tain x ~ 6.1, from w hich it follows th at V, = 8.45 V, AV, = 0.55 V, an d Sn = 0.13. O n the o th er hand, if GL is increased from 100 fil3 to 150 /O in Exam ple 6.4-1 (again a change o f 50%), then V, = 4.7 V, AV, = 3.2 V, and SGl = 0.81. Several facts becom e a p p aren t a t this point. If we wish to m inim ize S Gl or S ,EQ = SgmQ, we m ust m inim ize the variations o f x with GL o r I EQ. W e accom plish this by choosing the param eters of the oscillator so th a t the oscillation am plitude stabilizes in the vicinity o f x * 2, a t which value the slope o f the Gm(x)/gmQ curve is steepest. O n the o th e r h an d , if we wish to m inim ize S n for n 1 and Vx x oo, we choose the param eters o f the oscillator so th a t the oscillation am plitude stabilizes for the largest possible value o f x such th a t 2 / 1(x )//0(x) 2. F o r this condition,
6.4
and
231
v ^ QG l
= 2/eq Gl '
which is independent of n ; thus S n 0. Sim ilarly, if we assum e th at gmQ = q I EQ/ k T is the prim ary source o f param eter variation with tem perature, we o b tain S T 0 if the param eters of the oscillator are chosen so th at the oscillation am plitude stabilizes for x as large as possible. Let us now try to consolidate the above inform ation in the form of an exam ple dealing with the design of an oscillator.
Exam ple 6 .4 -2 Design a C olpitts oscillator which provides an 18-V peak-to-peak, 107 rad/sec sine wave, having a total harm onic distortion of 1 %, to a load resistor of 3 kQ. T he oscillator should m ake use of available + 10-V pow er supplies and provide reasonable first-order am plitude stability with tem perature variations. Solution. W e first d raw the schem atic diagram of the C olpitts oscillator we intend to em ploy, as show n in Fig. 6.4 8. T he design entails the choice of C , , C 2, L , R E, and the ap p ro p riate tran sisto r to m eet the required specifications. T o achieve good am plitude stability with tem perature variations, we require the oscillator to stabilize with a large value of x or (Kt ). O n the o th er hand, a very large value of x requires a very large value of Q T to achieve the desired T FID ; thus we
232
6 .4
com prom ise by designing the oscillator to stabilize for x = 10, which is achieved if (cf. Fig. 5.4-5 w ith Vk = 9.3 V) Gm (10) gmQ G l + n2GE ngmQ(l - n/x) = 0.19. (6.4-16)
W ith x = 10, from Fig. 6.4-8 we o b tain Z)(x) = 0.642; thus to o b tain T H D = 0.01, we m ust have Q t ~ ^ C R l = 64.2, or equivalently Cl ,C 2 2 64.2 C i + C 2 (3 k i2)(107 rad/sec) 7140 n F
Therefore, L = 1<\C = 4.67 /iH. (Slug tuning o f L is usually necessary to obtain the exact required value o f co0.) In addition, n = = - g j - = V, C, + C2 = 0. 029
9V
(which ensures V, = 9 V w ith x = 10). F rom the above values o f C and n we o b tain C 2 = - = 0.074 n F n an d C, = = 2200 pF.
1 n
W ith a value for n, w ith GL specified, an d with the know ledge th a t a 1 and n2GE Gl , we finally observe from Eq. (6.4-16) th a t EQ Q(VJR e) n o t,, = 1(7^= kT = or equivalently, R e = 5.75 k i l At first glance th e choice of the dc bias resistor R E m ight seem u n im p o rta n t; however, this is n o t the case, since it directly determ ines I EQ, which in tu rn sets the value of gmQ an d thus the steady-state operating p o in t o f the oscillator. In choosing a tran sisto r, tw o key factors m ust be considered: (1)the collectorto-base breakdow n voltage and (2) the inherent frequency-lim iting param eters of the transistor. In this exam ple the m axim um value o f vCB is 19 V ; thus a tran sisto r with a breakdow n voltage in excess o f 19 V m ust be chosen. In general, if the tran sisto r is chosen w ith an o u tp u t capacitance sm all in com parison with C i an d an in p u t capacitance sm all in com parison w ith C 2, the tran sisto r has little effect o n th e oscillator design. In general, low -pow er tran sisto rs can be found w ith sufficiently sm all values o f in p u t a n d o u tp u t capacity so th a t designs sim ilar to the one in this exam ple are valid for oscillation frequencies in excess of 100 M H z.
6 .4
233
Variable-Frequency Oscillator
If a single-transistor oscillator is to be used as a local oscillator or a local oscillatorm ix e r c o m b i n a ti o n in a s u p e r h e te r o d y n e (A M , F M , o r T V ) re c e iv e r, th e o s c illa to r
is usually co nstructed in the form show n in Fig. 6.4-9. T he basic reason for this three-w inding transform er configuration is to isolate the in put and o u tp u t capacity of the tran sisto r from the tuning capacitor C by providing a step-dow n transform er turns ratio b o th to the collector and to the em itter from the L 2- C tuned circuit. Such an arran g em en t prevents changes in the tran sisto r capacitance, which is quite sensitive to small variatio n s in supply voltage, from affecting the frequency of oscilla tion, particularly at the high-frequency end of the tuning range where C is usually quite small.
Variable
v(/)
V cos u > 0t
Fig. 6 .4 -9 Schem atic diagram of local oscillator.
If the Q t of the tuned circuit is assum ed to be high, the oscillator of Fig. 6.4-9 has the large-signal m odel for determ ining v,(t) as show n in Fig. 6.4-10; therefore, the oscillation has a radian frequency of a> 0 = l / ^ f L 2C and stabilizes at that value of x = q V J k T for which ( M 12/ L 2)nGm(x) G l + n2[Gm (x)/oc + Ge]
or e q u iv a le n t ly .
= 1,
(6.4-17)
G l + n2GE Gm(x) _ ___________________ g mQ ngmQ( M l2/ L 2 - n/x)'
( 6 .4 - 1 8 )
234
6 .4
(U p /
v,(t)=Ifcos
V\ cos u > 0t GM
a
w o -l/v ^ ,
nM n/Li
Fig. 6.4-10 Large-signal local oscillator model. Again x is d eterm ined from Fig. 5.4-5, an d in tu rn V, is obtained as Vt = kT x /q n . A lthough v,(t ) an d vt(t) are reasonably sinusoidal, we should recall th a t the collector voltage is n o t sinusoidal because o f the presence o f the series in d u cto r (1 k \ 2) L i (cf. Section 2.5).
Collector Saturation
If the value calculated for the am plitude of the fundam ental com ponent o f collector cu rren t I cl on the assum ption o f no collector satu ratio n exceeds VtS/ R T = (Vcc + 0.7 )/R t (in Fig. 6.4-1), then collector satu ratio n does occur an d the tunedcircuit voltage is lim ited to Vcc + 0.7. In this case the em itter-base driving voltage is n tim es the know n tuned-circuit voltage an d the am plitude of the fundam ental collector c u rre n t is
w here x = qn(Vcc + 0.7)//cT in the satu ratio n case. T he difference betw een this c u rre n t an d th e allow able n et fundam ental c u rre n t into the tu n ed circuit is the co m p o n e n t rem oved by th e collector-base satu ra tio n pulse train. It is a p p a re n t th a t, if th e loaded Q T of the tuned circuit is high, the effect of collector satu ratio n m ay be represented as an equivalent linear conductance shunting the tuned circuit to yield a to tal sh unt conductance GTS given by G TS = VlS/ I c l , w hich for the circuit o f Fig. 6.4-1 reduces to
N o te th a t this eq u atio n is valid w hen G ts > G T, th a t is, only so long as sa tu ra tion does occur o n the peak of each cycle. T hus, if collector satu ratio n occurs, the o u tp u t am plitude is directly p ro p o rtio n a l to Vc c , while the effective loaded Q o f the circuit depends on Vc c , l EQ, and n. Specifically, Q T = o ^ C ! G TS.
6.4
E x a m p le 6 .4 - 3
sio n fo r v0(t).
235
F o r th e C o lp itts o s c illa to r s h o w n in F ig . 6 .4 -1 1 , d e te r m in e a n e x p r e s
Figure 6.4-11
Solution.
F o r th e o s c i l l a t o r s h o w n in F ig . 6 . 4 - 1 1 , w e n o t e t h a t
= - C lC l
C] + C 2
= 1000 p F ,
1
COn
10 7 rad/sec,
C, + C2
= 1 ,
80
Vx = 9. 3 V,
I eq = 0 . 9 3 m A , and
f!m0 = 1/28 n .
236
6 .5
C onsequently,
SmQ
^SmQ
and, from Fig. 5 . 4 - 5 , x 8 . 5 ; thus Vt = 221 m V and V, = 17.7 V. Since Vt > Vcc + 0.7, it is a p p aren t th a t collector sa tu ra tio n does occur on each negative peak o f v,(t ); hence Vt is co nstrained to a peak value o f K ,s = Vcc + 0.7, o r 10.7 V in this case. N ow V ! = 1 0 . 7 m = 1 3 4 mV and x = 5 . 1 4 . F ro m Eq. ( 6 . 4 - 1 9 ) and Fig. 4 . 5 - 5 we note th a t the collector satu ratio n has increased G r from 1 0 0 /im ho to 1 5 6 /im ho and has reduced th e loaded Q T from 1 0 0 to 6 4 . A dditional calculations o f the sam e kind lead to the values show n below for the elfects o f varying n in this circuit.
n 1/40 1/80 1/160 1/240
X
Qt 61 64 76 90
10.3 5.1
2.6
1.7
6.5 SELF-LIM ITING DIFFERENTIAL-PAIR OSCILLATOR
In any o f the o scillator circuits discussed in Section 6.4 the differential p air m ay be em ployed in lieu o f the tran sisto r as the active element. T he result is a self-limiting differential-pair o scillator sim ilar to the one show n in Fig. 6.5-1. T w o distinct advantages result from em ploying the differential pair as the active element. T he first is the fact th a t the o u tp u t sinusoid v0(t ) m ay be ob tain ed at the collector o f tran sisto r 1, which is external to the oscillator feedback loop, by choosing Z L as a parallel R L C circuit. C onsequently, variations in the load have little effect on the frequency o r am p litu de o f oscillations provided th a t tran sisto r 1 does n o t saturate. T he second advan tag e is that, for a given value of Q T for Z L, the to tal harm onic d isto rtio n o f th e o u tp u t sinusoid is m uch less th an it w ould be for a single-transistor oscillator. T his low er T H D is a direct consequence o f tw o facts: (1) th a t no even h arm o n ic com p o n en ts exist in the collector currents of either tran sisto r in the differential p a ir; an d (2) th a t, for a given input sinusoidal drive level, the harm onic am plitudes o f th e collector c u rre n t are significantly sm aller th a n they a re for a single transistor. T o determ ine an expression for v,(t), we require a large-signal m odel for the differential-pair oscillator. By proceeding in a fashion identical to th a t of the previous section, we arrive a t th e large-signal m odel show n in Fig. 6.5-2, w hich is a valid represen tatio n o f the o scillator o f Fig. 6.5-1 provided th a t Q r qj0C/ Gl > 10, th a t n = M /L , 1, an d th a t neither tran sisto r saturates. W ith this m odel, which is
6.5
SELF-LIMITING DIFFERENTIAL-PAIR OSCILLATOR
237
Fig. 6.5-1 T ransform er-coupled differential-pair oscillator.
Fig. 6.5 -2 Large-signal model for self-limiting differential-pair oscillator.
238
6 .5
identical to the large-signal m odel o f Exam ple 6.4- 3 (except for two com pensating phase inversions), we conclude th a t oscillations occur a t a radian frequency of co0 = l / y / Z ^ C a n d stabilize a t th a t value o f x for w h ich t GJx) 4 aj(x) G, gmn( 1 - n/0) G, ng (6.5-1)
In this case, x is found by p lotting G J g mn{ 1 n/fi) on the curve of Fig. 4.6-5. W ith the resultant value o f x, we o b tain = k T x / q and Vt = VJn. F o r the self-lim iting differential-pair oscillator, the to tal harm onic d istortion (T H D ) is readily found, by m ethods sim ilar to those used for the single-transistor oscillator, to be of the form THD = D(x) ^ D(x)
TV
(6.5-2)
Qt
w here Q TU = oj0C /G l an d D(x) is given by 2n 1 *>(*> = J I (2 n - l )2 - 1 2 2. - l W " ai(x) (6.5-3)
T he F o u rier coefficients a(x) are defined by Eq. (4.6-10). A p lo t o f D(x) vs. x obtained by num erical evaluation o f the significant term s o f D(x ) is presented in Fig. 6.5-3. N o te that, for a given value o f x, D(x) for the differential-pair oscillator is lower, by m ore th a n a factor of 7, th a n the corresponding D(x) for the single-transistor oscillator. This, o f course, is an anticipated result. T he upp er asy m p to te Dv(x) show n in Fig. 6.5-3 is obtained by noting th a t as x - > oo, iFA an d iE2 a p p ro ach square waves and thus *2n lM T herefore, I D v{ x ) = J Z F o r sm all values o f x, (2 n - l )2 - 1 = l ^ - V6 = 0.135. (6.5-4)
2
1 (2n - l )2
x2 < * 2 n-l(x)
a,(x) 48 fli(x)
for n = 3,4, 5,.
t The approximation of GJgm n{\ n/P) by GJ gm n is valid even if n is not much less than 1, pro vided that fi is large. This is a direct result of the fact that the base, rather than the emitter, is being driven and thus the reflected loading across GL is reduced by a factor of fi from that obtained with a corresponding emitter drive. Therefore, in the differential pair, QT k u> 0C/Gl 1 and fi 1 replace the conditions of QT 1 and n 1 required of a single transistor as sufficient conditions to ensure the validity of the ideal transformer model, to ensure the validity of assuming i,(r) to be sinusoidal, and to ensure Gr w GL.
6.5
D(x ) 0.16
-D ,(x) D t {x)
SELF-LIMITING DIFFERENTIAl.-PAIR OSCILLATOR ji 0.135 (U pper asym ptote)
239
x2 (L ow er asym ptote)
0.14
0.12 0.1
0.08
2
0.06
(2 n 0.04
0.02
2n -\ -
1)2
2 ,-lW a ,(x )
1 2
5 7
T otal harm onic disto rtio n
10
D(x) 0.0073 0.00250 0.00785 0.0978 0.1130
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Fig. 6.5-3 P lot of D{x) vs. x for the differential pair. (cf. Section 4.6); therefore, D(x) approaches the lower asymptote 3 x2 8 48 which is also plotted in Fig. 6.5-3. Exam ple 6.5-1 F o r the oscillator shown in Fig. 6.5-4, determine an expression for ((f). Also determine the T H D of vjr).
Solution.
,x
128
(6.5-5)
For the circuit of Fig. 6.5 4 ,

n = -
= 0.02 1,
o j0
= 10 rad/sec,
Li and
Q t ~ Q r v a) o 50:
therefore, if we assume that neither transistor saturates, then the large-signal model of Fig. 6.5 2 may be employed. With the use of the model we conclude that the oscilla tion frequency is 107 rad/sec and th at the oscillation am plitude stabilizes for th at value of x = q l \ / k T for which Gm (x) _ 4fl1(x)
gm X
n( 1 - n/)g,r
ngm
240
6.5
Figure 6.5-4
F o r the circuit o f Fig. 6.5 4, gh
= av
where _ qI eq _ ^ 1 . gin k T ~ 2 k T ~ 2 6 i2 hence Gm(x)/gm = 0.52, which, w ith the aid o f Fig. 4.6-5, yields x = 4.2 an d in tu rn
^
C onsequently,
= 545V
(t) = (10 V) + (5.45 V) cos 107f ; this value o f v d o es n o t satu rate the collector of tran sisto r 2. Since x = 4.2, from Fig. 6.5-3 we o b tain D(x ) = 0.065 and in turn THD = ^ this value is quite small, as expected. = 0.0013 (0.13%);
6 .6
SELF-LIMITING JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS
241
6.6 S E L F -L IM IT IN G JU N C T IO N F IE L D E F F E C T T R A N S IS T O R O S C IL L A T O R S
Like the differential pair, the ju n ctio n field effect transistor m ay be used as the active elem ent in any o f the self-limiting oscillators discussed in Section 6.4. In addition, the F E T m ay be em ployed as the active elem ent o f the tuned-gate oscillator shown
Fig. 6 .6 -1 T uned-gate ju n ctio n FE T oscillator. T h e tu n e d - g a te o s c illa to r is p r o b a b ly th e m o s t lo g ic a l c o n f ig u r a tio n fo r a self-
limiting F E T oscillator, since in this configuration the tuned circuit is virtually not loaded a t all by the F E T and therefore it is possible to m aintain a high value of Q T with its accom panying good frequency stability. O bviously Rc , which is usually chosen anyw here betw een 1 M il and 10 MQ, does not appreciably load the tuned circuit. In ad d itio n , with M / L 2 1, only an exceptionally sm all am ount of loading due to the o u tp u t im pedance (both capacitive and resistive) o f the F E T is reflected th ro u g h the transform er. T he ac com ponent of vDS is also kept sm all with M / L 2 1, the result being a negligibly sm all M iller effect ; therefore, the capacitive loading of the F E T inp u t directly across the tuned circuit is minimized. The C olpitts, Hartley, and tuned-drain configurations possess none of these advantages and therefore do not find as wide application as does the oscillator shown in Fig. 6.6-1. N ote that the F E T oscillator of Fig. 6.6 -1 is clam p biased ; i.e., the com bination of the capacitor C G (which is an ac short circuit at the oscillation frequency) and the gate-to-source ju n c tio n diode clam ps the positive peak of the gate-to-source voltage essentially to z e r o j T h u s if c, = V, cos w0i, then vGS = ^ ( c o s w0f - 1). This form
t A ctually vos is clam ped to K 0 , the turn-on bias o f the diode. Since V0 is a function of the average diode current (cf. Fig. 5.1-6) and since an R(i of several m egohm s requires the average diode current to be quite sm all ( ^ (A o r less), V0 is usually required to be less than j V, even for silico n ; thus as a good first ap proxim ation we may usually assum e V0 % 0.
242
6 .6
of bias, in co n trast w ith th a t obtained by inserting a negative voltage source in series w ith R g , thus applying a fixed gate-to-source bias, has the advantage th a t the oscilla tio n am plitude m ay be stabilized w ith the F E T operating com pletely w ithin its square-law region. T his p ro p erty is quite desirable when the circuit o f Fig. 6.6-1 is em ployed as an oscillating m ixer (C hapter 7), in which case square-law operation minim izes undesired in term o d u latio n products. W ith a clam ped bias, the F E T transconductance decreases w ith increasing sinusoidal in p u t voltage am plitude w ithin the square-law region (a necessary condition for am plitude stabilization cf. Fig. 4 .9-4); w ith a fixed bias, on the o th e r h and, the F E T tran sconductance rem ains independent o f in p u t voltage am plitude for op eratio n com pletely w ithin the squarelaw region (cf. Eq. 4.4 6). N o te also th a t the tran sform er in Fig. 6.6-1 w ith M / L 2 1 keeps the reflected im pedance in the d ra in cricuit quite small ; hence the o u tp u t resistance r0 of the F E T m ay be neglected in o btaining the F E T m odel, o r equivalently the d rain cu rrent iD m ay be expressed in the form 'd = ^Dssjl jrrj > (6.6-1)
where I DSS is the value of iD when vGS = 0 and vDS = VDD, and Vp is the pinch-off voltage o f the FET. In ad d ition, M / L 2 1 ensures th at the ac d rain voltage is quite sm all, causing, in general, o p eratio n com pletely w ithin the sa tu ra tio n region of the FET. F ro m the above co nsiderations and the assum ption th at Q T of the tuned circuit is sufficiently high to keep vt{t) sinusoidal (that is, vt) = V, cos oj0t), we m ay obtain the large-signal m odel show n in Fig. 6.6-2 for the oscillator of Fig. 6.6-1. In this m odel, because o f the assum ed high Q T, only the fundam ental com ponent o f drain curren t is reflected th ro u g h the transform er, in the fashion o f Fig. 2.5-7, to o b tain the driving curren t source r mV\ v cos (O0t, -M rG L2 where Gm is the large-signal fundam ental transconductance o f the clam p-biased FET. (A p lo t of Gm/gm0 vs. VJ Vp is show n in Fig. 4.9-4.) In addition, because of
Fig. 6 .6 -2 Large-signal model for the tuned-gate FET oscillator.
6.7
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
243
the assum ption of high Q T, the clam p-biasing circuit is replaced by its equivalent conductance G NL = 3/ R G, w hich is developed in Exam ple 5.5-5. W ith the m odel of Fig. 6.6-2, we observe th at -1,1 /()(,) = 0 and that ^ l(M ) = J- r G fn, = 1 L-2 U, + KJr, for th at value of V{ for which
G m = 2 Gl + 3 Gc
for
sJ l 2c
(6.6- 2)
(6.6-3)
8m0
gm0
where gm0 = 2 I DSS/ Vp is the sm all-signal transconductance of the FE T with v g s = 0- Clearly, once Vp, / DSS, GL, and Gg are specified, Vi:/Vp, and in turn K ,, m ay be determ ined from Fig. 4.9^4. As an exam ple, consider L 2 = IO jiH , R g = 3 MQ, and I Therefore. co0 = 10 rad/sec, gm0 = 2000 /im ho, and ^mO F ro m Fig. 4.9-4 we o b tain V J V p ~ 1.67; hence Vx = 6.67 V and v,(t) = (6.67 V) cos 108r.
6.7 CRY STA L O S C IL L A T O R S
M = l/iH , R l = 50 kQ,
C = lO p F = C G, Vp = - 4 V,
4 mA.
QT = 47.5 > 10, = 0.105.
Since 1921 there have been h u n d reds of articles, tens o f chapters in textbooks, and several books a b o u t crystal oscillators and piezoelectric resonators. G erber and Sykesf have provided a recent sum m ary of the state o f the art with respect to crystals, while H afnerJ has w ritten extensively on crystal unit m odels and the m easurem ent
t E. A. G erber and R. A. Sykes, State of the A rt Q u a rtz C rystal U nits and O scillators, Proc. IEEE , pp. 103-116 (Feb. 1966). Sum m ary of d a ta and characteristics; 63-item bibliography. J E. H afner, The Piezoelectric C rystal U n it D efinitions an d M ethods of M easurem ent," Proc. IEEE, pp. 179-201 (Feb. 1969). Includes a 46-item bibliography.
244
6.7
o f m odel param eters. Sections 6.12 an d 6.13 and C h ap ter 9 o f E d so n t a n d Sections 8.1,8.2, an d 8.3 of G roszkow skiJ provide textbook sum m aries o f m any q u a rtz crystal properties an d also discuss v acuum -tube crystal oscillator circuits in detail. It is not o u r purpose here either to provide design inform ation a b o u t piezo electric reso n ato rs o r to catalog all possible crystal oscillator cricuits. W e wish sim ply to p o in t o u t the basic properties o f these reso n ato rs and to explain how they may be exploited to p ro d u ce satisfactory circuits. T he reason w hy one em ploys a piezoelectric reso n ato r in place of a conventional L -C com bin atio n is th a t the available Q in these m echanical vibration devices may be up to 1000 tim es greater th an th a t available w ith conventional elem ents. As we have seen, indirect frequency stability is directly p ro p o rtio n al to Q ; hence crystal oscillators are used as fixed-frequency, highly stable frequency o r tim ing sources. T he principal m aterial used as a m echanical reso n ato r for oscillators is crystalline quartz. T he properties of this m aterial differ in different directions th ro u g h the cry stal; in a d d itio n , each different c u t m ay be m ounted and vibrated in several different ways. T hese different c u ts have different tem perature properties, different ranges o f possible o p eratio n , an d different relations betw een their dim ensions and their m echanical an d electrical properties.' T able 6.5 in E dson sum m arizes the properties o f twelve o f the m ore useful cuts. Som e cuts, for exam ple the G T cut, have frequency shifts o f considerably less than one p a rt p er m illion p er degree centigrade over a 100C range. O th e r c u ts
have less desirable tem p eratu re properties b u t m ay have higher Q s, low er series resistances, o r m o re desirable properties a t harm onics. T he basic electrical m odel for a properly m o u n ted q u a rtz crystal an d its holder is show n in Fig. 6.7-1. As we shall see, the crystal is norm ally op erated w ithin 1 % o f the series resonant frequency o f one o f th e sh u n t b ra n c h e s; hence the circuit norm ally is reduced to C 0 in sh u n t w ith a single series resonant circuit. T he m ultiple branches result from +W. A. Edson, Vacuum Tube Oscillators. John Wiley, New York (1953). J. Groszkowski, Frequency of Self Oscillations. Macmillan, New York (1964).
6 .7
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
24 5
m echanical v ibrations a t approxim ately the odd harm onics (usually called overtones) o f the fundam ental frequency. Since the m echanical frequency o f the fundam ental vibration is p ro p o rtio n a l to the crystal dim ensions, practical considerations usually limit fundam ental o p eratio n to the neighborhood of 20 M H z o r less. By operating on an o v erto n e frequency, crystal oscillators up to the neighborhood of 200 M H z are possible. F o r higher frequencies we m ust em ploy harm onic m ultiplication from a low er-frequency circuit. If o p eratio n at a p articu lar overtone is desired, then this should be specified when ordering the crystal. If a c u t and m ounting are used th at m inim ize overtone effects, then sinusoidal o p eratio n m ay be possible in circuits with no filtering elem ents except the crystal itself.
Co
Case electrode capacitance
2Ql
Fig. 6.7 2 M odel for a crystal, its adm ittance equation, and its pole-zero diagram .
Figure 6.7-2 repeats the simplified version of the m odel together with its a d m it tance relationship and pole-zero pattern. In order to u n d erstan d the p articu lar properties of crystals it is useful to consider typical num erical values for the crystal param eters, for example, (M 0 = 107 rad/sec, C C 0 = 1/100, C0 = 4 p F ,
and
Q l = 20,000, which lead to C = 0.04 pF, L = 250 m H , and r = 125 Cl F o r this typical case, the vertical spacing betw een the pole and the zero in the vicinity o f a > 0 is approxim ately
246
6.7
co0/ 200, while the h o rizo n tal distance from the j-axis to a com plex pole or to a com plex zero is co0/40,000, o r 1/200 tim es the vertical spacing betw een the com plex pole an d zero locations. T h u s near a com plex pole one has in effect an isolated very high -Q pole, while n ear a com plex zero one has in effect an isolated very high-Q zero. T w o choices rem ain before we can select a circuit configuration. W e m ust decide w hether we w ant to use the crystal as a low im pedance [near a zero in Zip) o r a pole in 7(p)] or as a high im pedance [near a pole in Zip) o r a zero in Y(p)], an d we have to choose a m ethod o f am plitude lim iting for the circuit. Series reso n an t m odes o f o p eratio n usually place the crystal directly in the feed back p a th o r use it to shunt a bias resistor. In b o th cases, the object is to keep the loop gain below th e m inim um required for oscillation except at the series resonant frequency o f the crystal. Since the pole o f Yip) [zero o f Z i p )] is independent o f C 0 such circuits should not be affected bv circuit-caused variations in the crystal's shunt capacitance. A capacitance Cx in series w ith the crystal modifies the scale factor of Y (p ) from C 0 to
C0 + Cx an d shifts the poles of Y(p) from a> 0 to
jc
V
+ Cq + Cx
c 0 + cx
aj-
W hen C 0 C, this capacitance changes the approxim ate vertical pole-zero spacing from C cjq/ 2C0 to
C jij0 Cx
2 C 0 C 0 + Cx T h u s the possibility o f a slight ad justm ent o f the series resonant frequency is purchased at the expense of a n arrow ing o f the pole-zero spacing. If C q = 100C an d C x varies from C 0 to C 0/5, it is possible to have a frequency tu n in g o f 0.166% of co0 while reducing the m inim um pole-zero spacing by only j . A great m any vacuum -tube oscillators em ploy the crystal op eratin g in a highim pedance m ode. F ield effect tran sisto r oscillators tend to follow this sam e pattern. In all these circuits the o p erating frequency tends to be below the zero of Yip) [pole o f Z{p)] at a distance co0/ Q L o r less from it. At these frequencies the crystal looks like a parallel inductance-resistance com bination and is used to replace an inductance in a C olpitts-like o r H artley-like configuration. Such arrangem ents can be tu n e d by varying the sh u n t capacitance, C 0. F o r o p eratio n a t higher frequencies and higher overtones, the pole-zero spacing m ay be increased by add in g a shunt inductance L s th at resonates with C 0 at the o perating frequency. W ith such an arrangem ent a new pair of com plex poles in Zip) is fo rm e d ; these poles lie betw een the com plex zeros of Zip) and the origin. F o r
6.7
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
247
C 0L S = L C a n d C 0 C , th e a p p r o x i m a t e v e rtic a l s p a c in g s o f the tw o c o m p l e x p o le s
a b o u t the u n c h a n g e d z e r o p o s i t i o n is
which for C 0 = 100C leads to +(21/400)<uo and (19/400)a>o . We should note that (hese spacings are ten times the spacing for the unshunted case. Since C / C 0 tends to decrease as the square of the overtone multiple, the shunt inductance allows us to keep a nearly constant percentage pole-zero spacing at the higher frequencies. Varying C 0 (or the shunt inductance) provides a means of varying both of the complex poles. O peration of the crystal as an inductance is possible just below either pole, but is not in general desirable, since the pole positions depend strongly on the external shunt inductance. A well-designed crystal oscillator circuit should stop oscillating if the crystal is removed and should minimize the crystal driving voltage and current. The last requirement is desirable not only to avoid physical damage through overdriving, but also to minimize tem perature shifts due to self-heating For example, if the thermal resistance o f !h.:: mounted unit is 5!)0C W. then an internal dissipation o ! 2 mVV :j(k to i K/" te ;T pera t in c rise; this temperature use may lead, in some ciystai , ,i :!i:it'iem temperatures, to frequency shifts o! several par.s per .niiiion. ;i.ji or- iilator circuits separtne I e hequencv ' r r ; : i ii :i - bv employ ing -.ep,.:' i iii'.c. ai- i
248
6 .7
r=
series-resonant resistance o f crystal,
oj
scries resonance o f crystal,
n= C ,/(C , + C2), C= CtC2 /{Ci + C2) Fig. 6.7-3 Series mode crystal oscillator. w here Vebi is the am plitude o f the fundam ental em itter-base voltage. N ow ÊBl is a function o f I El an d I EQ which can be found by assum ing th at an ac cu rren t source and a dc curren t source drive the em itter-base ju n ctio n and calculating the funda m ental co m p o n en t of the em itter voltage. [N ote th a t the em itter-base voltage is no longer sinusoidal, since the crystal separates the ju n ctio n from the assum ed sinusoidal voltage Vi (r).] If
* ~
I E S e V E B q l k T ~~ I E Q
I E l CO S
cot,
(6.7-2)
then kT I EQ k T I I E1 \ ------- In 11 + - cos cot = In -- H

Q *ES < 1
(6.7-3)
IE Q
Hence, if the last term in Eq. (6.7-3) is expanded in a F o urier series, we m ay determ ine VEB1 to be of the form
6.7
where y = 1Ei / I Eq \ in additio n ,
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
249
vb = \ W
q
\_y
- 2 +
(6.7-5)
F o r this case we define a large-signal average fundam ental tran sisto r input conductance as
q
.a _
I ei
I e iI eq _ EQ
ÊBl
_________ 4 I e q _______ >,x kT

2 (1 ^ / l y 2)
y2
I * M
y2
= ginQ2(i
1 t
for y < 0.6. A p lo t o f Gin(y)/ginQ is show n in Fig. 6.7-4. If we now assum e th a t the reflected loading o f the crystal resistance r in series w ith the tran sisto r in put resistance
y 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 y = h \lh Q
G,nj& in Q 1.000 0.990 0.977 0.961 0.937 0.900 0.800 0.725 0.500
Fig. 6.7-4 Normalized input conductance for a current-driven junction. 1/Gin(_y) across R L is negligible, then the loop gain for the circuit of Fig. 6.4-3 m ay be w ritten as
>M M >) = * n L( v ? (6 .7 -6 )
r + RJy)
hence the oscillation stabilizes for th a t value of y = I e 1/ I eq for which A L(jco0) = 1, or equivalently,
-------------
(6 .7 -7 )
ginQ
(m R L - r)gmQ
where r is the series resistance o f the crystal, R L is the load resistance, and n = C ,/(C , + C 2).
250
6 .7
I t is a p p a r e n t f r o m F i g . 6.44 t h a t fo r r e a s o n a b l e a m p l i t u d e s t a b i l it y I El s h o u ld be b e t w e e n 0 . 4 a n d 1 t im e s 1EQ o r t h a t 0 . 5 0 < -------- 4 - --------- < 0.95. g>nQ( x n R L - r) (6 .7 -8 )
I n o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e o p e r a t i n g a m p li t u d e , o n e c a l c u l a t e s G m(y)/ginQ fr o m E q . ( 6 . 7 - 7 ) a n d uses F ig . 6 . 7 - 4 t o find y. T h e n , s in c e V, = a I E i R L , o n e finds th a t
V, = x y h a R f
A s a n e x a m p l e , we m i g h t m o d if y t h e c ir c u it o f Fig. 6 . 4 - 5 t o in c lu d e t h e cry s ta l, a s in F i g . 6 . 7 - 3 . I f we i n c r e a s e n fr o m 1/80 t o 1/50 while m a i n t a i n i n g all th e o t h e r q u a n t it i e s at t h e ir p r e v io u s v alu es, t h e n f o r a = 0 .9 8 a n d r = 125 i,
g in C a ls o , fr o m F ig . 6 . 7 - 4 , y = 0 . 8 2 , so t h a t
71
IE l
= 0 . 8 2 1EQ a n d Vt = 3.7 V o r
vB (t) = (10 V ) + 3.7 V cos car.

T he effective loaded Q of the crystal is a)0L divided by r + R in = 125 + 71 ^ 196i2; hence the crystal Q has been reduced from 20,000 to 12,800. The crystal dissipation for this case i s / | , r / 2 = 8.5 / i W -this a m o u n t of dissipation will certainly not cause excessive frequency shifts. In making the previous calculations wc assumed that the tuned circuit consisting of L, R , , and C , C 2/ ( C , + CY) was tuned to the series resonant frequency of the crystal [the pole of T(/j)] in Fig. 6.7 7. We might ask what happens to the amplitude a n d frequency of the oscillations as the tuned circuit is detuned or mistimed. O n a small-signal basis, in the vicinity of the pole in Yip) o f the crystal, Y{ jot) is closely approxim ated by Y (je>) - 2(jd<o - W()C ;w .-r <v0/2Qi ) here
da) = u) - oj0,
, <')0 f <0
-I
2i'jn ,
anu
= nQ
! tie n o r m a l iz e d form o f the v a r i a t i o n s in the m a g n i t u d e a n d phase o f th is function >.>iven b y the Q = x _ > c u r v e s o f Figs. 2 . 2 - 7 a n d 2.2 8. T he same n o r m a l iz e d curves j i also valid for he i m p e d a n c e of the tim ed circuit near, A h A = 2C,(jdo) y - r ~on y + (oa/ 2 Q ) * ,0oR i.c < ' (6 J 9)
where the subscript t is used to differentiate the parameters of the tuned circuit from
t hose o f the crystal.
6 .7
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
251
If we detune the tuned circuit by co0/8 Q T (2 kH z in the example where Q r = 100 and m0 = 107). we reduce the magnitude of Z{joj) from R L to 0.970 R L and introduce a phase shift of 14. T o cause a return to zero net phase shift, the operating frequency must shift until the crystal phase shift supplies the compensating 14. Since the effective crystal Q is much higher than the tuned-circuit Q, the frequency need only shift by 6 m = = <o0/8 Q'L (16 Hz when co0 = 107 and Q'L = 12, 800)t; however, this fre quency shift causes an equivalent normalized decrease in the magnitude of Y(jio). Thus, if we let
N
v 1 + 4 Q t ( S o j J ( o 0 )2
(6.7-10)
which is the normalized decrease in the magnitude of the tuned-circuit impedance ;,s well as the decrease in the magnitude of the crystal admittance, then Eq. (6.7 7) becomes
i f (V-.. i' . .oc.-sive. then (r;n!.v ),. exceeds unity and o -lolkti ir-;v; ct\:se (' f * it5 .. > 7- ---, I'.'1 s iletuning the tuned circuit causes o n h h s.v-i- ,h:n in !'u: jiscnc> u! :i,:.r- in ppreeiabk change in amplitude. With ,V
q
0.58.
:c : . j
and
V - y
V Th. i- ; 'si :in =;:1, I :< ,1 ; : i; v,.

c
^
;c;c.} .it.ib.Miy ir. il.e
v, - I ; i :hc-; niri ; :" t 'r
I, ' ' h.C înpiitudc a; . of ibis basic c m o -V r n- n h ' i b y -.in e r r c .. -
O -K - !->i i ;:V ,f(5-' ;n -r
''
, 1V" : i !:
- ;I < ; .1n.- n . ill

i c n : ! : f iK - in g l e e ; . I
252
6.7
Fig. 6.7-5 Differential-pair crystal oscillator.
L 10 nH A/ = 0.156 nH L2= 1 |iH
If the crystal o v erto n e frequencies are properly suppressed, then op eratio n of this circuit is possible w ith com m ercial integrated-circuit differential pairs in which a load resistor replaces the tuned circuit a n d the com bination o f the crystal series resistor and the base in p u t resistor replaces the capacitive attenuator.
6.7
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
253
(a) C
Inductive
Fig. 6.7-7 (a) Pierce circuit (Colpitts-like). (b) Miller circuit (Hartley-like). It is ap p aren t th at, for satisfactory o p eratio n in such a circuit, we require a m uch higher crystal series resistance than in the previous cases. T his is true because the effective Q'L is reduced to r/{RL + R B + r) o f its initial value, where r is the crystal series resistance an d R L an d R B are the circuit o u tp u t and in p u t resistances respec
254
6 .7
tively. If R l = 4 k Q , R B = 500 Q, and r = 10 kQ, then only a d eg radation of Q l results. A nother v ariatio n o f the single-ended circuit is show n in Fig. 6.7-6. If n = M / L = 1/5Q an d r = 125 Q, then this circuit has the sam e o u tp u t am plitude as the circuit of Fig. 6.7-3. T he calculation of this am plitude is perform ed in exactly the fashion outlined previously. Intuitively we see th at the circuit can have adequate loop gain to cause oscillations only when a> is near the series resonant frequency of the crystal (i.e., when the low series crystal resistance bypasses the large em itter impedance). Figure 6.7-7 illustrates tw o possible high-im pedance m ode F E T (or vacuum -tube) crystal oscillator circuits. In b o th circuits the crystal behaves like an inductor and the operating frequency is near, but slightly below, the pole in Z(p). F o r the Pierce circuit, Gm ^ G g + C / G d,
'-'D
(6.7-12)
which for C D % C a and R C l R D leads to Gm as 1/ R D, where R D is the load resistor. T he required Gm is m uch sm aller th a n for the series m ode tra n sisto r; however, since the available Gm from an F E T or vacuum tube is also m uch sm aller, the com bination is reasonable. T h a t the o perating frequency m ust lie slightly below the pole frequency is seen by cons id er ing the crystal as an equivalent inductance which r esonat es with the series com bin atio n of C D and C c . O nly w ithin several m ultiples of < ovoh/Q, bel ow k. will the crystal have a sufficient i nductive react:?nee.
6.8
SQUEGGING
255
Sim ilar argum ents hold for the M iller circuit, where C resonates with an equivalent inductance from the crystal in series with an equivalent inductance from the d rain-tuned circuit. The algebra is m ore com plicated in this case and lends little insight into the circuit o p e ra tio n ; hence it is not presented here. Figure 6.7-8 shows a series m ode crystal oscillator circuit which is a variation of the F E T circuit of Fig. 6.6-1. In this case the sm all-signal gm, with the crystal rem oved, is reduced to gm /(l + g mR s)- If R s is sufficiently large so th at Eq. (6.6-3) cannot be satisfied even for zero gate bias, then, with the crystal replaced, oscillations can occur only n ear the cry stals series resonant frequency. As in the b ip o lar case, the source current is forced to be sin u so id a l; hence again a com plete calculation necessitates finding the fundam ental source voltage as a function of the ac an d dc currents.
6.8 S Q U E G G IN G
In self-limiting sine-wave oscillators where the feedback loop is closed with a coupling capacitor, it is possible to have an interaction between the tim e constants of the bias and coupling circuits of the loop and the tim e constants of the high-frequency tuned circuits of the loop such that a self-produced am plitude m odulation o f the highfrequency oscillation occurs. Such self-m odulated behavior is know n as squegging. T he low-frequency variations of the envelope of the high frequency m ay be sinusoidal or exponential. In this section we indicate an app ro ach th at either allows us to design for deliberate squegging or, as is m ore often the case, guarantees th at it will not occur. First we shall outline a general m ethod, and then we shall apply it to a specific tran sisto r circuit to obtain definite num erical results. In o u r analysis we assum e th at conditions exist for norm al high-frequency oscillations to occur and th a t these oscillations have been set up. W e then exam ine the sm all-signal low -pass transfer junction th a t governs the am plitude o f the envelope of these oscillations. If the low -pass transfer function has only left-half plane poles, then after an initial transient at t = 0, the am plitude rem ains constant a t its desired value. H ow ever, if this low -pass transfer function has right-half plane complex conjugate poles, then sinusoidal oscillations of the am plitude occur; and if it has a right-half plane real-axis pole, then exponential buildups and decays of the am plitude occur. Since we w ant som e inform ation ab o u t the onset of squegging, we are interested in the p e rtu rb atio n of the param eters relating to the envelope aro u n d their norm al steady-state values. C onsider first the generalized self-limiting capacitively coupled oscillator show n in Fig. 6.8-1, for which the self-limiting transistor oscillator shown in Fig. 6.8-2 is a special case. If for the circuit of Fig. 6.8-1 we assum e a small pertu rb atio n r,(r) on the envelope of v(t), th a t is,
= [^1 + ti(f)]C O S ft)0 f,
then a small p e rtu rb a tio n j j(i) results in the envelope of the fundam ental com ponent of (,(f). We note, however, th a t the right-half p o rtio n of the circuit of Fig. 6.8-1 is
256
6 .8
identical to the circuit o f Fig. 5.6-1; thus ^(f) m ay be related to t>,(i) by the adm ittance Yi(p) given by Eq. (5.6-3). In addition, if Z i2(p) is a sym m etric narro w b an d filter centered a b o u t co0 (which it alm ost always is), then the results o f Section 3.3 tell us th a t u \ ( t ) is related to th e envelope variation o f the fundam ental com ponent of the \Zi2( j u ) x . tu0
/ (/) -/o
/]
c o s <>Qt + I 2 C O S A , ( j u i n)
2u>0/ +
Fig. 6.8-1 G eneralized self-limiting capacitively coupled oscillator (nonlinear load).
Fig. 6 .8 -2 T ran sisto r oscillator. (It is assum ed th a t collector satu ratio n does n o t occur and th at n orm al high-frequency oscillations are possible.)
6 .8
SQUEGGING
257
a i'i(r)
CD
Z\ 2 l (p) YAP)
'i U)
ZnL (P)
V l(0
YAp)
low-pass equivalent of Z l2(p) GiqGqi ; " [ p + c ( ( roo Gu )] p+%-0
A , cm(p) = aYAp)Zn / {p) Fig. 6.8-3 Envelope feedback circuit. curren t driving the filter by the low -pass equivalent transfer function Z l 2l (p) of the filter. T he com plete low -frequency feedback circuit relating i,(f) and u1(i) is shown in Fig. 6.8-3, from which it is a p p aren t th at
( 6 . 8 - 1) LeM = < x Y i (p )z 12M If 1 A Lcnv(p) = 0 co n tain s ro o ts in the right-half com plex plane, then squegging results. Even if no rig h t-h alf plane ro o ts exist, the positions of the left-half plane roots give us a good idea of the envelope transients when pow er is applied to the oscillator at f = 0. T o carry the analysis further, we require expressions for y^p) and Z l 2 l (p). F o r the tran sisto r oscillator o f Fig. 6.8-2 (or any o f the self-limiting transistor oscillators discussed in Section 6.4), y,(p) is given by (cf. Eq. 5.6-6)
2gi, (P) =
M *)
x / 0(x )
/(x) I 1
p + where t = C F J gin, gin = q l dc/kT\ and A(x) is given by Eq. (5.6 -7) and plotted vs. x in Fig. 5.6-2. In addition, if Q T = to0C R T > 10, then
yiR y
Z l2l(P) =
P +
( 6 .8 - 2 )
where xL = 2R TC, R T is the to tal loading across the tuned-collector circuit, and n = M / L x. As is required of a low -pass equivalent, Z 12,(0) = Z i2(jo)0) = n R T. N ow w ith the specific values for Z l2lip) and ^ (p ), ^Lenv(p) reduces to
258
6 .8
H ow ever, since the circuit is assum ed to be oscillating at a>0, A L(ja>0) = 1, or equivalently,

r t \ = gm2 I ^ Gm(x)nRT
d T = 1 1 nR
x/ 0 x
W ith this ad d itio n al restriction, ALenv(p) m ay be expressed as /l(x)| ^Lenv(P) = 1------ l \ j

a
A(x) P+
i \
(6.8-4)
where
A pole-zero diag ram o f A Lenv(p) is presented in Fig. 6.8-4, in which the ro o t locus of 1 ^Lenv(p) = 0 w ith increasing A(x) is indicated. Clearly the possibility of squegging exists. T he ro o ts of 1 A Lenv(p) = 0 reach the im aginary axis when the coefficient of the p-term is zero. Therefore, to keep the ro o ts in the left-half plane and thus to prevent squegging, we require 1 1 A(x) (6.8-5a)
or (6.8 5b)
T or
C /g in
0}0C E/ gin
(6.8-5c) Figure 6.8-5 show s a plot o f A{x) 1 = x / 0(x )//,(x ) 2. F o r exam ple, if an oscillator is designed to operate at a given x, with a given tuned circuit capacitance C an d load R T, an d a t a given dc bias w hich fixes g in, then there will be a m axim um value of C E at which squegging m ay be avoided. F ro m Fig. 6.8-5 we see th at for small x, say less than 2, then A ( x ) 1 is small and C E m ay be relatively large w ithout any danger of squegging. As x is increased, however, we m ay have difficulty in sim ultaneously satisfying Eq. (6.8-5) and the condition a0C /g in > 10. (The latter condition is necessary if C E is to be considered as an ac short circuit.)
6.8
SQUEGGING
259
Fig. 6 .8 -4 Pole-zero diagram o f A L(p) and
root locus of 1 - Atenv(p) = 0.
Fig. 6.8-5 Plot of A(x ) 1 vs. x. F o r exam ple, if co0C /g in = 20 and Q r = 50, then from Eq. (6.8-5b) and Fig. 6.8-5 we see th at a design value of x = 6.4 will cause squegging. F o r proper nonsquegging o p eratio n of such a circuit, either x m ust be kept small (below 6.4). or Q T m ust be increased. If squegging is allow ed to occur, then its initial frequency of sinusoidal variation will be the frequency a t w hich the roots of 1 A,(p) = 0 cross the 7-axis or 11 A(x)X(x) x-t (o0sf \ A{x)X{x) v /2 2 r ft)0C /g in
(6.8-6)
260
6 .8
By com bining term s we can w rite 1 A{x)X(x) = 2 + x l i(x) I 0(x) x /0(x) /^ x )
T able 6.8-1 lists several values of , / l A(x)X(x).

T able 6.8-1
X
J 1 - A(x)X(x)
0.0 1.0 2.0

3.0
0.00
0.46 0.73
0.86
0.95 0.97
6.0 10.0
00
1.00
By using the large-x expansions for I ^ x ) and / 0(x), one can show that, to with.: 5 % for x > 3, J 1 - A(x)X(x) 1 T herefore, since the exact frequency of squegging is seldom of great im portance and since squegging is m ost likely for x > 3, it seems reasonable to rew rite Eq. (6.8 -6) as o)0(l 5/16x) v / 2Qr (a)0C /gIJ F o r the previous exam ple, where Q T = 50, co0C /g in that to,, 'sq - <u0/47.5. In actual circuits the values to be used for C and for C E are usually obvious from inspection. F o r exam ple, in the C olpitts-type circuit C = C l C 2/ ( C 1 + C 2) and C = C 1 + C 2. I f a bypass capacitor C B is placed from the base to ground (as show n in Fig. 5.4-1), then CB/( 1 a) m ust be added in series with C E to determ ine the total coupling, capacitor. A sim ilar technique, starting with the results of Fig. 6.8-3 and evaluating the four p artial derivatives, either analytically or experim entally, will lead to a sim ilar set of results for v acu u m -tu b ef or F E T oscillators. In all cases squegging can be stopped,
f T w o sources th at consider squegging in the vacuum tube case in som e detail are: (1) W. R. M acLean, C riteria for the A m plitude Stability o f a Pow er O scillator, Proc. IRE , 42, pp. 17841791 (Dec. 1954); and (2) B. G. D am m ers, J. H aantjej, J. O tte, and H. Van Suchtelen, Squegging O scillators," in Application of the Electronic Valve in Radio Receivers and Amplifiers, Book IV. N. U. P hilips G loeilam penfabrieken, E indhoven, N etherlands (1950), C h ap ter II E, pp. 227-250. In the vacuum tube case, it is n o t possible to arrive at nearly such a com pact n or universal result as we have obtained here for the transistor.
(6.8-7) 20. and x = 6.4. we find
6 .9
BRIDGE OSCILLATORS
261
if it occurs, by som e co m bination of

a) re d u c in g th e size o f th e c o u p lin g c a p a c i to r (if o th e r r e s tr ic tio n s w ill a llo w th is re d u c tio n ) , b) ra is in g th e tu n e d - c ir c u it Q, a n d
c) reducing the active-elem ent driving voltage. 6.9 BRIDGE OSCILLATORS Bridge oscillators utilize the transfer function of a bridge netw ork to produce a pair of high-Q right-half plane com plex zeros. As was pointed out in Section 6.3, such a set of zeros co n trib u tes directly to the indirect frequency stability of the circuit. In this section tw o basic bridge circuits are discussed. T he first is the fixedfrequency M eacham bridge, in which the already high Q of a crystal resonator is m ultiplied by several ad d itio n al orders of m agnitude to yield a very stable circuit. The second is the w ide-range variable-frequency circuit know n as the Wien bridge oscillator, f In the W ien bridge oscillator the aim is not to achieve extrem e frequency stability, but rath er to achieve the stability and waveform purity of an L C circuit of reasonable Q while retaining the w ideband tuning capability of R C networks.]:
A b rid g e o s c illa to r c o n s is ts o f th r e e m a in e le m e n ts :
a)
b) c)
the bridge circuit,

a lin e a r a m p lifie r, a n d a b r id g e - b a la n c in g c irc u it o r e le m e n t. A s w e sh a ll see. th e d e s ira b le p r o p e r tie s o f th e b rid g e o s c illa to r s a re o b ta in e d
o n ly if th e b rid g e is o p e r a te d a s c lo se to b a la n c e a s is p o ssib le . S in c e th e a m p lifie r g a in tim e s th e b rid g e e r r o r sig n a l m u s t b e a c o n s ta n t if s ta b le o p e r a tio n is to be a c h ie v e d , a n d s in c e th e a m p lifie r g a in A c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d to b e a c o n s ta n t, w e a c h ie v e a m p litu d e c o n tr o l b y s a m p lin g th e o u t p u t a m p litu d e a n d u sin g th is sig n a l to p ro v id e e x a c tly th e n e c e s s a ry b rid g e u n b a la n c e .
F igure 6.9 1 illustrates both bridge circuits under discussion. W ith vacuum -tube circuitry the self-balancing effect is often achieved with a positive-tem peraturecoefficient resistor (a light bulb) in the upper half of the negative feedback arm (element R } ). In add itio n to being som ew hat sensitive to am bient tem perature, such elem ents often require m ore pow er for their operation than the total pow er available from a small sem iconductor operational am plifier; hence in sem iconductor circuitry it is usually m ore reasonable to obtain the self-balancing effect with an FE T , a lightsensitive resistor, or perhaps a diode acting as a controlled resistor. W hile we could operate a bridge oscillator with a simple differential-pair circuit as an amplifier, the desirable properties of the circuit require high voltage gains;
+ The literature is full of RC feedback oscillators th at are m isnam ed Wien bridge circ u its; these circuits d o not contain any bridge structure and hence do n o t have the properties described here. I Wien bridge oscillators are com m on with 10/1 variations in frequency per dial turn and overall coverage of 10b/ l . say from 2 Hz to 2 MHz. W ith an RC netw ork a 10/1 variation of R o r C gives a 10/1 variation of frequency, while in the LC case it yields only a 3.16/1 variation. In addition, for frequencies below several kilohertz, linear inductors becom e both unwieldy and expensive.
262
Model for
6.9
(a)
(b) Fig. 6.9-1 (a) Meacham bridge, (b) Wien bridge.
hence we assum e an ideal o p erational am plifier with a sufficiently high-im pedance differential in p u t th a t bridge loading m ay be neglected and with a sufficiently low o u tp u t im pedance th a t the bridge does n o t load the amplifier. So long as we restrict the o u tp u t signal level to several volts and the frequency range to below, say, 10 M H z, then such am plifiers are widely available at relatively low prices. In practical circuits, particularly at low frequencies w here im pedance levels are high, one often uses an F E T p air a t the in p u t to the differential am plifier to further reduce the effect of loading. M eacham Bridge If there is zero phase shift th rough the am plifier, then the M eacham bridge oscillator of Fig. 6 .9 -la operates extrem ely close to the series resonant frequency of the crystal, an d thus A L(jca0) is given by I. A L(jco0) = + A \ -------------- l \j o; ^ + R3 R 2 + rJ (6.9-1)
W e define N = R 2/r, M = R 3/r, and 5 = N M R J r . If (N + 1)M \d\, then stable oscillations occur [AL( jw0) = 1] when * = (6.9-2)
[N o te: (5 = 0 corresp o n d s to perfect bridge balance, while a slightly negative value of 5 is o b tain ed w hen u^f) is a sm all negative voltage relative to its defined polarity.] F o r exam ple, if the bridge arm s are nearly equal, so th a t M = N = 1, then d = A/A\ hence if A > 100, certainly |< 5| (N + 1) M an d o u r assum ption is justified. It will be the jo b o f o u r bridge-balancing circuitry to adjust 5 so th at Eq. (6.9-2) is alw ays satisfied regardless of variations in A.
6.9
BRIDGE OSCILLATORS
26 3
T h e c o m p l e t e e x p r e s s io n for the l o o p g a in o f th e M e a c h a m b rid g e is giv en by
- w
w here
= + R ,A
Ri + R 3 p
"I
~ y + 2 a 2p
1
+ m0
+ i
. I
i =
J -
1 R 2 R 3
2 l |
~ r T "
r
) '
ar,d
a ' lu
a 2 = , 7 (r + i ? 2 ).
" 2
r l c
"
2 V
"
1X21
T h e p o l e - z e r o d i a g r a m o f A L(p) is giv en in Fig. 6 . 1 - 7 ( b ). [ T h e re a d e r s h o u ld c o n v in c e h i m s e lf t h a t th e e q u a t i o n for A min in t h e figure is id e n tic a l t o E q . (6.9 2).] a p p a r e n t t h a t the effectiv e Q o f th e z e ro s o f A L(p) h a s th e form It is
Q -- = 2 I ati
while the Q o f the p o le s is giv en by
Q =
2a2 I f we define th e Q o f t h e c r y s t a ls a s Q L = to'0 L / r , t h e n w e o b t a i n th e f o llo w in g i n t e r e s t in g r a t i o s : & _ a2 _ R i ( R 2 + r) _ (NM S ) ( N + 1) ^ M N ( N + 1)
QP
R 2R i ~ r R x
NA N + 1 for A > 100,
< 5
w h ic h is c o m p l e t e l y in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p u re ly resistiv e side o f th e brid ge , and Q, = --------Q, R 2R 3 NM - NM NA = ---------------- % ---------- = -T . < 5 ( N 1 1' 2
b)
rR j
(6 .9 -4 )
C le a rly , for a giv en c ry s ta l, the g r e a te r the r a t i o Q J Q i , the g r e a te r the in d ire c t fre q u e n cy s t a b ilit y (see E q . 6 . 3 - 1 5 ) . T h e ratio
Q JQ Lis
4
a f u n c t i o n o f N w hich is g e o m e t r ic a ll y s y m m e t r i c a l a b o u t By m a k i n g N = 4 o r J , we
N = 1, w h e re it o b t a i n s its m a x i m u m v alu e o f ,4/4. re d u c e Q :/Q, to 6 the r a t i o to 3 3 o f its m a x i m u m value.
o f its m a x i m u m v a l u e ; by m a k i n g N = 10 o r ,0 , we re d u c e
I f we w ish to v ary N fr o m u n ity , we s u s p e c t t h a t it w o uld be d e s i r a b l e to i n c re a s e it, s in ce this w o u ld raise the b rid g e i m p e d a n c e l e v e l; a h ig h e r i m p e d a n c e level w ould in tu rn m a k e the b rid g e e a sie r to drive, re d u c e the c ry s ta l c u r r e n t , and re d u c e the c r y s t a l d is sip a tio n . F r o m E q . ( 6 . 9 - 4 ) we see t h a t fo r N = 1 a 6 0 d B a m p lifie r g ain c a n lead t o a fre q u e n c y s ta b ility e n h a n c e m e n t 2 5 0 tim e s th a t o b t a i n a b l e with the c ry s ta l alone. O f c o u r s e , to b e n e fit fro m this in c re a se d in d ire c t fre q u e n cy s t a b ilit y we m u st e n s u re
264
6.9
a high degree of direct frequency stability; i.e., we m ust m ake sure th a t a > 0 of the crystal rem ains stable. T his is usually accom plished by placing the crystal in an oven which m aintains its tem p eratu re co n stan t w ithin a few degrees Celsius. A beautiful feature o f the M eacham and W ien bridge oscillators is th at the same factors which lead to a large indirect frequency stability factor also cause the ou tp u t oscillation am p litu d e V, to be insensitive to variations in the am plifier gain A ; th at is, they cause the am plitude sensitivity function S A to be sm all (cf. Section 6.4). Specifi cally, SA = ( N + l )2 NA (6.9-5)
hence is m inim ized w ith N = 1 and A as large as possible. T o d em o n strate the validity of Eq. (6.9-5), we assum e th at R , is the bridgebalancing elem ent which decreases w ith increasing o u tp u t voltage am plitude V,, as show n in Fig. 6.9-2. A lthough a hyperbolic relationship is show n betw een Vt and R !, the sam e results m ay be o btained for any sim ilar relationship betw een V1 and R t . H ow ever, it is a p p a re n t th a t such a voltage resistance relationship does lead to am plitude stability. If Vt should decrease for som e reason, R ! increases and in turn causes A L(ja>0) [given by Eq. 6.9-1)] to increase, thus restoring the o u tp u t oscillation am plitude.
Fig. 6.9-2 Relationship between the bridge balancing resistor R , and the output voltage ampli tude V,. T he am plitude Flss a t which K, stabilizes m ay be Found directly from the curve o f Fig. 6.9-2. If we assum e th a t A is large (which it m ust be for a well-designed circuit), then S is sm all, since Eq. (6.9-2) m ust be satisfied in the steady state. A sm all value of 6 im plies bridge balance or, equivalently, R lss R 2R 3/r; hence the value of Vt which results in R t m R 2R 3/r on the curve o f Fig. 6.9-2 is îss- Clearly, if we desire a specific o u tp u t am plitude, we m ust choose o u r voltage-controlled resistance to be equal to R 2R 3/r for the desired o iltp u t am plitude. O r, equivalently, for a given i - Kj characteristic, R 3 m ust be chosen such th a t R 3 = R J N for the desired o u tp u t
6 .9
BRIDGE OSCILLATORS
265
am plitude. F o r the op tim u m case of N = 1, R 3 ~ Riss- F rom the above reasoning it is a p p a re n t that, if A is sufficiently large to keep the bridge balanced and R 2, R 3,r, and the characteristic are stable, then the o u tp u t am plitude isquite stable. We now evaluate S,, q u antitatively by noting th at dVl A _ A 8Vi d R x 8S A ~ dA Vx V, dRt dS d A ' Since V, = 1/ ( R , , d V l __ dR[~ In addition since R , = r ( N M - ), SRt 85 = and, from Eq. (6.9-2), 86 _ (N + 1)2M dA A2 C onsequently, ( N + 1)2M r (N + l )2 S , = ----------------- w -------------A ARi AN
r ;
(for large A).

B
Since ( d ro p s out of the expression for Sx , we see th at the exact form of the K,-/?! characteristic is not critical so long as R lss produces the desired îssT w o practical M eacham bridge oscillator circuits in which R i is controlled inversely w ith the o u tp u t am plitude are show n in Figs. 6.9-3 and 6.9-4. In Fig. 6.9 2 the o u tp u t voltage drives a sm all light source which illum inates a light-sensitive
Fig. 6 .9 -3
M eacham bridge controlled by light-sensitive resistor.
266
6 .9
Fig. 6 .9 -4 M eacham bridge controlled by enhancem ent m ode insulated-gate FET.
sem iconductor resistor. As the o u tp u t voltage and, in turn, the pow er to the light source increase, the sem iconductor resistance decreases. M any sealed units co n taining b o th the light source and the sem iconductor resistor are available com m ercially w ith n om inal resistance values (with no illum ination) from several hundreds of ohm s to several h u ndreds of kilohm s. T he R aytheon C o rp o ra tio n produces a line of such elem ents u nder the trad e nam e of R aysistors.t In Fig. 6 .9 -4 the o u tp u t voltage drives a peak envelope detector of the form discussed in Section 10.5 to develop a dc voltage p ro p o rtio n al to . T his dc voltage in tu rn inversely controls the drain-source resistance of the enhancem ent m ode insulated-gate FET. Since the drain-source resistance in this circuit rem ains linear only for d rain-source voltages under 200 mV, there will be som e d istortion in the voltage across the F E T if Vx is designed to stabilize at to o high a level. F ortunately, however, the M eacham an d W ien bridge circuits possess a large am o u n t of negative feedback (as the interested reader m ay calculate) at the harm onics of oj0 ; therefore, very little of the h arm o n ic com ponents appearing across the F E T appear at the o u tp u t, especially if A is large. Thus, for large A, nonlinearities introduced by R x do n o t appreciably destroy the sinusoidal purity of the output. A lthough m axim um indirect frequency stability and m inim um am plitude sensitivity b o th dem and th at N = R 2/r = 1, the perm issible crystal dissipation som etim es requires us to select an N different from 1 and m ake up the deficiency in S F an d S A w ith increased am plifier gain. Excessive crystal cu rren t m ay cause the crystal to fracture. F lat statem ents ab o u t the size of a destructive cu rren t are difficult to m ake, since it m ay exceed 25 mA for a physically ro b u st low -frequency unit and it may be less th a n 1 mA for a fragile
t A possible disadvantage o f the R aysistor as a control elem ent is th at it requires a relatively large am o u n t of input current and also tends to be som ew hat expensive.
6.9
BRIDGK OSCILLATORS
267
h ig h - f re q u e n c y unit. E v e n w i t h o u t a p p r o a c h i n g the level o f d e s t r u c t i o n , o n e n o r m a l ly w ishes t o k e e p the c ry s ta l d is s i p a t i o n b e lo w o n e m illiw a t t s o as to m in im iz e in te rn a l heating. S u c h h e a t i n g usually c a u s e s shifts in fr e q u e n c y o f the c ry s ta l r e s o n a n c e s. T h e a m o u n t a n d d i r e c t i o n s o f s u c h shifts will be a f u n ctio n o f the " c u t " o f the crystal. F o r o p e r a t i o n at series r e s o n a n c e , the c ry s tal p o w e r is 1't 2 r ( l + .V)2 ; h ence, for r = 100 Q a n d a m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e c r y s t a l p o w e r o f 1 m W . we ha v e
K
1 + N
< 0.445
(6.9 7)
or
V\ , V
1 2
4
1.25 3.5
8.0
S m a l l e r v a lu e s o f r will p la c e even m o r e s ev ere l im it a t i o n s o n N.
Wien Bridge
F o r the W i e n b rid g e c irc u it o f F ig. 6.9
1 n 2 + p\I ----
1(b) the l o o p gain is given by

\ 1
1 + ---------------------;
A/[p)
R,A
\ R4 C 4
n I
R 2C 2
R .R .C ,
4 r 2c 4c 2
-----------------
1
r
1
r
(6.9 8)
I _j_
\r 4 c 4
2c 2
4c 2 )
4 r 2c 4 c 2
T h e p o l e - z e r o d i a g r a m o f A , ( p ) is s h o w n in Fig. 6.1 7(a). T h o u g h th e re m a y b e c a se s w h e re the R C a r m s sho uld n o t be id e n tic a l, it is usually d e s ira b le t o i m p o s e this re s t ric t io n . R 4 C 4 = R 4C 2 re d u ce s to A p 2 pd(o 0 +
wq
=
W i t h the special c a s e w h e re R 2C 2 = o f R 3 as R , = (2 4 - S ) R t . Eq. (6.9 8)
I/cOq a n d
the d e f in itio n
l (p ) =
3 + p2 + 3pcj'0 + u0
(6.9 9)
T h i s o s c i l l a t o r h a s j - a x i s p o le s at u>0 = a> '0 w hen A + 3 or
A - 3
(6.9
10)
T h i s v alu e for 6 le a d s t o a q u e fo r t h e c o m p l e x z e r o s o f
(6.9 Hi
Qz = 5 ~ 9 * 9 w hen A 3 : h e n c e , t o a c h i e v e S F % 2 Q . = 100, we m u s t h a v e A = 45 0.
26 8
6.10
In this case the lim its on the allow able im pedance levels for the bridge are set by the m axim um desirable capacitance an d the problem of the am plifier in put im pedance loading the bridge. These problem s becom e extrem e at low frequencies; at high frequencies, am plifier o u tp u t im pedance and in p u t shunt capacitance m ay be lim iting factors. In general, the bridge input im pedance can be kept to the order of several h u n d red s of o h m s ; hence the o rdinary o p erational am plifier should drive it w ithout difficulty. Any o f the con tro l circuits discussed for the M eacham bridge case is an ap p ro p riate replacem ent for R i in the W ien bridge.
6.10 T H E O N E -P O R T A P P R O A C H T O O S C IL L A T O R S
In this section we exam ine a n o th er a p p ro ach to the analysis and design of sine-wave oscillators. C onsider the four circuits in Fig. 6.10-1. As we shall see, all of them have the p otential to p roduce nearly sine-wave oscillations. They are representative o f a class of circuits o r of a way of looking at circuits in which the am plifying device an d its n onlinearition are lum ped into a single, reactance-free, controlled source.
---------------1>
> *4
i> --------------- 1
>r 2
; ^
)f(0
1 m i > ----(b)
------
C2 -)h
<c) Fig. 6.10-1
(d) F o u r o n e -p o rt oscillators.
All o f these circuits contain a filter, an ac energy source, and som e form o f positive feed b ack ; hence, if the loop gain is high enough, all o f them are p o tential oscillators. In this section we are interested n o t in proving th at oscillation is possible, o r in determ ining the exact frequency o r w aveshape of oscillation, but in seeing how possible nonlinearities in the controlled source may limit the am plitude of the oscillations. F o r the purposes o f o u r basic explanation it is im m aterial w hether the nonlinear device is co nstructed o f separate elem ents such as F E T s o r transistors o r w hether it is a single o n e-p o rt device such as a tunnel diode. F o r exam ple, the voltagecontrolled current source in Fig. 6.10-1 (d) m ight be a single bip o lar or F E T transistor,
6.10
THE ONE-PORT APPROACH TO OSCILLATORS
269
Fig. 6.10-2 Possible im plem entation of Fig. 6.10-1 (a).
while the curren t-co n tro lled voltage source in Fig. 6.10- 1(a) m ight be constructed of a current-sensing resistor and an o p erational am plifier as illustrated in Fig. 6.10-2. F igure 6.10-3 shows one of m any ways to construct a circuit of the type shown in Fig. 6.10-1 (b). It is not our purpose a t this point to develop the nonlinear characteristics of the various active devices, but rath er to calculate the oscillator perform ance given a calculated o r m easured device characteristic. As a first exam ple consider the circuit of Fig. 6.10-2, where the com bination of o peratio n al am plifier an d r2 is assum ed to have a characteristic of the form show n in Fig. 6.10-4.
270
6 .1 0
Fig. 6.10 4 Assumed characteristic for device in Fig. 6.10-1 (a) or Fig. 6. 10- 2.
F irst consider the sm all-signal situation, where the controlled source always operates in its linear region, |i| < 1 mA. In this region / ( / ) may be replaced by a linear voltage source, R Di. t W ith this source the loop gain A L(p) becom es R dPC = A L(p), p L C + prC + 1 where r = r, + r2. W hen R d = r, the circuit has j-axis poles a t oj0 = + 1 L C ; hence sinusoidal oscillations build up a t this frequency. W hen R D < r, the poles are in the left-half plane and, while transients m ay cause ringing, free oscillations do not occur. F or R D > r the poles are in the right-half plane and the oscillations grow. In fact, in Fig. 6.10- 1(a), if we merely replace the g e n e ra to r/(i) by the negative resistor R D (which is perm issible, since the voltage source is linearly related to the current through it), we can perceive the previous results in an even m ore straightforw ard m anner. W hen the net circuit series resistance is positive, the oscillations decay; when this resistance is negative, they grow. (Since for |/| < 1 mA any increase in / causes an increase in /( i) , the equivalent resistance - R D m ust indeed be negative.) If initially R D = A r 2 > + r 2, then certainly oscillations build up until even tually at least the peaks of / exceed the linear region in Fig. 6.10-4. F o r the given characteristic, w hen |/| > 1 mA the /( /) generator ceases to be a negative resistance and becom es a 6 V battery w hose polarity depends on i. This action causes lim iting in the build u p of i, and eventually an equilibrium condition is reached. It is this equilibrium state th at we shall now find. In general, when o peration of the circuit show n in Fig. 6.10-2 extends beyond the linear reg io n ,/( / ) becom es a distorted sinusoidal voltage which m ay be w ritten in the form / ( ') = F0 + F, cos u)0t + V2 cos w 0t + + . H ow ever, if the Q T of the tuned circuit is high enough that even the distorted voltage /( / ) still produces an alm ost sinusoidal current through r, then we m ay assum e sinusoidal input cu rrents of the form /*, cos co0f for several values for I , and utilize
t In th e circuit o f Fig. 6 .1 0 2. R D = Ar2.
6.10
THE ONE-PORT APPROACH TO OSCILLATORS
271
-1 2 V
6yv[i2oj~
| 120 f - \ /
Pulses to be subtracted
Fig. 6.10-5 Sinusoidal current drive. Fig. 4.2 -3 to calculate the harm onics in the subtracted sine-wave tips in order to calculate the o u tp u t fundam ental voltage Vt . Figure 6.10-5 illustrates the technique. T he fundam ental o u tp u t voltage equals the extrapolated linear transfer value (neglecting the break points) m inus the fundam ental com ponents in the sine-wave tip pulses th at m ust be rem oved from the extrapolated value to obtain the actual characteristic. F o r the case shown. K, = [12 - 6 x 0.39 - 6 x 0.39] V = 7.32 V, where 0.39 is the function of 2< p read from the n = 1 curve of Fig. 4.2-3 for 2<p = 120. By applying this technique several times we obtain a plot o f F, vs. / , for the device. N ow since the passive circuit also im poses a relationship between V, and / , of the form / j = VL/r, we see that, as in previous sections, the operating am plitude is fixed by the sim ultaneous satisfaction of the active device and of the passive circuit require ments. Figure 6.10-6 illustrates several ways to present the results o f this calculation. The (4/ 7 t) x 6 lim it o f Vl in Fig. 6. 10-6(a) is the limit of the fundam ental value of a square wave (see Eq. 4.2-2). W ith r = 2 kQ, this circuit will stabilize at about 3.8 mA = 1 1 , for which Vt = Ir = 7.6 V. N ow for this am plitude we can return to Fig. 4.2 -3 an d calculate the am plitudes of the first several harm onics in order to see how high Q m ust be for the assum ption of a sinusoidal current to be valid in the first place. In this sym m etric case, the second-harm onic voltage is zero, while the th ird -h arm o n ic voltage is 2.4 V ; hence, to reduce the third-harm onic current to 1 % of the fundam ental current, we m ust have
As r is increased tow ard 6 kQ the overdrive becom es sm aller and the Q require m ent relaxes. If r > 6 kQ, then no intersection occurs in Fig. 6.10-6 and operation ceases. In this case the net circuit resistance is alw ays positive.
272
6 .1 0
/i, mA
(a)
/,, mA
(b)
Fig. 6.10-6 (a) V, vs. 1, (from Fig. 6.10-5). (b) V,/I, (from Fig. 6.10-5).
As we p ointed o u t previously, Fig. 6. 10-6(b) allows us to visualize the nonlinear controlled source as a negative resistor {rem em ber th at i flows up th ro u g h /(i) hence the g enerator is supplying ra th e r th an consum ing ac power]. F rom this view point the circuit will stabilize when the passive circuit resistance ju st balances the "av erag e negative resistance R D = V J I , from the active circuit. N ote that since all negative-resistance oscillators m ay be approached from the controlled-source view point, there is no need to isolate them as a special case. In this a p p ro ach the feedback loop em ployed previously does not always appear explicitly; hence the previously em ployed criteria for oscillation (the loop gain being one) have been replaced by the criterion of zero net resistance [or j = axis poles which is, o f course, exactly w hat was achieved when A L(j(o0) reached unity]. A num ber of questions m ay arise at this point. W hat does one do when Q is not high? W hat so rt of tran sients occur during the buildup of oscillations? W hat is the actual frequency of oscillation? (It will not be 1 /^ /Z c in Fig. 6.10-2, for example.) H ow does one deal with the case of sm oothly varying device characteristics? W hen the Q is n o t high enough to rem ove essentially all the harm onics, two ap p roaches are possible. O ne is a p ertu rb a tio n technique w hereby we initially assum e a sine-wave drive and then find an approxim ate level of operation. Then, n ear th a t level, we determ ine the first several harm onics assum ing a sine-wave drive, and after filtering these h arm onics th ro u g h the circuit we use the approxim ation to the actual o u tp u t w aveshape as a new driving function. W ith piecewise-linear characteristics this a p p ro ach is n o t appealing. F o r the sm oothly Varying case, we m ay approxim ate the function over w hat is estim ated to be the useful region by as low an order of polynom ial as appears plausible, and proceed. T he iterative technique is m ore reasonable in this case. A nother ap p ro ach which atta ck s the low-Q problem directly and which also yields results for tran sien t buildups is the phase plane m ethod described in Section 6.11. Section 6.12 then considers the effect o f harm onic com ponents on the operating frequency an d th u s relates w aveshape disto rtio n to variations in operating frequency.
6.11
6.11 THE PH A SE PLANE APPROACH
THE PHASE PLANE APPROACH
273
T hough the literatu re is full o f p resentations of the phase p lan e m ethod, m ost of these general ap p roaches tu rn out not to be easily applicable to practical oscillator problem s of the type presented in Section 6.10. T his section presents a m odified version o f the Lienard m ethod th at leads to rapid solution of this type of problem . The specific m ethod presented here is ap p li cable to all second-order system s with nonlinear dam ping, th at is, to systems in which the sm all-signal transfer function from the controlled source to the controlling variable has a single zero at the origin and only two poles (real or complex). T hough the m ethod as presented will not w ork directly for such circuits as the M eacham bridge, it is directly applicable to all the circuits of the previous section. C h ap ter 2 of H ay ash if outlines m ore sophisticated graphical m ethods th at are applicable to m ore com plicated circuits. The m ethod presented here provides a graphical solution for the initial transient buildup and for the fihal operating w aveshape of the oscillator. Its use implies that the reactances of the controlled-source (if any) have been separated out and com bined with the circuit reactances. It also assum es th at the circuit's dc (?-point is know n and th at it does n o t shift appreciably between the no-oscillation and full-oscillation cases. O nce the o u tp u t w aveshape has been determ ined, it will be clear w hether an average value of current or voltage does exist. If so, and if such an average value will have caused a >-point shift (this will be a function of the bias circuitry), then the result is only an approxim ation. In such cases it is possible to pursue a p ertu rb atio n approach through several steps tow ard a better estim ate of the result. This is seldom u n d er taken, since the m ain purpose of the phase plane m ethod is to provide rapid insight into the type of d isto rtio n likely to occur in oscillator circuits with low-(>" filters. T he initial estim ate, even if not exact, is usually sufficient for design purposes. The m ethod handles both piecew ise-linear and gradual nonlinearities with equal ease. In circuits with highly selective filters, however, one of the analytic m ethods described previously will give b o th quicker an d m ore accurate results. T he result to be achieved is a graphical construction of a co n to u r in a phase p lan e th at will indicate w hether oscillations are possible (a sm all-signal calculation will, of course, indicate this fact also) and, if so, how they build up from any particular set of initial conditions. A further co n struction derived from the first one gives a reasonable estim ate o f the circu its w aveshape and fundam ental frequency. In o rd er to achieve these aim s, a certain set of algebraic and trigonom etric m anipulations m ust be presented. T he new reader w ould probably do well to skim th rou g h these once to see the conclusion and then retu rn to unravel the details. Basically w hat we are trying to d o is obtain a solution of a nonlinear differential eq u atio n of th e form d 2x(t) dx(t) d
~ w
+ - r + w , ) =
161
t C hihiro H ayashi, Nonlinear Oscillations in Physical Systems. M cG raw -H ill, New Y ork (1964).
274
6.11
where x m ay be a voltage or a current a n d /( x ) is some know n single-valued function of x. The m ethod involves the m anipulation of the equation so as to rem ove tim e as an explicit variable an d so as to obtain a relationship for dy/dx or dy/drj, where t] is som e linear m ultiple o f x and y = (b/c)J'x( t) dr or equivalently x = (c/b)(dy/dt). In o b tain in g Eq. (6.11-1) from a specific circuit, it is often convenient from the view point of m an ip u latio n to w rite the sm all-signal transfer function from the controlled-source o u tp u t, say X 2(p), to the controlling variable, say Xx(p), and then, after m ultiplying out, to convert this to its equivalent large-signal nonlinear differ ential equation. A subsequent illustrative exam ple will m ake this point clear. This transfer function should have the form * i (p ) = x 2(p ) or p 2X l(p) + a p X (p) + b X x(p) = c p X 2(p), where X ,(p) = if[x (f)] an d X 2(p) = if [ /( x ) ] . T aking the inverse Laplace transform we im m ediately o b tain Eq. (6.11-1). O nce Eq. (6.11-1) is obtained, we integrate once and divide through by c, the m ultiplier o f/(x ), to obtain (6.11-3) W e now rem ove the integral term by defining a new variable, (6.11-4) T he dx/dt term is now rem oved by noting th at dx dt therefore. (6. 11- 6 ) N ow unless b/c2 = 1, we define a new variable r\2 = (bjc2)x2 so th a t the slope term has a unity m ultiplier and so th at t] and y have the sam e dim ensions. We now write the m odified version of Eq. (6.11-6) as a solution for dy/drj, dy dr y - [ /( * ) - {a/c)x}' (6.11-7) d x dy dy dt d x bx dy c (6.11-5) pc p 2 + ap + b (6. 11- 2)
W ith this m ethod it is convenient always to factor o u t a m inus sign and to place it as shown in Eq. (6.11-7).
6.11
275
N ow Eq. (6.11-7) presents the increm ental change in y for an increm ental change in t] in term s of y, x, an d f ( x) . Since rj is a linear function of x and y is an integral of x, we have as variables the controlling variable (or a linear m ultiple o f it) and the integral of this variable (or a m ultiple of it). The two final variables are always connected via an integration o r a differentiation and always have identical units. At this point we lay out a set of axes with y as the ordinate and tj as the abscissa and with equal increm ents in each direction. T he coordinate system is know n as the phase p lan e. N ow t] and y in Eq. ( 6 . 1 1 - 7 ) are merely distances in this plane. If we assum e values for x (and hence t]), we may find a corresponding value for j \ x ) - {a/c)x treated as a function of r]. T his function may be plotted in the y vs. tj plane. Figure 6 . 1 1 - 1 illustrates Eq. ( 6 .1 1 - 7 ) .
F ro m any arb itra ry p o in t (71 y i ) in the phase plane, say in Fig. 6.11-1, we d ro p a p erpendicular until it crosses the / (x) (a/c)x curve. At this p o in t we travel horizontally until we reach the _y-axis. F rom Fig. 6.11-1 it is clear that tan _ = * 1i y i - LA *i) - (a/c)x ,] dy i d*i i ' H ow ever, tan (180 - a) = - t a n a ; hence ^ - = tan (180 - a). dtjl This m eans th at the grad ien t of y with respect to t) at any point in the pha* plane is given by the p erpendicular to the radius from the equivalent point Q x to the point P, in question. T hus from any a rb itra ry starting point we may trace out a path by connecting successive arcs o f circles sw ung ab o u t successive points on the y-axis. Several points are w orth n oting before an illustrative exam ple is undertaken. Since we are w orking aro u n d an assum ed g -p o in t, the / (x) (a/c)x curve can always be norm alized so th at it passes through the origin. F urtherm ore, unless it
276
6.11
passes th ro u g h th e origin w ith an upw ard slope to the right, th a t is, u n le s s /(x ) > (a/c)x for sm all positive values o f x, there is n o sense in proceeding, because oscilla tions are n o t possible [ / (x) > (a/c)x for sm all positive values o f x im plies th a t the lo o p gain exceeds unity a n d th a t the rig h t-h alf p lane poles exist in the system]. Because th e co n stru ctio n is b o th Q -point an d circuit sensitive, any change in the circuit o r the Q -point requires a new construction. As an illustrative exam ple consider the circuit of Fig. 6 .10-l(b) w ith R 2 = R* a n d C 2 = C 4 an d th e /( i) vs. i characteristic as show n in Fig. 6.11-2.
- 0 .2 5 mA
+ 0.25 mA
Fig. 6.11-2 Controlled-current-source characteristic. F ro m the circuit, * i( p )

* 2 ip)
h ip)
Y,{p)
y 2(p )
hip)
+ y4(p)
( 6 . 11- 8 )
F o r the specific case w here R 2 = R 4, C 2 = C 4, and co0 = l / R 2C 2, the transfer function reduces to
(61I_9)
h ip)
P + 3co0p + col
hence a = 3a>0, b = col, an d c = to0. Since Eq. (6.11-9) is of the form of Eq. (6.11-2) and since b/c2 = ojqjcog = 1, we m ay w rite dy/di directly in th e form of Eq. (6.11-7):
T 7 T ) r di -----------y - r[/(O - v 3i] W e now assum e variatio n s of i about the Q-point and calculate [ /( i) 3i] vs. i as plotted in Fig. 6.11-3. It is intuitively obvious th a t this circuit should o sc illa te : from the adm ittance transfer function a t p jco0 it follows th a t the netw ork loss is 5 , w hile the smallsignal cu rren t gain aro u n d the Q -point is 4 ; hence the lo o p gain exceeds unity. Figure 6.11-3 also indicates the closed trajectory o f the steady-state operating path. T his p a th w as sketched o u t w ith a com pass in a b o u t three m inutes from the arb itra ry startin g p o in t o f y = 0,1 = 0.50 mA.
6.11
277
< E
A rbitrary starting
point I, mA
- 0 .5 0
Fig. 6 .1 1 3
Phase plane trajectory for circuit of Fig. 6.10 1(b) w ith /() o f Fig. 6.11-2.
O nce we have this phase plot, the question arises as to w hat we can say ab o u t the w aveshape o f / o r y vs. t. Since y and i are connected via an integration o r differentiation, if one o f them is sinusoidal then the o th er m ust be cosinusoidal. T herefore, since the scales are identical in b o th directions, it follows from w hat we know o f Lissajous figures, th a t if i w ere sinusoidal then the p a th w ould be circular. T herefore, the extent to w hich the actual trajectory dep arts from a circle gives us an indication of the nonsinusoidalness of the waveshape. Before we look for further w aveshape inform ation we should consider the possible differences am ong the various available signals. Since y = oj0J idx, then y is p ro p o rtio n al to the voltage across C 4. C ertainly the effect o f the integration (a low -pass o peration) should reduce th e harm onic co n ten t in y w ith respect to th a t in Therefore, g ro u n d in g the capacitor C 4 a n d tak in g the o u tp u t across it should lead to a b e tte r w aveshape th a n grounding R 4 and taking the o u tp u t across it. W hatever w aveshape we desire, if we had the slope with respect to tim e for every point (as well as th e co rresponding value at th at point), then we w ould be able to m ake a reasonable sketch of the w aveshape with respect to time. F rom o u r original eq u atio n s we m ay w rite o r derive both dy/dt and d i / dt : j t = - u 0{y ~ [ / ( ') - 3/]}. These eq u atio n s m ean th a t the slope of y with respect to tim e is alw ays p ro p o r tio nal to the co rresponding value of i or to the h o rizo n tal distance from the vertical
278
6.11
axis to the p o in t o n the trajectory. At the sam e time, the slope of i with respect to tim e is p ro p o rtio n a l to the negative o f the vertical distance betw een the trajectory an d the / ( / ) 3/ characteristic. W hen the trajectory crosses t h e / ( i ) 3i c h arac teristic, di/dt goes th ro u g h zero ; w hen the trajectory crosses the >-axis, dy/dt goes to zero. If one is attem p tin g to plot y(t), then the easiest ap p ro ach w ould seem to be to draw a circle w ith center at the origin and radius equal to ymax. T hen sketch out carefully on a separate sheet o f g raph paper a b o u t l j cycles of a cosine wave of a rb itrary period. So long as the trajectory lies on the circle, then y(t) is following the sine wave. As the trajectory falls away from the circle, the slope of y(t) decreases from the slope of th e cosine wave. If the slope of the cosine as it passes th ro u g h zero is tak en as the stan d ard , then the slope of y(r) at any point is merely ipomi/ y max times the stan d ard slope. T he slope-tracking a p p ro ach will break dow n near the negative peak in y. H ow ever, even if the negative m axim um is different in am plitude from the positive m axim um , the trajecto ry in the vicinity o f the peak is still nearly an arc of a circ le ; hence the negative tip of y(t) will be sinusoidal in shape. W ith this inform ation it is a straightforw ard task to sketch o u t y(t). Since vC4(t) = R 4y(t), this sketch provides the
o u tp u t voltage w ithin a constant. F igure 6.11-4 com pares y(t) w ith a stan d ard sine wave o f the sam e peak am plitude and of period a> 0. N ote th at, in spite of the reason ably strong overdrive, the w aveshape across C 4 is a good ap p roxim ation of a sine wave, b u t a sine wave o f a frequency at approxim ately 80 % o f co0. As the overdrive is reduced, the slope o f/( / ) 3i th ro u g h the origin is reduced until in the lim it it becom es horizontal. At this point i w ould be sinusoidal with a
6.12
THE DISTORTION-OPERATING FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP
279
peak am plitude equal to the b reak p o in t value o f / (assum ing a sym m etrical c h arac teristic is m aintained as the slope is reduced). Any further reduction in the slope will cause the oscillations to cease. As the overdrive is reduced, not only do the waveshapes becom e m ore sinusoidal but their frequencies increase tow ard w 0 . In the next section we shall see how the frequency of an oscillator is affected by d istortion in its w aveshape and hence why the overdrive (with its large d isto rtio n term s) should cause a frequency depression.
6.12 T H E D IS T O R T IO N -O P E R A T IN G FR E Q U E N C Y R E L A T IO N S H IP !
A lm ost any practical sinusoidal o r nearly sinusoidal oscillator may be considered in a form sim ilar to one of the circuits show n in Fig. 6.10-1. T h at is, it may be con sidered as a com bin atio n of a netw ork and a controlled source. In general, we have been neglecting active circuit reactances; however, even if they occur it is usually possible to segregate them and then to treat them as part of the netw ork. T hus if we wish we can consider all of our oscillations as a netw ork plus a nonreactive controlled source.
/(<?)
< j> q d l f i q )]
Fig. 6.12-1 General nonreactive controlled-source characteristic.
W hatever the com bin atio n of variables,J a nonreactive active elem ent driven by a periodic w aveshape (we assum e steady-state operation, but m ake no initial assum p tions ab o u t the w aveshape other than th at it is periodic) m ust have zero net area when integrated aro u n d a com plete cycle. Figure 6.12-1 illustrates this property for the general controlling variable q and controlled v a r ia b le /^ ) . If the active device were reactive, then for any given am plitude swing for q the result o f the hysteresis in the characteristic would be a constant area and our approach would still be valid although slightly m ore com plicated. Therefore, as a sim plification we separate the device reactances initially and assum e no device hysteresis. + The relationship between distortion and operating frequency of an oscillator was first presented by Groszkowski in the 1920's. His more recent book. Frequency o f Self Oscillations (Macmillan, New York. 1964), summarizes his earlier work and presents results for more complicated cases than are presented here. J Controlled-source possibilities include current-controlled voltage or current sources and voltage-controlled voltage or current sources; network functions include impedances, admit tances, and voltage and current ratios.
280
6 .1 2
N ow instead o f taking the integration from qmin to qmax and back, we could take it over a com plete period of the in put cycle, in which case we w ould find
( 6.12
1)
F u rth erm o re, since q and hence f ( q ) are periodic variations ab o u t a Q -point, each of them can be expanded in a F o u rier series startin g from a fundam ental com ponent an d going as high as is n ecessary :
o o
< ?=
Qn sin (nwt + I/o,
(6 . 12- 2 )
(6.12-3)
00
f(.q) =
Z Fm sin (mwt + <f>J. m= 1
(6.12-4)
If Eqs. (6.12-3) an d (6.12-4) are substituted in Eq. (6.12-1) and the integration is perform ed, then all term s except those containing sin (ij/n < /> m), where m = n, vanish an d we obtain (6.12-5) E q u atio n (6.12-5) indicates an active-device-im posed relationship between the harm onics o f the con tro llin g an d controlled quantities and the phase angle between them. T he passive circuit also im poses a different relationship betw een these quantities. These tw o relationships m ust coexist. In general, this m eans th a t the operating frequency o f th e o scillator m ust shift until the tw o relationships can be m utually satisfied. If the transfer function betw een f ( q ) and q through the passive netw ork of the oscillator is H(p), then it is readily show n th a t Fn S m H( jna > ) = Qn sin (ip - </> ), w here J m H(jnaj) is the im aginary p art of H(jnoj). W ith this result, Eq. (6.12-5) simplifies to
n f I J m H(jna>) = 0
vo. 1 2 - 6 )
6 .1 2
THE DISTORTION-OPERATING FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP
281
H ere we see th a t th e o p eratin g frequency m ust shift from a > 0 [the point at which H(jco) is real] to a poin t w here H(joj) is sufficiently reactive to satisfy Eq. (6.12-7). It is also a p p a re n t th a t this shift in frequency is m inim ized if the harm onic com ponents in / (q) are small. U p to this point we have n o t made any approximations whatsoever. In m any cases, it is convenient to m ake two types o f sim plifying approxim ations. In one, we assum e a sim ple driving function for q(t ) in o rd er to ease the calculation o f the harm onics o f f(q). In the other, we m ake som e sim plifying assum ptions ab o u t the netw ork pole-zero p a tte rn s in o rder to facilitate the calculation o f the J m H(jnw). As a num erical exam ple, consider the circuit o f Fig. 6.1 0 -1(a) as expanded in conjunction with Figs. 6.10-4, 6.10-5, and 6.10-6. F o r the given drive, let us find the first-order effect of the circuit Q T on the operating frequency. T o accom plish this we assum e th a t Q T is sufficiently high so th a t i rem ains essentially sinusoidal as Q t varies. F o r this case th e variable Q becom es the variable F becom es V, and the variable J m H( jmo) becom es J * n Y(jnco), where Y{p) = ---------- P / L _ 2 ^ a nd Y(jmo) as Y ( j mo 0) & co0Mn thus y(jn(a) ^ In addition, (a)/L)(a>o ct> 2)
njo>) = ,,,2
( o -
r = r , + r 2,
- 1)
for n > 2 and high Q T \
it. co0L(n2 - 1)
^
*
2AcoQ]
W oL
o)2)2
4-
(cor/L)2
IT 1
fo r hi8 h Q t .
w here Aco = co - co0 is the d e p a rtu re in operating frequency from to0 . T hus for this exam ple we o b tain , from Eq. (6.12-7), * - A I 0>0 2Ql-n=2" { ) 2 ~ l\Vll (6-12 8)
N ow (V/K j)2 m ay be evaluated for any p articular steady-state operating point by using Fig. 4.2-3. T ab le 6.12-1 lists the approxim ate harm onic ratios for the first five h arm onics on the assum ption o f operation aro u n d the operating p o int found in Section 6.10.
282
6 .1 2
Table 6.12-1
Vi/Vt * 0.0
F3/F , % 0.32 VJVX * 0.0
f5 /f, a i s
/ , 3.8 mA, V, 7.6 V
W ith these values o f V JV X an d w ith Q T = 12, we find th at ~ JW8 ~ (I x 0.322 + a )0 x 0.152)
% 1.5 x 10 4, o r th a t the effect o f the h arm onics has been to decrease the operating frequency by 0.015%. W ith a sm aller Q T there w ould be m ore harm onics in i and thus m ore uncertainty in estim ating V. A sm aller Q T w ould certainly also lead to a greatly increased Aco. E quations (6.12-7) an d (6.12-8) indicate th at the operating frequency of a oscillator m ay be shifted by injecting harm onics of the oscillator frequency or by varying the phase of these injected harm onics. This leads directly to the possibility of synchronization w ith an external signal either a t its fundam ental or any of its harm onics. F ro m this p o in t of view we can see why the oscillator explored in Section 6.11 o p erated so far below its nom inal frequency of operation. T o begin with, the oscillator w as badly overdriven^ so th a t the harm onic co ntent was h ig h ; b u t to m ake m atters w orse, the passive circuit transfer function _____ rr/_\ _ ______ PWO *\P) 2 i j i 2 p + 3pa>0 + a>o neither atten u ated the h arm onics rapidly w ith respect to the fundam ental nor provided a rap id phase shift w ith frequency in the neighborhood o f co0. T hus a large decrease in frequency was necessary to bring Eq. (6.12-7) back into balance. PROBLEMS
6.1 a) In the circuit of Fig. 6 .P -1, A x = A 2 = /I 3 an d all sources are linear. F ind the values of C and Am in required if this circuit is to be on the verge of sinusoidal oscillation at 20 kHz. H ow w ould the circuit be affected if the signs of one, o f two, o r o f three of the generators were reversed? b) W ith the sam e value for C, assum e th a t A 2 = A 3 = 4 while am plifier 1 has the following nonlinear relationship betw een its in p u t rm s sinusoidal voltage an d its o u tp u t sinusoidal
voltage:
F ind the sinusoidal o u tp u t voltage v3{t). (The nonlinear relationship is assum ed to have a tim e co n stan t th a t is long in com parison to a cycle o f the sine wave.)
PROBLEMS
283
Figure 6.P-1
6.2 If all of the lO k fl resistors in P roblem 6.1(b) increase 10/ with age, w hat w ould be the new values of frequency and o u tp u t am plitude? If R did not vary, b u t A 2 decreased from 4 to 3, w hat w ould be the effect on frequency an d am plitude? 6.3 A possible sine-wave oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 6.P 2. Will it w ork? If so, find the frequency and the am plitude of vx. If not, explain why not. Assume that the A VC block does not load Q i and that a * 1 for the transistors.
284
6.4 F o r the circuit o f Fig. 6.P -3, find
for oscillations. F ind L for 100 kH z oscillations.
6.5 F o r the circuit o f Fig. 6 .P -4, indicate the loci o f the poles o f K(P)/Is(P) as t* varies, assum ing identical n 's and th a t a current generator, is , is applied at the term inals at v. W hat is the m inim um value of n for sinusoidal oscillations? W hat value o f C will cause sinusoidal oscillations at 10 kH z?
+0
/> = 20 k fi
Figure 6.P 4
PROBLEMS
20 k O
285
> ------o +
-V vV
S.*. Q
* 10ki2 <>R vb
: 1000 pF
5 k-
1000|i with vh V b sin lt
Figure 6 .P 5
6.6 In the circuit o f Fig. 6 .P -5, R is a tem perature-sensitive resistor with a long tim e constant. F ind vb. W h at is the Q of the tuned circuit? W hat are the form and m agnitude of va> 6.7 In the circuit of Fig. 6.P-6(a), assum e th a t the box
B
has Rin = 25 ki, no phase shift, and
the am plitude characteristic show n in Fig. 6.P 6(b). Letting N = 5, find the frequency and am plitude of v v (Assume identical tubes an d the m odel show n in Fig. 6.P-4.) 6.8 W ith a pole-zero p attern o f the type show n in Fig. 6.1 7(c), produced by cascading three identical isolated RC circuits, show th at co0 = ^ / l / R C and Ami = 8. Indicate a possible circuit configuration for this case. 6.9 Assume th at three identical, isolated RC circuits are used to produce a netw ork for a feedback oscillator with a ro o t locus p attern as show n in Fig. 6.1 7(d). Prove that for sinusoidal oscillations co0 = 1/ ^f l RC and th at Am in = 8. Indicate a possible transistor circuit configuration for this case. W hat values would a>0 and A have if the isolated center section were readjusted to have twice the tim e constant of the tw o outside sections? 6.10 Derive Eq. (6.9-8). A ssum ing th a t Ri = R 2 = R*. = R, C t = C 2 = C, an d R } = 2.010i?, relate the transfer function o f the W ien bridge to t h e pole-zero p attern of Fig. 6.1 7(a) and determ ine the sign o f A and the m agnitude o f /tmin necessary if the circuit is to oscillate. Repeat, letting R } = 2.0010R. W hat is the SF for each case? 6.11 Derive Eq. (6.9-3) for the M eacham bridge oscillator shown in Fig. 6.9- 1(a). Let w 0 = 106 rad/sec, R 3 = 100fl, R 2 5 0 Q, R x = 2002, and Q = 104 (a q u artz crystal is used as a series tuned circuit). Find r for oscillation if the available A is 200. W hat is the sign of A"! W ith these values, assum e th at the phase shift in the am plifier shifts by 0.10 rad. Find the shift in frequency from w 0 . 6.12 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 6.P -7, determ ine the o u tp u t collector current com ponents at 1050 kH z an d at 2100 kHz. Find the voltage across L 2 at 1050 kHz. The transistor is silicon a n d a = 0.99; t 2/C j = 40, L 2 = 150/iH, QL2 = 50, and M l2 = 4/^H. The tuned circuit is tuned to 1050 kHz. 6.13 Find the frequency and am plitude for the voltage v0{t) for the circuit shown in Fig. 6.P-8. Find the to tal harm onic d istortion in the o utput. The transistor is silicon with a = 0.98 and 1ES = 3 x e 30m A ; L , = 10/iH , L 2 = 2 5 0 nH, M i2 = 2 5 /jH, C , = 2 0 0 p F , C 2 = 0.04 fiF, an d R 2 = 100 kQ.
286
(b) Figure 6.P-6
Figure 6 .P -7
PROBLEMS
287
Figure 6.P 8
14 Is squegging possible in the circuit o f Fig. 6 .P -7 ? If so, at what sinusoidal frequency will it occur? If not, then would it be possible if the tuned circuit's Q were reduced to 20? .15 A simplified version of a com m ercial RC oscillator is shown in Fig. 6.P 9. The netw ork transfer function is m ost easily found by superposition, that is, by (1) calculating the voltage at the input to amplifier 1 as a function of r(r) assum ing that amplifier 2 has zero output im pedance and zero o u tp u t voltage, and then (2) calculating the voltage at the input to amplifier I assum ing that am plifier I has zero o u tp u t im pedance and voltage while the voltage o u tp u t o f am plifier 2 is N i (t). These two results are then com bined to produce the input to am plifier 1 (assumed as having an infinite input im pedance) as a function of [(f). If the two o p erational amplifiers have equal voltage gains of A, then show th at stable sinusoidal oscillations occur with w 0 1/ R C an d N 2 + (hiA). If A = 100, r = 300 }, and r = 450 exp [ 65P], where P is the ac pow er dissipated in r, w hat is the value of v0(t) at equilibrium ? W hat is the value of rv for this case? If A were increased to 400 for each amplifier, how much w ould v j t ) increase? H ow does the indirect frequency stability SF o f this circuit com pare with th at of a Wien bridge oscillator' .16 All transistors in the circuit of Fig. 6 .P -1 0 a re silicon with a > 0.99, and Q s are identical, Q l i = Q a 100, w0L , = 1000Q, M / L 1 1/20, C ,/[C , + C 2] = 1/40, and L } C i is tuned to the same frequency as L , , ,a n d C 2. The total load on the L } C } tuned circuit including its own losses is 20 kfi. Plot Gm (x) vs. x for this circuit, assum ing an ideal envelope detector. Find the stable oscillation am plitude existing across 1. Find Ik for this am plitude. Find the changes in this am plitude caused by a + 10% change in the + 6 V supply. Find SF for this oscillator.
288
PROBLEMS
289
Figure 6.P-11
6.17 For the circuit of Fig. 6.P-11, find frequency and amplitude of va assuming that the loss in the 1 Mi2 resistor is negligible, that Cx is an RF bypass, and that the grid diode is ideal as shown. 6.18 For the circuit of Fig. 6.P - 12, find the voltage magnitude and frequency across R L. (Neglect losses in coil.) Repeat, reducing Vcc to 12 V. Is squegging possible in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.P -12? At what frequency does it occur? The transistor is silicon.
100 pF
Figure 6.P -12
290
6.19 F or the circuit show n in Fig. 6.P-13, determ ine an expression for v0(t). 6.20 A sine-wave oscillator constructed from a com m ercial differential p air-cu rren t source com bination is shown in Fig. 6.P-14. a) b) c) d) 6.21 Find Ik. C hoose R 2 so as to m ake vB2(t) = 0.104 cos w 0t + K cFind the voltage across each tuned circuit and i(t). Find the T H D in r0(t).
F o r the circuit o f Fig. 6.P-15, R = 1 0 ft, C = 2 0 0 pF, L = 100/xH, an d vD = (11 iD + ~d + 3id) V, where vD is m easured in volts and iD is m easured in mA. F in d the frequency and the am plitude o f the fundam ental com ponent of vcit). W hat is the to tal harm onic d istortion in r c(f)? H ow m uch frequency depression is caused by this distortion?
6.22 Assume vD = V, cos w 0t for the circuit show n in Fig. 6.P-16. a) Plot l Dl vs. Vy for the device shown. b) D eterm ine a num erical expression for the steady-state value o f vD(t). 6.23 Find the ap proxim ate am plitude o f vD(t) in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.P 17. 6.24 Plot the phase plane characteristic for the device characteristic and circuit shown in Fig. 6 .P - 18. S tart the plot at = 0.0 V, iT = 0.50 mA, an d let r = 16 kft, w 0L = 32 kQ, and 2 = 2. 6.25 Plot the o u tp u t waveshape for v^t) in Fig. 6.P-18. E stim ate the frequency depression for the actual o u tp u t in com parison to a>0 = I / ^/ l C.
PROBLEMS
291
6V 0
6V
10 nH
14
HH j
-2000 p F
4 k n
120 nH
10 nH,. c,
o-
-)
v(i)
X
RFC
Qi
ac short
* 9 k O < 3 k
ui0 =
C2 = 59C, 6 x 10 rad/sec a 0 .9 9
6V
5 ki-
ac _short
5 k il 1.5 k O
V
6V 6V Figure 6 .P -14
292
10
co0= 6 x 106 rad/sec 0 = ( - 0 .2 x 10_3vd+ 0 .7 5 x I0-*vo3)î
CHAPTER 7
M IX E R S; RF A N D IF A M P L IF IE R S
7.1 T H E S U P E R H E T E R O D Y N E C O N C E P T
In designing a receiver, one norm ally starts from the detector or d em odulation circuitry an d w orks in b o th directions. In this ch apter we are interested in the circuits th at lie in front of the dem odulators. As we shall see in subsequent chapters, m ost detector circuits do n o t w ork well in the presence of noise or interfering signals, and m any of them do n o t w ork well, if at all, with inp u t signal levels below several volts in am plitude. Since the desired signal m ay have a receiver input field strength in the m icrovolt/m eter range while the to tal rm s noise and interfering signal strengths available to the antenna m ay m easure in the volt/m eter range, it is ap p aren t th at one needs b o th gain and selec tivity in front of the d em odulator. T he real problem s in designing a carrier frequency or R F am plifier for a fixedcarrier-frequency receiver are the following : a) b) c) to control its front-end noise so as to keep it an adequate distance below the incom ing signal lev el; to control the active device nonlinearities so as to prevent signal distortion or unw anted signal in teractions [cross m odulation, for e x a m p le ]f; to keep the resu ltan t high-gain narro w b an d am plifier from becom ing an oscil lator. [If the am plifier gain is 120 dB (106 in voltage), then a feedback of 1/106 of the o u tp u t, with the p ro p er phase relationship, to the input will cause a loop gain of unity an d hence will p roduce an oscillator.]
U nfortunately for receiver designers, m ost receivers are n o t fixed-frequency un its; hence one is forced to cope with the previously m entioned problem s while sim ultaneously tu n in g this high-gain m onster over som e wide frequency range. In additio n , one m ust be able to solve the difficult problem of designing the dem o d u lato r to have ad eq u ate an d reasonably co n stan t perform ance over the frequency band(s) in question. (N orm al A M broadcasting has a 3/1 band, norm al V H F television in the U n ited States has a 4/1 b and, and a g o o d com m unications receiver m ay be expected to cover a range of m ore th an 10Q/1 in frequency.)
t As we sh#U see shortly, cross m odulation is the transfer o f the m odulating signal, o r a distorted version o f this signal, from o n e carrier to a neighboring carrier. In o rd er for such a phenom ena to be possible, certain types of device nonlinearities m ust be present.
293
294
m ix e rs ; r f a n d if a m p lif ie r s
7.1
Very early in the developm ent of the radio com m unications business som e people decided th at this situ atio n was ridiculous and th a t the way to simplify things was to continue to design b o th the detector an d the bulk of the gain and selectivity on a fixed-frequency basis an d to shift or tran slate the m o d u latio n from all desired in com ing signals to this new, fixed, interm ediate frequency or IF. As with m ost new ideas, it took som e tim e for this innovation to be acc ep ted ; however, it has since so com pletely d o m in ated the field th a t straig h t-th ro u g h receivers are rarely seen except in m useum s and an occasional very special situation. Figure 7.1-1 illustrates the block diagram of a su perheterodyne receiver. This is the com m on nam e for the system containing an IF am plifier and a fixed-frequency detector.
Fig. 7.1-1 Superheterodyne receiver. T he m ixer utilizes the trigonom etric identity th a t expands the p roduct of tw o cosine term s in to sum an d difference frequencies : [a(i) cos At][b{t) cos Bt] = [cos (A B)t + cos (A + B)t]. (7.1-1)
T hus if a(i) cos A t is the desired incom ing signal while b(t) cos Bt is a constantam plitude cosine signal supplied by the local oscillator, an d if the selective IF am plifier is tu n ed to a rad ian frequency of A B, then the IF o u tp u t signal will be a frequency-translated version of the incom ing signal. So long as everything is done properly, such a frequency tran slatio n is m o d u latio n insensitive. T h at is, it is ju st as effective for A M , F M , SSB, or any o ther type of m odulation. Like m ost innovations the superheterodyne concept does add som e additional problem s to those already listed for the case of the fixed-frequency receiver. Som e of these ad d itio n al problem s are as follows : d) the m ixer an d local o scillator m ust be designed and the local oscillator m ust be m ade to track all tu n ed circuits in front o f the m ixer ;
7 .2
MIXER TECHNIQUES
295
e)
sin c e m ix e rs a lm o s t a lw a y s g e n e ra te m o r e n o is e th a n a m p lif ie rs a n d sin c e b y th e ir v e ry n a tu r e th e y m u s t c o n ta in n o n lin e a ritie s , o n e m a y fin d th a t c r ite r ia (a) a n d (b) still r e q u ir e a s ta g e (o r s ta g e s) o f R F a m p lif ic a tio n in fr o n t o f th e m ix e r.
f)
Some new types of interference are generated by the local oscillator-m ixer
c o m b in a tio n t h a t a r e n o t p re s e n t in a s tr a ig h t - t h r o u g h o p e r a tio n . T h e n e x t s e c tio n w ill d e a l w ith s e v e ra l g e n e ra l te c h n iq u e s fo r a n a ly z in g n o n lin e a r
c irc u its a s m ix e rs. S u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s w ill d e a l w ith sp e cific m ix in g a n d c o n v e r tin g " c irc u its (a s e lf-o s c illa tin g m ix e r is c a lle d a c o n v e rte r) a n d w ith th e d e sig n a n d a n a ly s is o f R F a n d I F a m p lif ie r sta g e s. 7.2 M IXER T E C H N IQ U E S A s w as p o in te d o u t in c o n n e c tio n w ith E q. (7 .1 -1 ), a n y m u ltip lie r fo llo w e d b y a p r o p e r b a n d p a s s filte r w ill fu n c tio n as a m ix e r. O n th e o th e r h a n d , sin c e th e lo c a l o s c illa to r in p u t h a s a c o n s t a n t a m p litu d e , it is n o t n e c e s s a ry to h a v e a n id e a l m u ltip lie r in o r d e r to m a k e a u sefu l m ix e r.
C hapter 8 will consider several general m ultiplier circuits. The em phasis in this section will be on techniques applicable directly to specific mixer circuits.
T h e tw o m o s t c o m m o n m ix e rs in u se to d a y a re th e sim p le field effect tr a n s is to r a n d th e b ip o la r tr a n s is to r . In b o th c a se s o n e a p p lie s th e in c o m in g sig n a l a n d th e lo c a l o s c illa to r v o lta g e s so t h a t th e y e ffectiv ely a d d to th e d c b ia s v o lta g e to p r o d u c e th e to ta l g a te - s o u r c e o r b a s e - e m itte r v o lta g e . T h is sig n a l is th e n p a s s e d th r o u g h th e d e v ic e n o n lin e a r ity to c re a te th e d e s ire d su m a n d d iffe re n c e fre q u e n c ie s. F E T M ix e r s
Figure 7.2 1 illustrates several possible F E T mixer circuits.

If a ju n c t io n o r M O S F E T is b ia s e d so th a t th e to ta l e x c u rs io n s a r o u n d th e ( ? -p o in t n e v e r c a u s e it to le a v e th e " c o n s t a n t c u r r e n t ( s a tu r a tio n re g io n ) o r to tu r n
on the gate-to-source ju n ctio n , then the drain current is always approxim ately
re la te d to th e g a te - s o u rc e v o lta g e b y a s q u a r e - la w c h a r a c te r is tic , a n d th e d r a in c u r r e n ts a re g iv e n by
[D IDSS
l'i (0 + r 2(0 + Kis

-
(7.2-1)
and
!D
-^ [ l l
(0 +
l'2 (0
K j.S
^ThY-
(7.2-
re s p e c tiv e ly . W h e re vus = r , + r 2 + Fc s , a n d v 2 a re th e lo c a l o s c illa to r a n d R F in p u t s ig n a ls re s p e c tiv e ly , a n d K , s is th e d c g a te - to - s o u r c e b ia s v o lta g e . T h e s e e q u a ti o n s a re illu s tr a te d in F ig . 7 .2 -2 . If E q . (7 .2 -2 ) fo r th e M O S u n it is c h o s e n as a n e x a m p le a n d th e v o lta g e te r m is e x p a n d e d , th e n
[fliO]2 , ta W ] 2 , (Kjs ~ VTh)

id
Y 'llO l^ U ) +
(^G S ~
^T ( i) [l' l ( f ) +
^------
h ------- ---------- 1-
( 7 .2 - 3 )
296
m i x e r s ; r f a n d if a m p l i f i e r s
7 .2 Tuned to o>0 ws
Fig. 7 .2 -1 (a) F E T mixer.
Fig. 7 .2 -1 (b) F E T m ixers (both signals to gate circuit).
7 .2
MIXER TECHNIQUES
297
Fig. 7.2-2 FE T characteristics.

I f v2(t) = vs(t) c o s ftjsi w h ile ^ ( t ) = Vt c o s c o 0 f, a n d if we a s su m e I F filte rin g a t th e o u tp u t a n d c o n s id e r o n ly th e fre q u e n cy c o m p o n e n t o f th e o u tp u t c u rr e n t in th e v ic in ity o f a>0 u>s , w e m a y d efin e a la rg e -s ig n a l c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e , G c , a s th e e n v e lo p e o f th e o u tp u t c u rr e n t a t th e d esire d d iffe re n c e fre q u e n cy d iv id ed by th e e n v e lo p e o f th e in p u t s ig n a l v o lta g e.
E q u a ti o n (7 .2 -4 ) p r e s e n ts th e c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e fro m tos to co0 tos as w ell a s th e o r d i n a r y la r g e -s ig n a l a m p lif ie r tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e :
Gc =
H e n c e G J G m = V J 2 ( V GS -
G m = P(V0S -
VTh).
(7.2-4)
VTh). N o w s in c e vs(t) + Vt m u st b e less th a n Vas ~ Vtii
if o n e is n o t to e x c e e d th e s q u a re la w re g io n , th e c o n v e r s io n t r a n s c o n d u c ta n c e c a n n o t e x c e e d o n e - h a lf th e tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e o f th e d ev ice w h e n it is e m p lo y e d a s a n o rd in a ry a m p lifie r. N o te th a t if Vt is tru ly c o n s ta n t, th e n a s lo n g a s th e p re v io u s a s s u m p tio n s a re m a in ta in e d , G c is in d e p e n d e n t o f vs(t) an d d is to r tio n le s s c o n v e r s io n resu lts. A s im ila r e x p a n s io n fo r th e ju n c t i o n F E T y ie ld s
Gc =
V P
n ,
Gm= 2I^HVp - V G S).

V P
(7.2-5)
I f th is d ev ice is b ia se d m id w a y b e tw e e n Vp a n d ze ro a n d if Vl | t> s(i)|, th e n th e m a x im u m o b t a in a b le G c is o n e -q u a r te r o f th e s m a ll-s ig n a l gm e v a lu a te d a t VGS = 0 o r o n e -h a lf o f th e G m g m fo r th e l ^ s = V J 2 b ia s p o in t.
Bipolar Transistor Mixers

F ig u r e
7.2-3
illu s tr a te s a p o s s ib le b ip o la r tr a n s is to r m ixer. (t) a n d v2(t), a re a p p lie d a c r o s s a n id e a l

( 7 .2 - 6 )
W h e n tw o tim e -v a ry in g v o lta g e s, b ip o la r tr a n s is to r ju n c t io n , th e n
iE( t) =
[ E s e 9 y d o / k T e v u t ) / k T e v 2(,) q/ k T
If again
v2(t) = vs(t) cos o)st
and
11,( 1)
= Vx cos u>0t
while y(t) = vs(t )q /k T and
x = V, q/"k T. th e n
iE (t) = [!E Sev^ kT]
I 0(x ) +
/(*) c o s na}0 t
1
o(y) + 2'Lhiy) cos n a > s t

1
( 7 .2 - 7 )
298
m ix e r s ; r f a n d if a m p l if ie r s
7 .2
Fig. 7 .2 -3 B ipolar tran sisto r mixer.

I f w e c ro s s -m u ltip ly te rm s , we o b ta in
'e () = UEseqVaJk1"iUo(y)I o(x) + 2 / 0(.x )/,(> ')c o s cost

+ 2/ 0 (y )/ j(x ) c o s co0t + 4 / 1 (x)/ ,(> )[cos cost c o s a>0 t ( 7 .2 - 8 ) fro m w h ich
/d c =
l Ege qV*Jk T I 0{y )Io {x\
( 7 .2 - 9 ) / (x ) ( 7 .2 - 1 0 )
I
,
I f
h (y)7
d c/o ( y )
11 ____
d c/ ( * )
ro o ~
? / tW
h(y),
/ 0(x) / 0(j>) dc'

In o r d e r to h a v e a lin e a r m ix e r, o n e m u st h a v e /O0_ y a n d in tu rn vs(t). v a ries w ith vs. so th a t v a r ia tio n s in vs d o n o t e ffe ct /dc, th e n
( 7 .2 - 1 1 )
lin e a rly p r o p o r tio n a l to |us|
I f F , a n d h e n c e x a r e a s su m e d to b e c o n s ta n t a n d i f Vt
w ill v a ry w ith vs a s I i ( y ) /1 0(y)
F r o m th e e x p a n s io n s fo r th e m o d ifie d B e s s e l fu n c tio n s w ith s m a ll a rg u m e n ts , we m a y w rite
ii(y)_
i 000
w h ic h is w ith in
2
z! + 4
8
16
(7 .2 - 1 2 )
% fo r y <
1.
F r o m E q . ( 7 .2 - 1 2 ) w e see t h a t fo r h ( y ) / I 0(y\ a n d h e n c e I mo- as, to b e lin e a r w ith
7.2
re s p e c t t o y to w ith in 2 %
MIXER TECHNIQUES
299
th e c o n d itio n y 2 /8 < 0 .0 2 o r y < 0 .4 a n d h e n c e |t>J <
1 0 . 4 m V a p p lie s ; fo r lin e a r ity to w ith in 0 . 5 % , th e a p p r o p r ia te c o n d itio n is y < 0 .2 o r |rs| < 5.2 m V . T h e r e fo r e , w h e n |t)J < 1 0 .4 m V w e m a y re p la c e a n d fro m E q . ( 7 .2 - 1 1 ) o b ta in
Ii(y)/I0(y)
b y y /2
I.
( 7 .2 - 1 3 ) G J G m = x/2, G J G S = /i(x)// 0 (x), ( 7 .2 - 1 4 )
w h e re g in = q I ic/ k T a n d vs(t) = Fs .f
T h u s in th is c a s e G c m a y n e v e r e x c e e d G s b u t m a y e x c e e d G m if x > 2.
8 6
S in c e
/ ,(x)/7 0 (x ) is w ith in 7 0 % o f its a s y m p to tic v a lu e o f u n ity w hen x = 2 a n d w ith in % o f th is v a lu e w hen x = 4 , n o t m u c h is to b e g a in e d fro m u sin g v alu e s o f x T h e r e a re tw o u sefu l w ay s to c o n n e c t th e sig n a ls to a d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c ir c u it to m a k e a m ix e r. In o n e c a s e th e re la tiv e ly la rg e o s c illa to r v o lta g e is fed in to o n e (o r F ig u re a c r o s s b o th ) o f th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir b a s e s , w h ile th e re la tiv e ly s m a ll sig n a l v o lta g e is fed a c r o s s th e e m itte r -b a s e ju n c t i o n o f th e c o n s ta n t c u r r e n t tr a n s is to r . 7 . P - 3 illu s tra te s a sim p lifie d v e rsio n o f s u c h a c irc u it. In th e s e c o n d c a s e th e o s c illa to r v o lta g e is u sed to c o n tr o l th e c o n s ta n t c u r r e n t tr a n s is to r , w hile th e s ig n a l is fed in to (o r a c ro s s ) th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir b a s e c irc u its . F ig u re 7 . 4 - 4 p ro v id e s a n e x a m p le o f a b a la n c e d v e rsio n o f su ch a c irc u it. A s we s h a ll see in S e c tio n 7 .4 , th e m o s t d e s ira b le w ay (fro m th e d is to r tio n v iew p o in t) to o p e r a te a d iffe re n tia l-p a ir m ix e r is so th a t b o th th e o s c illa to r a n d th e s ig n a l o p e ra te th e m ix e r lin e a rly w h en th ey a re c o n sid e r e d a s s e p a ra te in p u ts. U n d e r th e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , th e m ix in g a c tio n ta k e s p la c e b e c a u s e th e g a in fro m th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir b a s e -b a s e v o lta g e to th e o u tp u t is d ire c tly p r o p o r tio n a l to the c u rr e n t fro m th e c o n s ta n t c u r r e n t t r a n s is t o r s c o lle c to r . O v e r a ll sy ste m c o n s id e r a tio n s w ill d e c id e w h ich ty p e o f d riv e is m o s t s u ita b le for a p a r tic u la r c a s e . W h e n th e m ix e r g e n e r a te s its o w n o s c illa tio n (serv es a s a c o n v e r te r ), th e n o n e w o u ld te n d to c o n fin e th e o s c illa to r to th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir a n d feed the s ig n a l in to th e c o n s ta n t c u r r e n t tr a n s is to r . T h e re su lts o f S e c tio n s 4
6
e x c e e d in g 6.%
a n d 4 .8 a re d ire c tly a p p lic a b le to m ix e r c a lc u la tio n s .
F o r e x a m p le , T a b le 4 . 6 - 2 a n d F ig . 4 . 6 - 4 in d ic a te th e lim its o n th e d riv e i f lin e a r ity is to be m a in ta in e d , a n d p ro v id e th e v a lu e o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l te rm fo r th e c a s e in w h ich th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir is d riv e n d ir e c tly by a n o s c illa to r sig n a l th a t is la rg e e n o u g h to
Since the resultant conductances are independent of they may be calculated with a constant for tis(i) rath er th an the m ore com plicated function of time, t It is true that g, may increase slowly with x since
(see Fig. 5.4-4, for example). F o r x = 6 and a 1 V or m ore dc d ro p across an em itter resistor, this increase will be less than 10%.
300
7.2
c a u s e th e
r e la tio n s h ip to b e c o m e n o n lin e a r . F r o m T a b le 4 . 6 - 2 , w e see t h a t a n
o s c illa to r d riv e o f 7 8 m V b e tw e e n th e b a s e s le a d s to a fu n d a m e n ta l te rm v ery c lo s e to j th e v a lu e o f I k. H e n c e th e c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e fro m a sig n a l th a t in flu e n c e s I k to th e o u tp u t c u r r e n t o f o n e sid e o f th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir w ill b e | (a n o th e r \ c o m e s fro m th e s e p a r a tio n o f th e o s c illa to r -s ig n a l p ro d u c t in to su m a n d d iffe re n ce te rm s) o f th e s m a ll-s ig n a l t r a n s c o n d u c ta n c e (fro m b a s e -e m itte r sig n a l v o lta g e to c o lle c t o r c u rr e n ts ) o f th e c o n s ta n t c u r r e n t tra n s is to r . T h e te c h n iq u e s o f S e c tio n 4 .8 m a y b e used to lin e a riz e e ith e r th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c h a r a c t e r is t ic o r th e c h a r a c te r is t ic o f th e c o n s ta n t c u r r e n t tra n s is to r .
Generalized Mixers
W h ile th e F E T , b ip o la r tr a n s is to r s , a n d d iffe re n tia l p a ir a c c o u n t fo r m o s t p r a c tic a l m ix e rs, it is useful to g e n e r a liz e th e a p p r o a c h , b o th a s a m e a n s o f d e a lin g w ith o th e r d e v ice s v a c u u m tu b e s , fo r e x a m p le a n d a s a m e a n s o f e x a m in in g th e p re v io u s d e v ice s w h e n th e ir c h a r a c te r is tic s d e p a r t fro m th e u su al sh a p e s. O n e g e n e ra l a p p r o a c h is to c o n s id e r th e m ix e r a s a g a in -c o n tr o lle d a m p lifie r in w h ic h th e lo c a l o s c illa to r v o lta g e c o n t r o ls th e g a in w h ile th e s ig n a l v o lta g e is a m p lifie d . F ig u r e 7 . 2 - 4 illu s tr a te s o n e e x tre m e c a s e , w h e re th e g a in h a s o n ly tw o v a lu e s a n d w h e re th e lo c a l o s c illa t o r is b ia se d so t h a t th e d e v ice sp e n d s h a lf th e tim e in e a c h re g io n . -o f
S[v,(/)]1.
K C O S llV
v ,(/)> 0 v ,(r)< 0
d>
v ,(0 = K COSWo<
S [v,(i)]= 0.
/= v s (iK?5[v1 (0]
Fig. 7 .2 -4 O n -o ff am plifier or switched amplifier as a mixer.

S in c e th e o u tp u t c u r r e n t m u ltip lie r is c o n tr o lle d b y u t(r), it is p e rio d ic a n d c a n b e e x p a n d e d in a F o u r ie r se rie s w ith fu n d a m e n ta l tu0 : G S ft^ f)} = H
2G n
c o s (o0 t c o s 3 co0t +
2G 3n
S in c e th e o u tp u t c u r r e n t is th e p r o d u c t o f v2(t) a n d G S[i> i(f)], it is a p p a r e n t th a t
71
T h is te c h n iq u e o f sp e cify in g th e a m p lifie r g a in o r tra n s fe r te rm w ith re s p e c t to th e in p u t s ig n a l a n d th e n e x p a n d in g th e c o n tr o lle d g a in in a F o u r ie r se rie s is a c o m m o n o n e . U s u a lly th e g a in o r tr a n s fe r fu n c tio n is a c o n tin u o u s fu n c tio n o f th e
7.2
MIXER TECHNIQUES
301
o s c illa to r v o lta g e a n d it is e v a lu a te d b y ta k in g th e p a r tia l d e riv a tiv e o f i w ith re s p e c t to th e sig n a l v o lta g e . (T h is p ro c e d u re is b a s e d o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e sig n a l te rm is sm a ll e n o u g h th a t it d o e s n o t in flu e n c e th e g a in . I n a n y p a r tic u la r c a s e th e lim its o n vs b e fo re in to le r a b le d is to r tio n se ts in m u st b e d e te rm in e d .) F o r e x a m p le , if we d iffe re n tia te th e b a s ic tr a n s is to r ju n c t io n e q u a tio n , E q . (7 .2 - 6 ), w ith re s p e c t to v2 a n d a ssu m e th a t v2 a p p r o a c h e s z e ro , d iE dv2
vz~*0
J L j ESe > y^ kTe v'(,)qlkT,
( 7 .2 - 1 5 )
where
d iE
dv2 V2~*0
is th e tra n s fe r c o n d u c ta n c e ( 7 .2 - 1 5 ) m a y b e A g a in w e fin d = / i( x ) q/dc = /i(x ) c /(x) k T /0 (x )gin' fro m v2(t) to th e o u tp u t c u rre n t. T h e rig h t sid e o f E q . e x p a n d e d a s th e first tw o b r a c k e ts o n th e rig h t sid e o f E q . (7 .2 -7 ).
In th is e x a m p le th e in itia l a p p r o a c h is p re fe ra b le , sin ce a n e x a c t e x p r e ss io n is p o s s ib le fo r I ao- a , a n d h e n c e th e a p p r o x im a tio n s a re m ad e a t th e la st step r a th e r th a n a t th e first s t e p .f A s a s e c o n d e x a m p le c o n s id e r th e fie ld -e ffe c t tr a n s is to r fo r w h ic h th e g a in te rm is sh o w n in F ig . 4 . 4 - 2 . S in c e th is te rm v a rie s lin e a rly a s lo n g a s th e o s c illa to r v o lta g e sta y s a b o v e Vp a n d b e lo w th e ju n c t i o n tu r n -o n p o in t, th e c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e is d ir e c tly p r o p o r t io n a l to th e o s c illa t o r v o lta g e w ith in th is re g io n . W h e n th e s ig n a l e x te n d s o u ts id e th e lin e a r re g io n , th e n th e s in e -w a v e tip fu n c tio n s o f F ig . 4 . 2 - 3 o r F ig . 4 . 2 - 4 m a y b e u sed to c o m p u te th e fu n d a m e n ta l te rm o f th e g a in . T h is te rm is d ir e c tly p r o p o r tio n a l t o th e s m a ll-s ig n a l c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e . F ig u r e 7 .2 - 5 illu s tr a te s th e re s u lts fo r a p e a k c la m p in g n -c h a n n e l F E T c irc u it s im ila r to t h a t u sed in P r o b le m 7.5 (w ith th e 1 0 0 Q s o u r c e -to -g r o u n d re s is ta n c e set to ze ro ). T o a c c o u n t fo r th e d riv e up to + 0 .7 V, I DSS is re p la c e d by I%ss = y i o.7/ k p) 2 a n d Vp is r e p la c e d b y V * \Vp\ + 0 .7 , a n d c la m p in g is n o w p re s u m e d t o o c c u r a t z e ro v o lts o n th e s h ifte d c u rv e . (A s d iscu sse d in C h a p te r 5, th e a c tu a l tu r n -o n v o lta g e is a fu n c tio n o f th e g a te -g ro u n d r e s is to r . W h e n th is re s is to r is s e v e ra l m e g o h m s , th e tu r n -o n v o lta g e m a y b e o n ly a b o u t 0 .3 V .) A s w e sh a ll see w h e n {V l / V * ) e x c e e d s 0 .5 , m a n y o f th e d e s ira b le lo w -d is to r tio n p ro p e r tie s o f th e F E T m ix e r a r e lo s t. le ss d e v ice n o ise . O n e p o s s ib le a rg u m e n t fo r o p e r a tio n a b o v e th is p o in t is th a t th e d c c u r r e n t is re d u c e d , w h ic h le a d s to less d is s ip a tio n a n d u su ally
t Y et another approach to this problem would be simply to expand eqvA,yiT and retain only the first several terms, and then to expand the rem aining expression as in the first two terms o f Eq. (7.2-7) and take the resultant product.
302
MIXERS ; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS
7.3
=\k \+m
0.50
0.25
0.50
1.0
1.5
Figure 7.2-5
W h ile w e h a v e d o n e th e tw o e x a m p le s , th e u su al d ifficu lty w ith th is a p p r o a c h is in e v a lu a tin g th e F o u r ie r c o e ffic ie n ts o f th e g a in fu n ctio n . In th e g e n e r a l c a s e th is c a n n o t b e d o n e in a sim p le a n a ly tic m a n n e r ; it m u st be d o n e g ra p h ic a lly , by a c o m p u te r a n a ly s is , o r e x p e r im e n ta lly . O f c o u r s e , if th e p r o b le m is a tta c k e d e x p e r im e n ta lly o n e will lo g ic a lly m e a s u re th e c o n v e r s io n t r a n s c o n d u c ta n c e d ire c tly in s te a d o f fid d lin g a ro u n d w ith in te rm e d ia te step s.
7.3 S E R IE S R E S IS T A N C E IN M IX E R S
In o rd e r to o p e ra te , a m ix e r m u st h a v e a n o n lin e a rity . A s we m ig h t e x p e c t (see S e c tio n 4 .8 , fo r e x a m p le ), a d d in g a re s is to r in se rie s w ith th e e m itte r o f a b ip o la r tr a n s is to r , w ith th e s o u rc e o f a n F E T , o r w ith th e e m itte rs o f a d iffe re n tia l p a ir a lw a y s ten d s to lin e a r iz e th e c h a r a c te r is tic . T h e r e fo r e , su c h a re s is to r w ill a lw a y s re d u ce th e c o n S in c e v e rsio n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e (if a c o n s ta n t lo c a l o s c illa to r v o lta g e is assu m e d ).
all re a l d ev ice s h a v e a t le a st a m in im u m a m o u n t o f in h e re n t s e r ie s re s is ta n c e , to say n o th in g o f g e n e r a to r o u tp u t im p e d a n c e , o n e w ill find th a t th e c a lc u la tio n s o f th e p re v io u s s e c tio n p ro v id e a n u p p e r lim it o n th e e x p e c te d p e rfo rm a n c e o f re a l m ixers. T h e e ffe ct o f a se rie s r e s is ta n c e in m o d ify in g th e in c re m e n ta l s lo p e o f th e i , vs. v 1 c h a r a c te r is tic is c le a r ly in d ic a te d b y F ig . 4 .8 - 2 . I t is a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd m a tte r to so lv e fo r 8i\ /8v i fro m th e e q u a tio n s o f S e c tio n 4 .8 :
1
k T /q + iiR
I dc + g inR i i '
( 7 .3 - 1 )
w h ere g in = q I AJ k T a n d i , is th e c u r r e n t w h ich flow s w ith W h e n g inR i>i V0 < 0. 1, E q . ( 7 .3 - 1 ) re d u c e s to F o r g inR -> 0 , E q . ( 7 .3 - 1 ) re d u c e s to
= Vt c o s co0 t + K c-
1/R fo r u, V0 > 0 a n d t o z e ro fo r
77F i. T t Es kT k
i 1! _
<lV J k T q V , cos m o t/* /
7 .3 w h ich is o f c o u r s e id e n tic a l w ith E q . (7 .2 - 1 5 ) . sim p lifie d fo rm fo r th e g a in fu n c tio n is p o s sib le .
SERIES RESISTANCE IN MIXERS
303
F o r in te rm e d ia te v a lu e s o f g inR , n o
A p o s sib le , a n d re la tiv e ly s im p le , a p p r o a c h is first to find a r e a s o n a b le r e la tio n sh ip b etw een G c a n d Gm fo r th e e x tre m e c a s e s o f z e ro re s is ta n c e an d d o m in a n t re s is ta n c e , a n d th e n , u sin g F ig . 4 . 8 - 6 , to d e te r m in e G m vs. F , a n d e x tr a p o la te to a p p r o x i m a te G c vs. V1 . T h e re su lts w ill n o t be e x a c t, h o w e v e r, the se rie s re s is ta n c e is ra re ly k n o w n e x a c tly e ith e r. T h e b e st th a t o n e c a n d o h e re is to get a feel fo r w h at is g o in g on. I f e x a c t re s u lts a r e d e s ire d , th e n m e a s u r e m e n ts a re so s tra ig h tfo rw a rd th a t p ag es o f a n a ly tic m a n ip u la tio n a re c o m p le te ly u n ju stifie d . W h e n th e ju n c t i o n is d o m in a te d by R , th e slo p e o f the o v e ra ll c h a r a c te r is tic is l/R w hen r,. > V0 = ( k T / q ) \ n ( I dc/ I ES) (see F ig . 4 .8 - 3 ) an d is z e ro o th e rw ise. T h is m e a n s th a t th e g a in fu n c tio n is a r e c ta n g u la r w av e o f p e rio d T = 2 k /o j 0, a s sh o w n in F ig . 7.31. I f I dc is a ssu m e d to b e c o n s ta n t, th e n th e c o n d u c tio n a n g le 0 C = 2<j) is re la te d to F,//dcR b y T a b le 4 .8 - 1 . T h e c o n d u c tio n a n g le th e n tells us th e re la tiv e n o n z e r o w id th o f th e g a in fu n c tio n fro m w h ich th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t o f th e F o u r ie r se rie s m ay b e c o m p u te d . T h e c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e is th e n o n e -h a lf o f th is fu n d a m e n ta l c o e ffic ie n t. T a b le 7 .3 -1 in d ic a te s re p re s e n ta tiv e v alu es. Table 7 .3 -1
ec =
2< t>
V j l dcR
1 .0 0
GC R
0 .0 0
GJGm
0 .0 0
360 300 270 210

0 0
1.063 1.333 1.667 3.1416

1 0 .0
90
20.5
0.167 0.217 0.29 0.317 0.305 0.23
0.17 0.24 0.36 0.63 1.7 2.4
F ig u r e 7 . 3 - 2 p lo ts G J G m vs. V1/ I ic ( r in + R ) fo r th e tw o c a se s R = 0 a n d R [th e R = 0 e x p r e s s io n c o m e s fro m E q . ( 7 .2 - 1 4 ) ].
F r o m th is fig u re it is h y p o th e siz e d th a t fo r v a lu e s o f g inR n e a r u n ity it w ill b e p la u s ib le to r e la te G J G m to th e n o rm a liz e d v a lu e o f V J l Ac( r in + R ) b y a fa c to r o f

3
. F o r v alu e s o f
ginR b e tw e e n 0 a n d 1 th is fa c to r sh o u ld lie b e tw e e n \ a n d
jG a in function
F ig. 7 .3 -1
GJGm for a bipolar transistor m ixer w ith added series resistance.
fe 00
-<J) 0
l/gin
; fo r v a lu e s
------------------------ .-I/ / ?
.....
< t>
27t < t>
2 jt
304
7 .3
Fig. 7.3 -2 D ata for Eq. (7.3-2).
b e tw e e n 1 a n d in fin ity it s h o u ld lie b e tw e e n ^ a n d in te re s tin g o n e.
N o r m a lly o n e w o u ld e x p e c t to
m in im iz e th e re s is ta n c e , a n d h e n c e th e g inR < 1 re g io n w o u ld b e e x p e c te d to b e th e F o r e x a m p le , if /dc = 1 m A , R = 2 6 0 , a n d V1 =

6
x 5 2 m V = 3 1 2 m V , th e n
fro m F ig . 7 . 3 - 2 G c % 2 G m, w h ile fro m F ig . 4 . 8 - 6 G m = 0 .2 9 5 (5 2 Q ) = 5 7 0 0 /imho. W ith R = 0, /dc = 1 m A , a n d h a lf th e o s c illa to r d riv e (th a t is, V, = 156 m V ), th e n x =
6
a n d G c = 3 4 ,5 0 0 /im ho, o r a p p r o x im a te ly th re e tim es a s m u ch a s in th e p re v io u s
c a s e (a g la n c e a t F ig . 4 . 8 - 5 w ill in d ic a te th a t m a in ta in in g th e 3 1 2 m V d riv e w ou ld n o t in c re a s e th e G c a p p r e c ia b ly fo r th is s e c o n d case). A s im ila r a p p r o a c h is p o s s ib le fo r F E T s a n d d iffe re n tia l p a irs. c o n v e r s io n t r a n s c o n d u c ta n c e w ill fall sh a rp ly . V o g e l f h a s c o n s id e r e d th e e ffe ct o f s e r io u s s o u rc e re s is ta n c e o n th e p e a k -c la m p in g F E T o f p a g e s 3 0 1 a n d 3 0 2 (F ig . 7 .2 -5 ) . W h e n c e r t a in o f V o g e ls re s u lts a re sim p lifie d a n d tr a n s la te d in to th e p e a k c la m p in g te rm s V * a n d I%ss o f F ig . 7 .2 - 5 , th e n th e (G CF * )/ / JSS vs V J V * c u rv e o f F ig . 7 . 2 - 5 is fo u n d t o b e d e p re sse d b y th e a d d itio n o f a s e rie s s o u rc e re s is ta n c e , R s . A s a r e a s o n a b le fir s t a p p r o x im a tio n t o th e e ffe c t o f th e s e r ie s r e s is ta n c e , o n e ta k e s th e v a lu e o f (G CV */I% SS) fro m F ig . 7 . 2 - 5 , fo r th e p a r tic u la r v a lu e o f V J V * o f in te re s t, a n d d iv id e s it b y (1 + q )3, w h e re q = ( 2l% ssR sz ) / V * a n d z is a te rm t h a t a c c o u n ts fo r th e s h ift in th e d c b ia s c u r r e n t w ith in c r e a s in g d riv e ; z is p lo tte d vs. V J V * in F ig . 7 .3 -3 . S u p p o s e th a t ( dss / V * ) = 2 0 0 0 /im ho, th a t ( V J V * ) = 0 .5 , a n d t h a t R s is 2 0 o h m s. In th is c a s e z w ill b e 0 .5 , q = 0 .0 4 , a n d (1 4- q ) 3 w ill b e 1 .1 2 5 . T h e r e fo r e G c w ill b e re d u c e d fro m 1 0 0 0 /im ho fo r R s = 0 to 8 8 9 /im ho fo r R s = 2 0 o h m s. [ F r o m F ig . 7 .2 - 5 , (G c V*p/I*DSS) = 0 .5 w h e n ( V J V * ) = 0 .5 .] In e ith e r c a se , w hen R tim e s th e q u ie s c e n t s m a ll-s ig n a l tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e b e c o m e s a p p r e c ia b le , th e
f J. S. Vogel, N on lin ear D isto rtio n an d M ixing Process in Field Effect T ransistors. Proc. IEEE, 55, No. 12, pp. 2109-2116 (Dec. 1967).
7 .4
PRACTICAL MIXER CIRCUITS
305
y,/K
Figure 7.3 -3
D o u b lin g th e d riv e v o lta g e s o t h a t ( F j/ K * ) = 1 w ill re d u ce z to a p p r o x im a te ly 0 .3 2 , q to 0 .0 2 5 6 , a n d (1 + q )3 t o 1 .0 7 9 . I n th is c a s e G CV */I% SS is a g a in 0 . 5 ; h e n c e n o w G c is 9 2 7 /im ho in s te a d o f 1 0 0 0 /mho. I f R s is m a d e m u c h la rg e r, sa y 2 0 0 o h m s , th e n fo r th e ( V J V * ) = 0 .5 c a s e , o n e w ill fin d t h a t z = 0 .5 , q = 0 .4 , a n d (1 + q )3 = 2 .7 4 , s o t h a t n o w G c is re d u c e d fro m 1 0 0 0 /im ho fo r R s = 0 d o w n t o o n ly 3 6 5 /mho.
7.4
P R A C T IC A L M IX E R C IR C U IT S
In th is s e c tio n w e s h a ll d is cu ss th e in te rfe rin g -s ig n a l p ro b le m e n c o u n te re d in b ip o la r tr a n s is to r , d ilfe r e n tia l-p a ir , a n d F E T m ix e rs. e a c h o f th e se d ev ices. B e fo r e we p ro c e e d w ith p a r tic u la r c ir c u its it is d e s ira b le le m s th a t a re lik e ly to b e e n c o u n te r e d , b o th so to r e c o n s id e r th e p ro b th a t w e c a n a v o id th e m o r c o m b a t In th e n e x t s e c tio n w e w ill in d ic a te h o w to c o m b in e th e m ix in g a n d o s c illa tin g fu n c tio n s to p ro d u c e c o n v e r te r s fro m
th e m a n d so th a t w e c a n c o m p a r e d iffe re n t c ir c u its w ith re s p e ct to th e m .
Mixer Problems
1) 2) 3) O u tp u t s ig n a ls a t th e I F fre q u e n c y a ris in g fro m o th e r th a n th e d esire d in p u t
signal.
D is to r t io n o f th e m o d u la tio n o f th e d e sire d in p u t sig n al. T r a n s m is s io n o f th e lo c a l o s c illa t o r fre q u e n c y to th e in p u t c irc u it. ( I f th e lo c a l o s c illa t o r s ig n a l re a c h e s th e a n te n n a , it m a y b e ra d ia te d a n d serv e a s an in te r fe rin g s ig n a l to o th e r re c e iv e rs .) 4) 5) N o is e g e n e r a te d in th e m ix e r stag e. I n a d e q u a te g a in in th e m ix e r stag e. F ig u r e 7 .4 - 1 illu s tra te s a fre q u e n c y s p e c tru m sh o w in g a n u m b e r o f p o s s ib le sig n a ls th a t m a y c a u s e u n w a n te d c o m p o n e n ts a t th e m ix e r o u t p u t s I F fre q u en cy ,
a)
I f a sig n a l a t ct>image = o j 0 + colF re a c h e s th e m ix e r, th e d iffe re n ce fre q u en cy In a new
w ill b e a,F. T h e o n ly re m ed y is a d e q u a te filte rin g in fro n t o f th e m ix e r.
306
7 .4
Fig. 7.4-1 D esired and possible interference signals in a superheterodyne receiver.

sy ste m th e c h o ic e o f th e h ig h e st p o s s ib le I F fre q u e n cy w ill e a se th e im a g e -r e je c tio n p ro b le m .
b)
A sig n a l a t
a>J2 w ill c a u s e tr o u b le if th e R F sta g e h a s e n o u g h d is to r tio n to p r o

F ro m Eq.
d u ce a s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic te rm fro m th e sig n a l o r if th e m ix e r p ro v id e s a b e a t fre q u e n cy b e tw e e n th e co0-te rm a n d th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic o f th e in c o m in g sig n al. ( 7 .2 - 8 ) fo r t h e -b ip o la r tr a n s is to r ,

,
,/ iM
/(*)
ra - - /n
/ 0(x) / 0(z) dc
W h e n z is sm a ll, / ( z ) //0(z)
w h ere z is th e n o rm a liz e d e n v e lo p e o f th e (o js/ )-term . m a y b e a p p r o x im a te d a s zn/ 2 nn !, so th a t G cK ) _ 2 " - lnl
G c( w j n ) ~
z "-1 '
A d e q u a te filte rin g to re m o v e th e h a lf-fre q u e n c y te rm s m u st b e p ro v id e d in fro n t o f F E T o r s q u a re -la w R F a m p lifie r s ; o th e rw is e , th e s e d e v ice s w ill d o u b le th e in p u t fre q u e n cy a n d n o la te r s ta g e w ill r e m o v e it. W ith l in e a r R F a m p lifie rs a ll p re m ix e r filte rin g is e ffe ctiv e in re d u c in g s u b h a r m o n ic term s. c) T h e sig n a l a>x is a t a >0 + cos. I t w ill c a u s e tr o u b le in a n y s y ste m w h e re a b e a t
fre q u e n c y w ith
2co0 is p o s sib le . H e n c e it w ill c a u s e tr o u b le in tr a n s is to r m ix e rs b u t
n o t in tru e s q u a re -la w F E T c ir c u its o r in d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c ir c u its , p ro v id e d th a t th e o s c illa to r d riv in g v o lta g e is free o f s e c o n d h a rm o n ic s .
d)
T h e s ig n a l coy falls a t coimage/ 2; h e n c e a n F E T R F a m p lifie r w ill s h ift it to a>image
a n d , u n less th e filte rin g b etw een th is R F a m p lifie r a n d th e m ix e r re m o v e s th is d is to r tio n te rm , th e re w ill b e a n u n w a n te d o u tp u t te rm . A sin g le -e n d e d b ip o la r tr a n s is to r m ix e r w ill p r o d u c e a n o u tp u t s im ila r to th e c o j 2 c a se . O b v io u s ly th e re a re m a n y o th e r p o te n tia l s o u rc e s o f in te r fe r e n c e ; h o w e v e r, th e a b o v e te rm s su ffice to illu s tr a te th e p ro b le m . A s a n u m e ric a l e x a m p le , c o n s id e r a c a s e w h ere u)lF = 4 5 5 k H z , and hence s/2 = 3 0 0 k H z , and coy = 7 5 5 k H z , (omage = 1 5 1 0 k H z , cos = 6 0 0 k H z , < x > 0 = 1055 kH z
ojx = 1 6 5 5 k H z .
7 .4
307
A s in g le -tu n e d c ir c u it in fro n t o f a sim p le m ix e r th a t is su p p o se d to h a n d le 5 k H z m o d u la tio n sh o u ld n o t h a v e a Q m u ch a b o v e

8
a t 6 0 0 k H z ; if it d o es, tr a c k in g p r o b
lem s w ill b e c o m e d ifficu lt a n d o v e r a ll s y s te m s id e b a n d c u ttin g w ill b e c o m e ex ce ssiv e . S u c h a tu n e d c ir c u it w ill re d u c e coy b y a fa c to r o f o n ly 4 w ith re s p e c t to th e tr a n s m is s io n o f cos. S in c e th e s ig n a l a t coy m a y b e fo u r o r m o r e tim e s a s b ig a s ws to s ta rt w ith th e R F tu n e d -c ir c u it o u tp u ts m a y b e e q u a l. I f s o , a n d i f b o th sig n a ls h a v e a m p litu d e s o f 10 m V , th e n in a b ip o la r tr a n s is to r m ix e r s o u tp u t th e u n w a n te d te rm w ill b e 2 5 % o f th e d esire d sig n a l te rm . In a n F E T m ix e r o r a d iffe re n tia l p a ir, th e m a in d is to r tio n te rm fro m a 7 5 5 k H z in p u t w o u ld b e a t 3 0 0 k H z a n d w o u ld b e r e je c te d b y th e I F filter. T o s u m m a r iz e : A n F E T o r d iffe re n tia l-p a ir m ix e r s h o u ld b e s u p e rio r to a b ip o la r m ix e r fro m th e v ie w p o in t o f u n w a n te d sig n a ls. A t le a st tw o s ta g e s o f filte rin g a re d e s ira b le in fro n t o f th e m ix e r. A lin e a r , a u to m a tic a lly g a in -c o n tr o lle d R F a m p lifie r is d e s ira b le in fro n t o f th e m ix e r. T h e g a in re d u c e s th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e m ix e r n o ise , w h ile th e g a in c o n tr o l a llo w s th e c ir c u it to k e e p e x c e ss iv e s ig n a ls fro m r e a c h in g th e m ix e r. E x c e s s iv e s ig n a ls in e v ita b ly le a d to in c re a se d d is to rtio n . I n sp ite o f o u r o u t lin e o f th e id e a l s itu a tio n , m a n y s im p le re c e iv e rs h a v e th e m ix e r a s th e first s ta g e a n d e m p lo y a b ip o la r tr a n s is to r a s th e a c tiv e d e v ice in th e c irc u it. F ig u r e 7 .4 - 2 illu s tra te s su ch a c irc u it. It is p re su m e d th a t th e im p e d a n c e fro m th e b a s e to g ro u n d is sm a ll a t b o th co0 a n d co1F an d th a t th e im p e d a n c e fro m e m itte r to g r o u n d is sm a ll a t a>s a n d co,F . F a ilu r e to sa tisfy th e se a s s u m p tio n s le a d s to re d u c e d c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e a s w ell as th e p o s s ib ility o f o s c illa tio n a t th e I F fre q u e n cy . I f o s c illa tio n o c c u r s , it sh o u ld b e
Fig. 7.4 -2 Bipolar transistor mixer.
308
m ix e r s ; r f a n d if a m pl ifier s
7.4
c u r a b le b y a r e d u c tio n o f th e b a s e im p e d a n c e a t a>,F . I f n e c e s s a ry , a se rie s tra p tu n ed to co,F c o u ld b e c o n n e c te d fro m th e b a s e t o g ro u n d . B o th in p u t a n d o u tp u t tr a n s fo r m e r s a re ta p p e d d o w n n o t o n ly fo r th e p re v io u s re a s o n s , b u t a ls o s o t h a t th e t r a n s is to r im p e d a n c e s w ill n o t c a u s e e x c e ss iv e d e tu n in g o f th e c irc u its . A s h a s b e e n p o in te d o u t, it is h ig h ly d e s ir a b le to p re v e n t la rg e s ig n a ls o f a n y k in d (e x c e p t th o s e fro m th e lo c a l o s c illa to r ) fro m re a c h in g th e m ix e r in p u t. b y c o n tr o llin g I EQ. H e n c e it is n o t su fficie n t to c o n t r o l th e m ix e r -s ta g e g a in o r c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e , say , O n e s h o u ld c o n tr o l a n a t te n u a t o r in th e in p u t c ir c u it a lso . F ig u r e 7 .4 - 3 illu s tr a te th e k e y p o r tio n s o f th e a d d itio n o f s u ch a c ir c u it to F ig . 7 .4 -2 . F r o m th e re s u lts o f C h a p te r 4 a n d C h a p t e r 5 w e m a y w rite th e im p e d a n c e o f th e d io d e to th e s ig n a l fre q u e n c y a s GA = I kq
2
/t (x )
(7 -4 -1 )
k T x l 0(x )
I f w e k e e p th e in p u t s ig n a ls a t o r b e lo w 2 6 m V (a s fro m S e c tio n 7 .2 w e k n o w we sh o u ld ), th e n 2 I t( x ) / x I 0(x ) is n e a rly u n ity a n d G d is d ir e c tly p r o p o r tio n a l to I k. H e n c e in c r e a s in g I k w ill s h u n t th e in p u t a n d re d u c e th e m ix e r d riv in g s ig n a l. In c r e a s in g I k w ill a ls o re d u c e I EQ o f th e m ix e r a n d h e n c e w ill re d u c e Gc , y ie ld in g fu r th e r A V C a c tio n . T h e d riv in g s o u r c e fo r I k w ill b e d e riv e d fro m o n e o f th e a m p litu d e d e te c to r c ir c u its o f C h a p te r 10. T h is e ffe ctiv e d io d e s h u n tin g c o n d u c ta n c e re d u c e s th e Q o f
7 .4
309
th e in p u t-tu n e d c ir c u it s ; h o w e v e r, it o n ly d o e s s o w h en th e I F o u tp u t is la rg e an d h e n c e w h e n th e d e sire d s ig n a l is p re s e n t, o n e h o p e s , a t a re a s o n a b le s tre n g th .
Differential-Pair Mixers
F ig u r e 7.44 sh o w s a p o s s ib le c irc u it.
I f Q 2 a n d Q 3 a re tru ly id e n tic a l a n d if th e in p u t a n d o u tp u t tra n s fo rm e r s a re tru ly b a la n c e d , th e n n o o s c illa to r v o lta g e w ill a p p e a r a c r o s s e ith e r th e in p u t o r th e o u tp u t tra n s fo rm e r . R e m o v a l o f th e o s c illa to r v o lta g e fro m th e in p u t re m o v e s th e
310
m i x e r s ; r f a n d if a m p l if ie r s
7 .4
re ra d ia tio n p r o b l e m ; in a d d itio n , re m o v in g th e la rg e o s c illa to r c u rr e n t c o m p o n e n t fro m th e o u tp u t re d u c e s th e s tra in o n th e I F tra n s fo rm e r . (In th e s in g le -e n d e d sta g e , th e first I F tr a n s fo r m e r m u st re d u c e th e la rg e o s c illa to r c o m p o n e n t s u fficie n tly th a t it d o e s n o t c a u s e n o n lin e a r o p e r a tio n o f th e first I F a m p lifie r.) In a d d itio n , b e c a u s e o f th e s y m m e tric a l c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir, s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic c r o s s p ro d u c ts s h o u ld n o t b e g e n e ra te d by th is c irc u it. T o a v o id ev en h a r m o n ic te rm s c o m p le te ly , th e o s c illa t o r v o lta g e m u st b e a tru e sin e w av e an d th e v a ria tio n s in th e c o lle c t o r c u rr e n t o f Q x m u st b e k e p t s m a ll e n o u g h th a t n o o s c il la to r h a r m o n ic s a re g e n e ra te d . M e a s u re d d a ta a re q u o te d b y R C A fo r su ch a d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c ir c u it in w h ich , fo r V, = 141 m V an d a n u n tu n e d in p u t (so th a t n o in te rfe rin g sig n a l re d u c tio n fro m in p u t filte rin g is p re se n t), o n ly th re e in te rfe re n c e te rm s (e x ce p t th e im a g e fre q u e n c y a n d a c o m p o n e n t at th e I F itse lf) a re w ith in 7 0 d B o f th e d esired sig n al. T h e first o f th e se in te rfe re n c e te rm s c o r r e s p o n d s to ajy in F ig . 7 .4 -1 o)'x of
250 2 (2
o)y -
o j0
a > I F ),
th e se c o n d
2 .5
tw o
to ax and
its tw in
(2 a 0
wx =
coIF ,
co0 = a>lF). F o r I k0 =
m A a ll o f th ese th re e te rm s w ere re d u ce d b y a fa c to r T h e re m o v a l o f th e w y
o r m o r e b e lo w th e level o f th e d esired o u tp u t te rm .
in te rfe re n c e te rm
re q u ire s e x a c t sy m m e try in th e dl ffe r e n tia l-p a ir c h a r a c te r is tic , T h e a y t e r m is th e m o s t
w h e rea s the re m o v a l o f th e cox-te rm s re q u ire s an a b s o lu te ly p u re o s c illa to r v o lta g e . N e ith e r o f th e se id e a ls w ill e v e r be a c h ie v e d in p ra c tic e . tro u b le s o m e , sin ce it is th e c lo s e s t o n e to th e d esired sig n a l a n d h e n c e th e m o s t d ifficu lt to filte r o u t in itia lly . T h e 60/1 re d u c tio n in the a y t e r m th a t is o b ta in e d by u sin g a p ra c tic a l d iffe re n tia l p a ir r a th e r th a n a n id e a l sin g le -e n d e d b ip o la r sta g e is im p ressiv e.
F E T M ix e r s F ig u r e 7 .4 - 5 sh o w s a n o t h e r F E T m ix e r c irc u it. In th is c a s e th e h ig h -im p e d a n c e
g a te c a n n o rm a lly b e c o n n e c te d d ir e c tly a c r o s s th e in p u t-tu n e d c irc u it. T h e o s c illa to r v o lta g e fe e d b a c k w ill o c c u r v ia th e g a te -s o u r c e c a p a c ita n c e , a n d h e n c e w ill b e m in i m ize d if th e m in im u m v a lu e o f C , is m u c h g r e a te r th a n C GS. I f th e d e v ic e is b ia se d so th a t th e p e a k s o f th e o s c illa to r p lu s sig n a l v o lta g e s n ev er sw in g it o u t o f th e s q u a re law re g io n a n d if th e o s c illa t o r v o lta g e is a p u re sin e w ave, th e n th e o n ly th e o r e tic a l in te rfe re n c e te rm (b e sid e s th e im a g e fre q u e n cy a n d th e I F fre q u e n cy ) w ill b e a t h a lf th e I F fre q u en cy . A g a in , if th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic is p re se n t in th e o s c illa t o r v o lta g e , th e n th e a>x- a n d o ^ -te r m s w ill c o m e th ro u g h w ith re la tiv e v a lu e s p r o p o r tio n a l to th e a m o u n t o f th is s e c o n d h a r m o n ic . S o lo n g a s th e o s c illa to r v o lta g e is re s tric te d fro m sw in g in g to Vp/2 (th is s a c rific e s so m e c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e ), a n in c re a se d sig n a l level d o e s n o t lead to d is to r tio n in th e F E T c a s e ; h e n c e in p u t A G C (o r A V C ) is n o t n e c e ssa ry . V a r ia tio n o f th e c o n v e r s io n tr a n s c o n d u c ta n c e is a c h ie v e d by v a ry in g th e o s c illa to r v o lta g e (see E q . 1 .2 - 4 o r E q . 7 .2 -5 ) . M a n y o th e r m ix e r p o s s ib ilitie s e x ist, b u t th e y w ill n o t b e e x a m in e d in d eta il. M o s t o f th e m , b e th e y m u ltig rid v a cu u m tu b e s, b e a m -s w itc h in g v a cu u m tu b e s, o r d u a l-g a te M O S tr a n s is to r s , c a n b e a n a ly z e d in a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd fa s h io n , u sin g th e g a in -c o n tr o lle d a m p lifie r a p p r o a c h o f S e c tio n 7.2.
7 .5
SEMICONDUCTOR CONVERTER CIRCUITS
311
7.5 S E M IC O N D U C T O R C O N V E R T E R C IR C U IT S
T h o u g h a s e p a ra te o s c illa t o r a n d a s e p a ra te m ix e r c irc u it c a n n o rm a lly b e d esig n ed so th a t e a ch d o e s its o w n jo b b e st, it is p o s s ib le to c o m b in e th e tw o fu n c tio n s in a sin g le a c tiv e d ev ice. T h is c o m b in a t io n is k n o w n a s a c o n v e rte r. H ig h -q u a lity re c e iv e rs u su ally k e e p th e se tw o fu n c tio n s s e p a ra te , w h e re a s m o s t m a s s -p ro d u c e d re c e iv e rs c o m b in e th em . F ig u r e 7 .5 1 sh o w s a ty p ic a l b ip o la r tr a n s is to r c o n v e r te r stag e. (A tw o-p ow er^ su p p ly v e rsio n is sh o w n to re d u c e th e c o m p le x ity o f th e d ra w in g slig h tly . T h e re a d e r s h o u ld h av e n o d ifficu lty in v is u a liz in g th is c irc u it in a sin g le -p o w e r-su p p ly fo rm .) In su ch a c ir c u it w e d esig n th e o s c illa t o r c irc u it to give th e d riv in g level th e v alu e of
x = q V J k T d esire d fo r th e m ix e r operation. In d esig n in g th e 9Scillator we w o u ld
lik e to b e a b le to n e g le c t th e in p u t s ig n a l c ir c u it a n d th e o u tp u t I F c irc u it. N o rm a lly o n e d o e s n e g le c t th e m , a n d th e n c h e c k s up by sh o w in g th a t th e v o lta g e d ro p s a c r o s s th e se im p e d a n c e s c a u s e d by th e c a lc u la te d c u rr e n ts a re tru ly n e g lig ib le. A s in a ll m ix in g s itu a tio n s , o n e m u st w o rry a b o u t o s c illa to r a m p litu d e v a ria tio n a c r o s s th e b a n d , s ig n a l a n d o s c illa to r c ir c u it tr a c k in g , an d m ix e r in te rfe re n c e an d d is to r tio n p ro b le m s . A s u su a l, c o m p r o m is e s w ill b e n e c e ssa ry . F o r e x a m p le , th e a m p litu d e s ta b ility o f th e c ir c u it m a y b e im p ro v e d by in c re a s in g th e a m p litu d e o f
312
7.5
R F signal
input
th e o s c illa tio n s , w h ile th e in te rfe rin g o u tp u t te rm s fro m o s c illa t o r h a r m o n ic s o r th e d ifficu ltie s w ith e x c e ss iv e o s c illa t o r v o lta g e in e ith e r th e I F o r th e in p u t c ir c u it a re a ll m in im iz e d b y d e c re a s in g th e a m p litu d e s o f th e o s c illa tio n s to th e ir s m a lle s t p o s sib le v alu es. A n y o f th e p re v io u s m ix e r c ir c u its m a y b e tu rn e d in to a c o n v e r te r by c o m b in in g it w ith th e a p p r o p r ia te o s c illa t o r c ir c u it fro m C h a p te r
6
E x a m p le 7 .5 - 1
v0(t). So lution.
F o r th e c o n v e r te r s h o w n in F ig . 7 . 5 - 2 , fin d a n e x p r e s s io n fo r
I f a t th e o s c illa t o r fre q u e n c y co0 = l / sj L 3C 3 = 1.5 x 1 0 7 rad/sec th e
im p e d a n c e o f th e in p u t-tu n e d c ir c u it is a n e ffe ctiv e s h o r t c ir c u it c o m p a r e d w ith th e b a s e -e m itte r im p e d a n c e o f th e tr a n s is to r , th e n th e o s c illa tio n a m p litu d e a n d fre q u e n cy fo r th e c o n v e r te r m a y b e fo u n d b y g r o u n d in g th e b a s e o f th e t r a n s is to r a n d e m p lo y in g th e re su lts o f S e c tio n 6 .4 . S p e c ific a lly , a >0 = 1.5 x 1 0 7 rad/sec, Gm (x ) ^
Sm Q
Gl
^Sm Q
Gl L 3
34
Q J
7.5
SEMICONDUCTOR CONVERTER CIRCUITS
313
Figure 7 .5 -2
a n d fro m F ig . 4 . 5 - 6 x = 10( a re n o t p o s sib le .
= 2 6 0 m V ). I n a d d itio n , sin ce th e lo o p g a in is m u ch
less th a n u n ity a t a n y o th e r fre q u e n c y , s p u rio u s o s c illa tio n s a t th e R F o r I F fre q u e n c ie s I f w e a ls o a s s u m e t h a t th e in p u t R F - tu n e d c ir c u it is n o t lo a d e d b y th e tr a n s is to r , th e n th e t r a n s is to r b a s e v o lta g e is g iv e n by
1 r f ^ - 1^
12
= 1 .57 m V (l + c o s 1 0 3 t ) c o s 1 0 7 r,
s in c e th e b a n d w id th o f th e in p u t-tu n e d c ir c u it (B W RF = 1/ R l C l = 5 x 1 0 5 rad/sec) is su fficie n t to p a ss iRF u n d is to rte d . N o w w ith th e a id o f E q . ( 7 .2 - 1 3 ) , w e o b t a in th e I F c o m p o n e n t o f c o lle c to r
314
MIXERS; RF AND IF AMPLIFIERS
7 .6
c u r r e n t in th e fo rm '/ fW = - ctVg{t)Gc = - a t B(f) in/ i(*)/ / oM -
T h is I F c o m p o n e n t o f c o lle c t o r c u r r e n t is e x tr a c te d b y th e o u tp u t-tu n e d c ir c u it (a>IF = \ / y j L sC 5 = 5 x 1 0 6 rad / sec, B W ,F = 2.5 x 1 0 6 rad / sec) to y ield va(t) = ( iO ,V ) w h ic h w ith x =
10
R 5/ 1F(t),
re d u c e s to ( 2 8 6 m V ) ( l + c o s 1 0 3 f) c o s 5 x 1 0 6 t.
, 0 (r) = ( - 1 0 V ) -
T o c h e c k th e a s s u m p tio n s m a d e in o b ta in in g v0(t), we first o b ta in |ZB( 7'c<;0)|, w h ere Z B(p) is th e im p e d a n c e o f th e in p u t c ir c u it s e e n a t th e b a s e o f th e tr a n s is to r . A t co0 , R , m a y b e n e g le c te d c o m p a r e d w ith L j a n d t o yield
^12) * 4 8 Q,
(1
^,
12
(W q / D rf)
w h ich is in d ee d n e g lig ib le c o m p a re d w ith
+ P )/g in = 5.2 k i i , w h ic h is th e tra n s is to i
im p e d a n c e a t its b a s e te rm in a l. H e n c e o u r c a lc u la tio n s o f th e o s c illa tio n fre q u e n cy a n d a m p litu d e n e g le c tin g th e in p u t c ir c u it is ju s tifie d . W ith th e te c h n iq u e s o f S e c tio n 5 .5 , th e e q u iv a le n t lin e a r lo a d in g o f th e t r a n s is to r o n th e in p u t-tu n e d c ir c u it is re a d ily s h o w n t o be
G nl = ~
kr f
gJO
+ P ):
G nl m a y b e re fle cte d to th e in p u t o f th e R F - tu n e d c ir c u it a s G s d M ^ / L , ) 2 ^ 1/208 k Q ; h e n c e a s a first a p p r o x im a tio n th e tr a n s is to r lo a d in g m a y b e n e g le cted . A c tu a lly th e tr a n s is to r in th is e x a m p le d o e s d e c re a s e th e im p e d a n c e o f th e in p u ttu n e d c ir c u it b y 5 % , a n d th u s th e I F c o m p o n e n t o f v0(t) w ill b e 5 % b e lo w th e v a lu e p re v io u sly c a lc u la te d .
7.6
T U N E D N A R R O W B A N D SM A L L-SIG N A L A M P L IF IE R S
T h e u su al re c e iv e r re q u ire s s e le c tiv ity a n d g a in b o th b e fo re a n d a fte r th e m ix e r o r c o n v e r t r c irc u it. T h e s e c tio n s in fro n t o f th e m ix e r a re k n o w n a s R F sta g e s. T h e s e s ta g e s sh o u ld b e lin e a r, to p re v e n t th e g e n e r a tio n o f c ro s s m o d u la tio n o r th e g e n e r a tio n o f d is to r tio n p ro d u c ts th a t w ill in te r a c t in th e m ix e r to c a u s e s ig n a ls in th e I F b an d . In th e fre q u e n cy b a n d s w h ere re c e iv e r n o is e is a lim itin g sy ste m p a r a m e te r , th e se s ta g e s sh o u ld h av e a d e q u a te g a in to p re v e n t th e h ig h e r n o is e o f th e m ix e r s ta g e fro m lim itin g th e r e c e iv e r s p e rfo rm a n c e . In a d d itio n , th e s e R F sta g e s sh o u ld p ro v id e th e d esired s e le c tiv ity to p re v e n t u n d e sire d s ig n a ls fro m re a c h in g th e m ix e r. T h e fixed tu n e d s ta g e s b e tw e e n th e m ix e r a n d th e d e m o d u la to r c ir c u it a re k n o w n a s th e I F sta g e s. In A M sy s te m s th e s e I F s ta g e s m u s t b e lin e a r , w h ile in F M sy ste m s
7 .6
TUNED NARROWBAND SMALL-SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS
315
th e ir a m p litu d e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s m a y b e m a rk e d ly n o n lin e a r.
T h e I F s ta g e s s h o u ld
h av e h ig h s e le c tiv ity w ith o u t c a u s in g d is to r tio n in th e d esired p a ssb a n d . In g e n e ra l, th ese fixed tu n e d s ta g e s p ro v id e th e b u lk o f th e g a in b etw een th e in p u t a n d th e d e m o d u la to r . T h u s th e R F s ta g e s a re n o rm a lly lo w -g a in , re la tiv e ly b r o a d b a n d tu n a b le sta g e s, w h ile th e I F s ta g e s a re h ig h -g a in , re la tiv e ly n a r ro w b a n d , fixed tu n ed stag es. sig n in g b o th c irc u its . S in c e o n e o f th e p u rp o se s o f th e se s ta g e s is se le c tiv ity , th e d esig n o f th e ir sele c tiv e n e tw o rk s is im p o r ta n t. H o w e v e r, su ch d esig n is n o t th e m a in fo cu s o f th is b o o k . F ig u r e 7 .6 1 illu s tra te s th e s e le c tiv ity o b ta in a b le w ith a c o m m e r c ia l s e v e n -p o le m e c h a n ic a l f ilte r ,t a n d F ig . 7 .6 - 2 illu s tra te s a p o s sib le d riv in g a n d is o la tin g c irc u it fo r a 4 5 5 k H z v e rsio n o f su ch a filter. A g r e a t v a rie ty o f su ch filte rs is a v a ila b le , so m e at re la tiv e ly low p rices. T h e c o n c e n tr a tio n o f s e le c tiv ity in o n e b o x " a n d b ro a d b a n d g a in in a d iffe re n t " b o x is o n e r e a s o n a b le w ay to d esig n a re ce iv e r. T h e field a d ju s tm e n ts re q u ire d to p la ce seven s e p a ra te p o le s in a B u tte r w o r th o r T s c h e b y s c h e ff a rr a n g e m e n t a re n o t d e s ira b le u n d er a n y c ir c u m s ta n c e s ; h e n c e , ev en if th e filter w ere to be b u ilt up o f lu m p ed e le m e n ts, o n e m ig h t w ell c h o o s e to h av e th e filter c o m p u te r d e s ig n e d a n d p la ce d in the c ir c u it a s a u n it. W h a t we will p o in t o u t h e re is th e b a s ic a p p r o a c h to d e sig n in g n a r ro w b a n d s m a ll-s ig n a l a m p lifie rs th a t w o rk in to sin g le- o r d o u b le -tu n e d n e tw o rk s an d a re d riv en fro m s in g le - o r d o u b le -tu n e d c ir c u it s .! W e sh a ll use th e n a r r o w b a n d y -m o d e l fo r th e a c tiv e c irc u it to p ro v id e a n a n a ly s is th a t w ill be v alid fo r sin g le v a cu u m tu b e s , F E T s, o r b ip o la r tr a n s is to r s , a s w ell as fo r d iffe re n tia l p a irs , c a s c o d e s , o r o th e r d is c r e te o r in te g ra te d c ir c u it c o m b in a tio n s . F ig u r e 7 .6 - 3 sh o w s th e b a s ic a rr a n g e m e n t fo r a sin g le stag e. T h e y -p a ra m e te rs a re d efin ed at a sin g le
0
If one
k eep s th ese d iffe re n c e s in m in d , th e s a m e g e n e ra l te c h n iq u e s m ay b e u tilize d fo r d e
-p o in t by th e e q u a tio n s h ( p ) = y u (p ) V t ( p ) + y n ( p W 2(p) ( 7 .6 - 1 )
and h i p ) = y 2 i(p )v i(p) + y 22 (P)V2(p). ( 7 .6 - 2 )
A lth o u g h th e se p a r a m e te r s m a y be c a lc u la te d fro m so m e o th e r d ev ice m o d e l, th e y
t M echanical filters are m echanically resonant elem ents whose inputs are driven by, and whose o utp u ts are picked up by, piezoelectric, m agnetostrictive, or other electrom echanical transducers. The q u artz crystal is a m echanical filter; however, as com m only used, the term refers to m u lti elem ent (hence m ultipole) ceram ic elem ents, usually with flat passbands and sh arp falloffs in response outside the passband. C h ap ter 5 of Solid Slate Magnetic and Dielectric Devices , edited by H. W. K atz (John Wiley, New Y ork, 1959), discusses the physical and electrical properties of a num ber o f such devices in some detail. t F o r those readers with no experience at all with double-tuned circuits, C h ap ter 18 of E. J.
Angelos Electronic Circuits (M cG raw -H ill, New Y o rk , 1964, second edition) will provide a
w orthw hile background.
OdB Fig. 7.6-1 T he am plitude response o f a seven-pole com m ercial m echanical filter in a circuit sim ilar to th a t of Fig. 7.6-2.
Fig. 7.6 -2 O verall IF stage w ith m echanical filter and prelim inary b ro ad b an d filter to rem ove spurious response possibilities. [O verall gain can be controlled by varying R, and by capacitively shun tin g all or p a rt o f the 200 f l in the last em itter. As show n, w ith R, = 30 k il, th e circuit will handle 1 V peak in p u t with an overall gain o f 5.]
7 .6
ll(P)
TUNED NARROWBAND SMALL-SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS h (P )
317
Active device Fig. 7 .6 -3 Basic ^-param eter stage.

a re n o rm a lly m e a s u re d , s in c e it is d e s ir a b le th a t th e y in c lu d e a ll p a r a s itic r e a c ta n c e s a s w ell a s su ch d iffic u lt-to -m o d e l p a r a m e te r s a s e x c e ss p h a s e s h ift in tra n s is to rs . T h e y -p a r a m e te r s a r e u su a lly fu n c tio n s o f b o th Q -p o in t a n d fre q u en cy . c o m b in e , say, y 2 2 fro m th e d e v ice a n d YB fro m th e c irc u it. In e sse n c e , w h a t o n e m u st d o is m a k e a s m a ll-b a n d a p p r o x im a tio n in a n o rm a l m o d e l. (T h e s m a ll-s ig n a l a p p r o x im a tio n is u su a lly a lre a d y im p lic it in th e yp a r a m e te r v a lu e .) F o r e x a m p le , a t fre q u e n c ie s n e a r w 0 o n e m ig h t a p p r o x im a te y 22 a s y 22 = g 22 + jo j qC 22 + jS(o C '2 2 , w h e re Sto = to to0 . N o w if Yb w ere a sin g le p a ra lle l R L C c ir c u it th a t c o m b in e d w ith y 22 to tu n e to o i0 , o n e w o u ld h a v e Yt = YB + y 22 = (G fl + g 22) + ju ) 0( C 22 + C B)
1
S in c e
th ey a re fu n c tio n s o f fre q u e n cy , o n e m u st e x e rc is e s o m e c a r e w hen a tte m p tin g to
( 7 .6 - 3 )
(co0 + Scj)Lb
H o w e v e r, if Sto co0 , th e n 1/(to 0 + to) h o o d o f a>0 ,
+ jSco(C '22 + C B).
( 7 .6 - 4 )
(l/to o )
(Sto/co o) so th a t, in th e n e ig h b o r -
Y, (G b + g 22) + jStol C'22 + C B + (l)o L b
( 7 .6 - 5 )
H e re , in s te a d o f ju s t ta k in g th e v a lu e o f th e im a g in a r y p a r t o f y 22 a t to0 a s ja>0 C 2 2 , w e h a v e a ls o ta k e n th e s lo p e te rm jdtoC '2 2 . In g e n e r a l, th e re is n o r e a s o n w hy C 22 sh o u ld e q u a l C 2 2 , ju s t a s th e re is n o r e a s o n w hy th e in c re m e n ta l slo p e o f th e d io d e e q u a tio n s h o u ld e q u a l th e r a tio o f th e d c ju n c t i o n v o lta g e to th e d c ju n c t io n c u rre n t. W h e n th e slo p e o f b xx w ith re s p e c t to fre q u e n c y is sm a ll, th e n C xx x C'xx. C a s e s d o a rise w h ere d iffe re n c e s o f tw o o r th re e tim e s o c c u r b e tw e e n th e tw o te rm s. n o t c a n c e l g 22 o r g , , , th is re fin e m e n t is s e ld o m n e c e ss a ry .) F ig u r e 7 . 6 - 4 sh o w s ty p ic a l 1 0.7 M H z an d 1 0 0 M H z c o m m o n e m itte r >-p a ra m e te rs vs. c o lle c t o r c u rr e n t fo r a g o o d N P N s ilic o n b ip o la r tra n s is to r. F ig u re 7 .6 - 5 (O n e c o u ld a ls o ta k e a s lo p e te rm fo r th e re a l p a rt o f y x x ; h o w e v e r, s in c e re s o n a n c e d o e s
318
7 .6
oui1 1k
(a) y u : input adm ittance (ou tp u t short circuit)
0.10
l.Or0.5
0.2
-
0.08 0.06 0.04
V = j5V 7 '
c e
N ^ = 10V
nui
/ = 10.7 m H z V CE= 10 V
/ = 100 mHz
0.1
0.05
0.02
& -1 0 V M 2 1
0
0.02
V ce- 5 V 1 1 4 6 Ic , raA 1 1 10
o! 0
/ c ,m A
10
(b)
y
0.01
: reverse transfer admittance (input short circuit)
7.6
319
Fig. 7 .6 -4 C om m on em itter y-param eters vs. collector current at tw o different frequencies. 2N918. R eproduced by perm ission of Fairchild Sem iconductor.
QUI '
(c)
y2] ' forward transfer adm ittance (output short circuit)
(d)
y 22 : o u tp u t ad m ittance (input short circuit)
320
7 .6
/ , mHz (a) y u : in p u t adm ittance
/ , mHz (b) y u : reverse tran sfer adm ittance
(c) y2l: forward transfer adm ittance
(d) y n : ou tp u t adm ittance
Fig. 7.6 -5 C om m on em itter ^-param eters vs. frequency. 2N918. R eproduced by perm ission of Fairchild Sem iconductor.
sh o w s th e c o m m o n e m itte r y -p a r a m e te r s vs. fre q u e n cy fo r th e s a m e tr a n s is to r ( I c = 5 m A , VCE = 10 V ). so m e I t is a p p a r e n t th a t th e s e p a r a m e te r s d o in d eed v a ry w ith b o th fre q u e n cy a n d Q -p o in t, b u t th a t o n e c a n m a k e a r e a s o n a b le m o d e l o v e r a t le a st
small range
o f b o th
quantities.
o j0
C o n s id e r th e p r o b le m o f fin d in g Yin = V i(p)/I\ (p) in th e n e ig h b o r h o o d o f Ya a n d YB a re sim p le p a ra lle l R L C c irc u its .
w h en b o th th e o v e r a ll in p u t a n d o u tp u t c ir c u its a re tu n e d to co0 a n d w h en b o th
7 .6
321
S in c e V2(p) = >'2 i(p )l/i(p)/[>2 2 (p) + *(?)]> th e e ffe ct o f th e fe e d b a c k g e n e r a to r y l 2 V2 is t o p la c e a n im p e d a n c e in p a r a lle l w ith YA a n d . T h e r e fo r e , w e first c a l
culate this reflected impedance and then add the y 1 r and J^-terms:
Yu = Y a + y i l w h ere Z , = \/Yt. I f th e last te rm o f Yin h a s a la rg e e n o u g h n e g a tiv e real p a rt, th e n o v e r so m e ra n g e o f fre q u e n cie s, Yin m a y h av e a n e g a tiv e re a l p a rt a n d the c ir c u it w ill o s c illa te in th e m a n n e r o u tlin e d in S e c tio n 6 .1 0 . W h a t we w ish to d e m o n s tr a te is a s im p le g r a p h ic a l a p p r o a c h th a t n o t o n ly le ts us e v a lu a te Yin(jo j0 ), b u t a ls o le ts us see h o w Yin(jo j) v a ries n e a r < d 0 a n d e x a c tly w h a t we sh o u ld d o to c o n t r o l th is v a ria tio n . In g e n e ra l, th e p r a c tic a l p o s s ib ilitie s in c o n tr o llin g Yin in c lu d e : / ' j ' 21 = Y< + y n Yg + y 22 y t2y 21Z (7 .6 6)
a)
Reduction of
y 12- T h is is a lw a y s d e s ira b le .
W ith a sin g le giv en F E T , v acu u m S u c h a fe e d b a c k c irc u it is
tu b e , o r tr a n s is to r it c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d b y a d d in g a n a d d itio n a l o u t-o f-p h a s e fe e d b a c k to c a n c e l so m e o r a ll o f th e d ev ice fe e d b a c k . k n o w n a s a n e u tra liz in g n e tw o rk . A n a lte r n a tiv e is to c o m b in e s ev e ra l d e v ice s in to a c ir c u it su ch a s a c a s c o d e c irc u it o r a d iffe re n tia l p a ir a n d th e n to c o n s id e r th e > -p a ra m e te r s fo r th e c o m p o s ite c irc u it. A s we sh a ll see, y i2 fo r su ch a c irc u it m a y b e red u ced by a fa c to r o f sev e ral h u n d re d o r m o r e fro m y 12 fo r a sin g le stage.
b) Increasing
G B. T h is c o r r e s p o n d s to lo a d in g th e o u tp u t c irc u it.
It w ill re d u ce
th e v o lta g e g a in o f th e c irc u it. loss.
I f th e lo a d in g is d o n e by th e p ro p e r c o u p lin g o f the
im p e d a n c e fro m th e n e x t sta g e , th e n it d o e s n o t n e c e ss a rily le ad to e x c e ss iv e p o w e r
c)
Increasing
G A- T h is c o r r e s p o n d s to lo a d in g th e in p u t c irc u it.
A g a in o n e is
tra d in g g a in fo r c ir c u it s ta b ility a n d sy m m e try . F ig u r e 7 . 6 - 6 p lo ts Y,(ja)) fro m E q . ( 7 .6 - 5 ) vs. co in th e n e ig h b o r h o o d o f a>0 . F ig u r e 7 .6 - 7 p lo ts Z ,(ju>) = 1/Y ,(ju )). T h e s tra ig h t lin e in F ig . 7 . 6 - 6 is tra n s fo rm e d in to a c irc le w hen o n e ta k e s its r e c ip r o c a l to find Z , = 1/ Y t. It w ill b e a p p a r e n t th a t th e la rg e r G B is m a d e , th e s m a lle r th e c ir c le o f F ig . 7 .6 - 7 w ill b e c o m e . In te rm s o f a m a g n itu d e a n d a n a n g le , e -je(iu>) Z ,[j(o j0 t m )] =
G B + g 22
w h ere 6(3a>) = ta n " S oj 5w 3 d B
T h e 3 d B p a s s b a n d o f th e a m p lifie r o c c u p ie s o n e - h a lf o f th e c i r c l e ; a ll o th e r fre q u e n c ie s fro m m in u s in fin ity t o p lu s in fin ity o c c u p y th e o th e r half. A c tu a lly w hen
322
7 .6
| Increasing w
G> + 822
W =UJo
Origin^
A
Y,(yojo
j8 w (c '22 i c . i
Fig. 7 .6 -6 Com bined circuit and device adm it tance out at the output o f Fig. 7 .6 -3 . Parallel resonance at u>0 is assumed. is shown in the neighborhood o f resonance. dm
/ X
1
\ J =Wo
/ )
+ 22^ / Increasing ui
Fig. 7 .6 -7 Reciprocal shown in Fig. 7 .6 -6 .
of
the
admittance
3 (0 is la rg e r, th e a p p r o x im a tio n s b r e a k d o w n a n d y 22 v a rie s w ith fre q u e n c y , s o th a t th e lo c u s o f Z , w ill p r o b a b ly c e a s e to b e e x a c tly c irc u la r. w e a s su m e th a t it h o ld s fo r a ll v a lu e s o f a). S in c e r e s o n a n c e is n o t in v o lv e d w ith e ith e r y 12 o r y 2 1 , w e w ill a p p r o x im a te b o th o f th e m by c o n s t a n t v a lu e s a c r o s s th e fre q u e n c y b a n d in q u e s tio n . F u r t h e r m o r e w e w ill c o m b in e th e r e a l a n d im a g in a r y p a r ts o f th e c u rv e s o f th e ty p e sh o w n in F ig . 7 . 6 - 4 a n d 7 . 6 - 5 s o a s t o r e p r e s e n t y 12 a n d y 2 1 a s m a g n itu d e s a n d a n g le s. W ith th is re p r e s e n ta tio n th e re s u lt o f th e m u ltip lic a tio n sh o w n in E q . ( 7 .6 - 6 ) w ill b e to r o t a t e th e c ir c le o f F ig . 7 . 6 - 7 b y th e su m o f th e a n g le s o f y , d ia m e te r o f th e c ir c le to |yi2 y 2 il/(GB + g 22). F o r e x a m p le , i f y 2l = gm a n d y 1 2 =
^12^21
YB + y 21 2
S in c e th e a p p r o x im a tio n
is v e ry g o o d in th e re g io n o f in te re s t a n d is b o th a d e q u a te a n d c o n v e n ie n t e lse w h e re ,
a n d y 2 x a n d to c h a n g e th e
- j ( o 0 C r , th e n
% C r S m ^/fTt/2
G g + g 22
(7 .6 - 7 )
7 .6
323
w h ic h is c ir c le 1 in F ig . 7 .6 - 8 . N o w a d d in g G A + g n to th e re fle cte d a d m itta n c e w ill sh ift th e c ir c le to th e rig h t b y th is a m o u n t, in a d d itio n , i f th e im a g in a r y p a rt o f YA + y , ! is e q u a l to ~ j t o 0 C rg m G b + 22 th e n th e c ir c le w ill b e sh ifte d d o w n in to p o s itio n 3 in F ig . 7 .6 8
C u rv e 3 is n o lo n g e r q u ite a c ir c le , s in c e its e q u a tio n is g iv e n by C u rv e 3 = G A + g u + C rKm sin Q(Sco) GB + g ll s O(daj) co0 ( C n + C A) + - - - G>0 L A _
+ J\
c o
g22
L G B +
+ j d < v ( c A + C u -i \
o )IL
2T ~ | -
a!
( 7 .6 - 8 )
Fig. 7.6 -8 In p u t ad m ittance of Fig. 7.6-3 for specific y-param eter and circuit conditions, in particular for y 2i = gm, y !2 = 7 W0 Cr , YB adjusted to resonate with y 22, and YA adjusted to resonate with y , , and the reflected im pedance.
T h e m a g n itu d e a n d p h a s e o f th e o v e r a ll in p u t im p e d a n c e a re g iv e n by th e m a g n itu d e a n d a n g le o f th e v e c to r fro m th e o rig in t o a p a r tic u la r p o in t o n c u rv e 3. (U su a lly c ir c le 3 is a s u fficie n tly g o o d a p p r o x im a tio n fo r firs t-o rd e r d e sig n p u rp o se s.) It is a p p a r e n t th a t, to a v o id o s c illa tio n s , c u rv e 3 m u st lie c o m p le te ly w ith in the rig h t h a lf o f th e a d m itta n c e p la n e . H o w e v e r, in o rd e r to h av e a s ta g e w ith a r e a s o n a b ly s y m m e tric a l in p u t im p e d a n c e a n d w ith a n in p u t im p e d a n c e th a t d o e s n o t b e c o m e b a d ly m istu n e d w h e n e v e r a n a d ju s tm e n t is m a d e in th e o u tp u t, it is n e c e ss a ry fo r th e
324
7.6
2
ra d iu s o f c ir c le
t o b e s m a ll in c o m p a r is o n to th e d is ta n c e th a t c ir c le
is t o th e rig h t o f
th e im a g in a r y a x is. T h is r a tio o f th e ra d iu s o f c ir c le 1 t o G A + t is c a lle d th e a lig n a b ility fa c to r , k : 2^211 ( 7 .6 - 9 )
2(Gb + g22)(GA + guY

I t is g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d th a t fo r w e ll-d e sig n ed c ir c u its k < 0 .2 0 . A c tu a lly k a lo n e is n o t re a lly a s u fficie n t s p e c if ic a tio n ; fo r c ir c u its w ith e q u a l v a lu e s fo r k, th o s e in w h ic h c ir c le in th e r ig h t-h a lf p la n e . T o re p e a t o u r e a r lie r c o n c lu s io n s , o n e c a n re d u c e k e ith e r b y re d u c in g | _y12| o r b y in c re a s in g G B o r G A . (R e d u c in g | _y 21| is n o t r e a s o n a b le , s in c e it re d u c e s th e g a in d ire c tly .) O n e re d u c e s \yi2 \b y s w itc h in g d e v ice s o r Q -p o in ts , o r b y a n e u tra liz in g fe e d b a c k , o r b y c o m b in in g d e v ice s in to a c o m p o s ite d ev ice. W h a te v e r m e th o d is u sed , o n e m u st c h e c k fo r th e w o r s t-c a s e c o n d itio n s , b e c a u s e n e u tr a liz a tio n c a n n o r m a lly b e a c h ie v e d o n ly t o w ith in a c e r ta in to le r a n c e , w h ile th e _y-paramete> v a ry w ith te m p e ra tu re a n d a s th e Q -p o in t is sh ifte d b y A V C (o r A G C ) c o n t r o l sig n als. In o rd e r to n e u tra liz e a s ta g e w ith a p u re ly c a p a c itiv e in te r n a l fe e d b a c k , o n e re q u ire s a p u re ly c a p a c itiv e fe e d b a c k o f o p p o s ite p h a s e , a s illu s tra te d in F ig . 7 .6 - 9 . N o r m a lly C r is n o t k n o w n e x a c tly a n d v a rie s fro m u n it t o u n it, w ith te m p e ra tu re , a n d w ith Q -p o in t. In a d d itio n , o n e s e ld o m u ses b e tte r th a n a 1 5 % to le r a n c e c a p a c it o r fo r C N. T h u s it m a y b e r e a s o n a b le t o re d u c e \y12\ t o p e rh a p s | o f its o rig in a l v alu e, b u t it is u n lik e ly th a t in a p r o d u c tio n ru n o n e w ill a tte m p t to d o b e t te r th a n th is. (In h ig h -p o w e r a m p lifie r s o n e o fte n d o e s a tte m p t to m a k e a d ju s tm e n ts o n e a c h a m p lifie r so th a t |y12| is re d u c e d b e lo w th is v alu e.) F o r th e p u rp o se o f n u m e ric a l c o m p a r is o n w e sh a ll c o n s id e r a n a m p lifie r c o n sis tin g o f a sin g le b ip o la r t r a n s is to r o f th e ty p e illu s tra te d in F ig s . 7 . 6 - 4 a n d 7 .6 - 5 , as w ell a s a c a s c o d e a n d a d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c o n n e c tio n o f a c o m m e r c ia l in te g ra te d tria d su ch a s th e R C A C A 3 0 0 5 . I n e a c h c a s e we a r b itr a r ily set G A = g n . T h e c o m m o n p r o p e r tie s a r e lis te d in T a b l e 7 .6 - 1 . T a b l e 7 .6 - 2 lis ts th e y -p a r a m e te r s an d v a rio u s d eriv e d q u a n titie s fo r a ll th re e c a se s .
1
lie s a lm o s t c o m p le te ly w ith in th e le ft-h a lf p la n e

1
w ill b e w o rse b y a f a c to r o f f th a n th o s e c ir c u its in w h ic h c ir c le
lie s a lm o s t c o m p le te ly
Table 7.6-1 C om m on properties o f three amplifiers / dc = 2.5m A , |Kcc| =

|Ve e I
= 6V
Single-tuned, directly connected o u tp u t circuit O u tp u t coil with L a = 8 iH, Q = 100 O u tp u t circuit loaded to o b tain + 4 0 0 kH z bandw idth at w 0 = 6.72 x 107 H z; th at is, 6 ,oaded = 13.4 T o tal shunt load from coil losses an d device o u tp u t loss is 7.2 k il; th a t is, Gb + g 22 = 139 /im ho for each case The tuning cap acito r for each case is C A = (28 pF ) C 22
7.6
325
T able 7.6 -2 L ist o f ^-parameters and various derived quantities for three amplifiers (10.7 M H z
values; all adm ittances in /imho; 2.5m A in single or cascode stages; 1.25m A in each half of differential pairs)
Single unit >11 C >12 >2 1 >2 2 C'22 t'22 >12 >2 1 >' 12>' 2 1 950 + /700 10.4 pF 10.4 pF 75,000 -7 1 5 ,0 0 0 60 + 7 170 2.5 pF 2.5 p F 81 Z _ -9 7 7 6 ,0 0 0 ^ .-1 1 6 . 2 x 1 0 " 6 /i,ho2
C ascodef 2000 + j3000 48 p F 45 pF 0 . 2 2 - /0.08 6 8 ,0 0 0 - / 1 2 ,0 0 0 1 0 + ./150 2.4 pF 4.8 p F 0 .2 4 ^ -2 1 69,000 10 0.016 x 1 0 - 6 //m h o 2 Z_+149 29.6 pF 151 1 0 0 Z J4 9 0 0.0125
Differential p a irt 600 + /800 12.8 pF 19 pF 2 - j2 -2 0 ,0 0 0 + ;500 1 0 + ./150 2.4 pF 4.8 pF 2.8 / _ 45 20,000 / _ + 178.5 0.056 x 10~ 6 n m h o 2 1 46.5 29.6 pF 151 348 /_ 46.5 0.146
1_ + 1 T (
B
29.5 pF
101
i'B
~ > 12>2 1/ (Gjj + 822) 1 > 12 1 l>2 1 1 2 [GB + g j j l P g , , ]
38,500 /_ + 72
1 0 .1
tT h e y-parameters of the CA 3005 for the stated conditions are given in Figs. 125 and 126, pp. 176 and 177, of the booklet RCA Linear Integrated Circuit Fundamentals, Technical Series IC-40, RCA, Harrison, N.J. (1966).
T h e last e n try in T a b le 7 .6 - 2 is th e a lig n a b ility f a c to r k fo r th e c a s e w h ere G A = g i ! . N o te th a t w h e n G A g t t th e sin g le -e n d e d c a s e is u n sta b le , w h ile b o th th e o th e r sta g e s hav e k < 0 .1 4 6 . T h e a c tu a l d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e c a s c o d e a n d d iffe re n tia l1
p a ir c irc u its is n o t a s g r e a t a s th e v alu e o f k w o u ld in d ic a te , s in c e c ir c le a lm o s t e n tire ly in th e r ig h t-h a lf p lan e .
1 00
1 0
in th e c a s c o d e
c a s e is a lm o s t c o m p le te ly in th e le ft-h a lf p la n e w h ile in th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c a se it is T o b e sp e cific , w h en G A = g M a n d b o th in p u ts a r e tu n e d to b e re s is tiv e a t <w 0 , th e n e t in p u t c o n d u c ta n c e G, is 3 8 1 4 / im h o in th e c a s c o d e c a s e a n d 1 4 4 8 /im ho in th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c a se , th e d iffe re n c e b e in g o n ly 2.65/1. T o aid in s e e in g th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o c a s e s a s w ell a s in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e m e th o d , it is d e s ir a b le th a t th e re a d e r tr a c e o u t c u rv e 3 fo r b o th ca se s. F r o m th is c u rv e o n e c a n g et a n id e a o f th e in p u t im p e d a n c e sy m m e try fo r e a c h c irc u it. I t is s o m e tim e s u sefu l to c o m p a r e a m p lify in g sta g e s in te rm s o f th e ir p o w er g a in s , s in c e p o w e r d o e s n o t h a v e th e in d e fin ite n e s s th a t is s o m e tim e s a s s o c ia te d w ith v o lta g e o r c u r r e n t g ain s. A s tra ig h tfo rw a rd a n a ly s is o f F ig . 7 .6 - 3 w ill sh o w th a t th e re s o n a n t p o w er g a in d efin ed a s th e lo a d p o w e r d iv id ed b y th e p o w e r su p p lie d b y th e / ', g e n e r a to r is
326
m ix e r s ; r f a n d if a m pl ifier s
7 .6
Fig. 7 .6 -9 g iv e n b y E q . ( 7 .6 - 1 0 ) :
Possible neutralization circuitry when y l2
-j(oC r.
Ap
\y2 t \ 2G B
=
( 7 .6 - 1 0 )
(&A + S l l + g R) ( g 22 + G b) T h i s e q u a tio n p re s u m e s t h a t th e in p u t a n d o u tp u t a r e b o t h tu n e d to r e s o n a n c e ; g R is th e re s is tiv e p o r tio n o f th e im p e d a n c e re fle c te d fro m th e o u tp u t th ro u g h th e
y 12 g e n e r a to r , a n d G B is a s su m e d to b e th e d e sire d lo a d re s is to r.
F o r th e p u rp o s e o f c o m p a r in g s ta g e s, w e c o n s id e r a s p e c ia l fo rm o f A P in w h ic h g R = 0 a n d b o th th e in p u t a n d o u tp u t a r e m a tc h e d re sistiv e ly . F o r th is c a s e ,
A P b e c o m e s A Pmiit a n d E q . ( 7 .6 - 1 0 ) re d u c e s to
A PM
\y2\\2
o u
22
( 7 .6 - 1 1 )
,n c
N o w w e c o m p a r e A Pm^ fo r th e th re e s ta g e s a n d A P fo r th e la s t tw o c a se s , a s s u m i n g g , i = G A, b u t a l lo w i n g g R , G B, a n d g 22 t o h a v e th e ir p re v io u s v alu e s.
7 .6
327
(S in c e th e s in g le -e n d e d tr a n s is to r w ith o u t n e u tr a liz a tio n w ill o s c illa te , a c a lc u la tio n fo r A P is m e a n in g le s s .)
Single unit 41.1 dB
Cascode 44.5 dB 38.5 dB
Differential pair 39.2 dB 35.3 dB
__ _
F r o m th e se re s u lts we see th a t, w h ile n e ith e r o f th e se c o m p o s ite sta g e s yield s its m a tc h e d p o w e r g a in , tw o s ta g e s o f e ith e r c o m p o s ite typ e w o u ld y ield a th e o r e tic a l g a in m o re th a n 7 0 d B a n d a p r a c tic a l g a in o f a t le a st 6 0 d B . W e m ig h t a tte m p t to sa lv a g e th e sin g le -e n d e d stag e by n e u tra liz in g it. a s su m e th a t we c a n n e u tra liz e th e re a c tiv e p o r tio n o f y 12 to w ith in
1 0
I f we
% , th e n
& c [ y l2 ] = 1 0 ,
-j- 8 >
\i\ ^
fro m w h ich , fo r th e tw o e x tre m e c a se s , we o b t a in th e fo llo w in g v alu e s :
y l2 = 12.8 / _ + 141.5 +
)
10
+ j8
.V1 2 = - 1 0 - 7 8
1 2 . 8 Z_ 141.5 0.98 x 10~b /imho2 _ + 27.5 6070 / _ -+ 27.5
22
0.98 x 10 ~ 6 /imho2 / L 49.5 6070 49.5
I f o n e c o n s tr u c ts th e ty p e 1 c irc le s in d ic a te d by th e v alu es a b o v e , o n e will see th a t th e y 1 2 = - 10 + jS c a s e is th e w o rst c a s e b u t th a t, ev en h ere, a d d in g 1 1 0 0 //mho o f re a l in p u t c o n d u c ta n c e (via g n

11
an d G A) w ill yield a b s o lu te s t a b ilit y ; h e n ce , if
= G a = 9 5 0 /im ho, th e n th e ty p e 3 c irc le s w ill lie c o m p le te ly w ith in th e rig h t-
h a lf p lan e. T h e a lig n a b ility v alu es w ill n o t be less th a n 0 .2 0 . H o w e v e r, sin ce th e c irc le s a re n o t ro ta te d so far fro m th e real a x is to b eg in w ith , the v a r ia tio n a c r o s s th e b a n d m a y n o t be e x ce ssiv e . I f th is v a r ia tio n still seem s to o m u ch , th e n e x t step w ou ld p r o b a b ly b t to re d u ce th e lo a d seen a t th e o u tp u t. T h is can be d o n e w ith o u t c h a n g in g th e b a n d w id th by u sin g a ste p -u p tra n s fo rm e r b e tw e e n the tr a n s is to r o u tp u t a n d th e L C c irc u it. F o r e x a m p le , w ith an e ffe ctiv e tu rn s r a tio o f 1 :2 we m a y in c re a se G to 6 3 4 /m ho; th is re d u c e s th e d ia m e te r o f c ir c le 1 to 15 17 /im ho a n d m a k e s k = 0 .4 0 . T h e re su lt, w ith th e sm all a n g le o f r o ta tio n o f c irc le 1, sh o u ld be a u sa b le stage. N o te th a t th is d e lib e ra te m is m a tc h in g a t th e o u tp u t h a s d e c re a s e d th e p o w er g a in w h ile in c re a s in g th e a lig n a b ility . T h is tra d e is o fte n a re a s o n a b le o n e to m a k e .
F o r th is n e u tra liz e d , h e av ily lo a d e d sta g e , as sp ecified fo r th e y , 2 = - 10 + jH / i m h o c a se , th e a c tu a l re s o n a n t p o w e r g a in is 3 1 0 0 o r 3 4 .9 d B ; h e n c e th e sin g le-e n d e d c a s e
is still c o m p e titiv e w ith th e c a s c o d e a n d d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c a s e s if g a in a lo n e is c o n sid ered . T h u s by p a rtia l n e u tr a liz a tio n an d th e use o f su fficie n t in p u t o r o u tp u t r e a s o n a b ly a lig n a b le s in g le -u n it sta g e s w ith p o w er m is m a tc h in g we c a n o b ta in
g a in s o f th e o rd e r o f 3 0 d B p er stage.
328
7 .7
7.7
STAGES W ITH D OUBLE-TUNED CIRCUITS
F ig u re 7 .7 -1 illu s tr a te s th re e p o s s ib le ty p e s o f c o u p lin g b e tw e e n s m a ll-s ig n a l d o u b le tu n e d c irc u its . lin ed b e lo w : a) b) c) e a c h h a lf-c ir c u it (u n co u p le d ) id e n tic a l a n d tu n e d to a > 0; o n ly a sin g le ty p e o f c o u p lin g in a g iv e n c i r c u i t ; o v e r a ll b a n d w id th s o f 5 % o r le ss o f co0 . O b v io u s ly a g r e a t m a n y v a r ia tio n s a re p o s s ib le w ith su c h c irc u its . T o illu s tra te th e b a s ic c o n c e p ts w e sh a ll re s tr ic t o u rse lv e s to th e s p e cific case s, o u t
F o r all su ch c a s e s w h ere Y , = Y, t ,
Vi(p)
I lip) Vi (P) _ litp)
O n e set is a t th e z e ro s o f fre q u e n c y o f
YJp)
Yt(p) + YJp)
YAp )[2YJP) + YAp)]'
Yl(p)[2YJp) + YAP)]'
T h e tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e fo r s u c h c a s e s a lw a y s h a s tw o sets o f c o m p le x p o les.
Yt(p) a n d h e n c e h a s a re a l p a rt o f l / 2 R l C l a n d a re s o n a n t l / s/ L 1C l . T h e q u a d r a tic fo r th e o th e r se t o f p o le s is th e o n e re s u ltin g
fro m th e [ ^ ( p ) + 2 y (p )]-te r m ; h e n c e it w ill v a ry w ith th e ty p e o f c o u p lin g . T a b le 7 .7 -1 lis ts th e re s u lts fo r th e th re e c a s e s u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n .
Table 7.7-1 Comparison o f three types of coupling Inductive M utual inductive Capacitive
Q u ad ratic
2 P
P R lC i
1+2/c LC
2 v
P R,C,
1 (1 + k)LC
D2 1 v
+ 2k)
1 + LC{ 1 + 2k) LJLm ko>l!C, 1
MIL,
wJ/cL,/(l - k 2) 1
cjc{
k/( 1 + 2k)Ct 3
Scale factor Zeros at origin
A c tu a lly fo r m u tu a l in d u c tiv e c o u p lin g th e c o n v e n ie n t fo r m u la tio n p u ts th e d e n o m in a to r in a fo rm in w h ic h b o th se ts o f p o le s a re fu n c tio n s o f k. T h e n o rm a l a p p r o x im a tio n fo r s m a ll v a lu e s o f k is to ig n o r e th e v a r ia tio n s in Q c a u s e d b y k (th a t is, to n e g le c t th e h o r iz o n ta l m o tio n o f th e p o le in th e c a p a c itiv e c a s e ) a n d to c o n s id e r th e v e rtic a l m o v e m e n t. F o r k , y i + k
1
1, i * 2
and
x 2k
k.
t E. J. Angelo (Electronic Circuits, McGraw-Hill, N ew York, 1964, second edition) illustrates the straightforward extension to the case where Y2(p) = aYt(p).
7 .7
STAGES W ITH DOUBLE-TUNED CIRCUITS Lm
329
Fig. 7.7-1 (a) Inductive coupling, (b) M utual inductive coupling, (c) C apacitive coupling.
T h e p o le m o tio n fo r th e u p p e r set o f c o m p le x p o le s fo r th e th re e c a se s is sh o w n in F ig . 7 .7 - 2 . I t is a p p a r e n t th a t, e x c e p t fo r th e sk e w n e ss ca u sed by th e v a r ia tio n s o f Q w ith k, a ll th re e c a se s m a y b e used to o b ta in m a x im a lly fla t o r o th e r tw o -p o le n e tw o rk a d ju s tm e n ts . T h o u g h th e in d u c tiv e c a s e h a s the e a sie s t a lg e b ra , th e o th e r tw o c a se s tu rn o u t to b e m u c h m o r e p r a c tic a l. B o th o f th ese c a se s a re w id ely used. F o r m a x im a l fla tn e ss in th e c a p a c itiv e c a se , a>0C mR = 1 ; in th e m u tu a l in d u c tiv e c a s e , o)0 M R = 1. T h e q u e s tio n th a t n a tu r a lly a ris e s i s : H o w d o e s th e in p u t im p e d a n c e o f a d o u b le tu n e d c irc u it a ffe ct th e s ta b ility a n d a lig n a b ility c a lc u la tio n s o f th e p re v io u s s e c tio n ? F r o m F ig . 7 .6 th e y 2
1 6
it is c le a r th a t th e a d m itta n c e re fle cte d in to th e in p u t sid e o f the
y -p a r a m e te r m o d e l is a lw a y s - y ^ y n Z , , w h e re Z , is th e to t a l im p e d a n c e a c r o s s g e n e ra to r. T h a t is, Z , = ------- 1------- .
.F22 + 5b
330
m ix e rs ; r f a n d i f a m p lif ie r s
7.7
L
ku>o
i_
u
* " L
2 * ,C , " 1 i ==^=ta 0 LI * *w 0
L
(a)
11
(b)
r
(c)
Fig. 7 .7 -2 (a) Inductive coupling, (b) M utual inductive coupling, (c) Capacitive coupling. I f w e a s s u m e t h a t y 22 is a b s o r b e d in t o th e p rim a r y tu n e d c ir c u it, th e n Z , is th e in p u t im p e d a n c e fo r th e d o u b le -tu n e d c irc u it. M u tu a l ind uctiv e co u p lin g col (7 .7 - 2 ) wl P2 + R ic , l E q u a t io n s ( 7 .7 - 2 ) a n d ( 7 .7 - 3 ) list Z , fo r th e m u tu a l in d u c tiv e a n d c a p a c itiv e c o u p lin g c a s e s :
P\P Z ,=
c
+
1C ,
p2
Oil
C a p a citiv e co u p lin g +
1
col +k col (7 .7 - 3 ) I +2k
Z, =
1 1
+ k \ + 2k
P2 +
R iC ti
+ k)
c l P2 +
+ col R ic 1
p1 +
+2k)
T h o u g h th e s e e q u a tio n s lo o k r a th e r fo r m id a b le , b o th c a n b e g re a tly sim p lifie d if we c o n s id e r o n ly th e re g io n n e a r co0 = of k

1/y /L ^ C
i a n d if we m a in ta in o u r a s s u m p tio n
1. In th is c a s e b o th e q u a tio n s h a v e tw o p o le s t h a t a r e a p p r o x im a te ly e q u a lly
s p a ce d a b o u t th e z e ro . I f w e c o n s id e r th e m a x im a lly fla t tr a n s fe r fu n c tio n c a s e , th e n Z , a t th e c e n te r fre q u e n c y [co0 in th e m u tu a l in d u c tiv e c a s e a n d co0( l k/2) in th e c a p a c itiv e c o u p lin g c a s e ] is R / 2 , w h ile th e a p p r o x im a te d n o rm a liz e d v alu e s o f th e im p e d a n c e in te rm s o f a = 1 / 2 / ijC j = c a J 2 Q T a r e g iv e n b y T a b le 7 .7 - 2 . a p p r o x im a te ly R /2 a n d th u s a p p r o x im a te ly th e s a m e a s Z ( . F ig u r e 7 .7 - 3 p lo ts th e n o rm a liz e d d a ta o f T a b le 7 .7 - 2 a n d c o m p a r e s th e m w ith a c ir c le o f ra d iu s
5
The
c e n te r-fre q u e n c y tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e fo r th e s a m e c a se is R / 2(1 k 2), w h ich is
. T h a t is, F ig . 7 .7 - 3 c o m p a r e s th e d a ta o f T a b le 7 .7 - 2 w ith th e in p u t
im p e d a n c e to b e e x p e c te d fro m a s in g le -tu n e d c ir c u it h a v in g t h e s a m e c e n te r fre q u e n cy a n d a lo a d R . H o w e v e r, th is is ju s t th e c a s e o f th e sin g le -tu n e d c irc u it. T h e use o f th e s a m e g r a p h ic a l a p p r o a c h to c a lc u la te th e c o m p le te re fle cte d im p e d a n c e a n d th e r e s u lta n t a lig n a b ility is a p e rfe c tly s tra ig h tfo rw a rd p ro c e d u re . H o w e v e r, it is a p p a r e n t th a t i f th e s in g le -tu n e d c a s e w ith lo a d R is s ta b le , th e n , b e c a u s e th e n ew im p e d a n c e lie s w ith in th e c ir c le o f th e sin g le -tu n e d c a se , th e d o u b le tu n e d , m a x im a lly fla t c a s e w ith a lo a d o f R p er sid e w ill a ls o b e sta b le .
7 .8
GAIN CONTROL CIRCUITS
331
Table 7 .7 -2 N orm alized in p u t im pedance for identically tuned coupled circuits (R , o n each side) w/ct 0 + 1 +2 4 9te(ZJR) 0.50 0.60 0.259 0.070 J^ZJR) 0.00 + 0 .2 0 + 0.40 + 0.25 | Z JK 0.50 0.635 0.50 0.26 Angle 0 + 18.5 + 53 + 74
Fig. 7.7 - 3 P lo t o f the norm alized Z jn for a m axim ally flat double-tuned identical set of tuned circuits. 7.8 G A IN C O N T R O L C IR C U IT S
S in c e th e lev el o f th e sig n a ls p re s e n t a t th e in p u t o f a re c e iv e r c a n v a ry by m o r e th a n
1 0 6 /1
w h ile th e l in e a r ra n g e o f o p e r a tio n o f m o s t a m p lifie rs is
1 0 3 /1
o r less a n d th e
1 0 /1 ,
p r a c tic a lly u sefu l ra n g e o f m a n y d e m o d u la tio n c ir c u its is o n ly a b o u t
it is im
p e ra tiv e th a t m o s t re c e iv e rs h a v e a b u ilt-in a u to m a tic g a in c o n t r o l c irc u it. S u c h a c ir c u it sh o u ld sen se th e lo n g -te r m a v e ra g e (lo n g -te rm w ith re s p e ct to th e lo w est m o d u la tio n fre q u e n cy ) v alu e o f th e sig n a l a n d a d ju s t th e a m p lifie r g a in in su ch a m a n n e r t h a t a ll s ta g e s o p e r a te w ith in th e ir o p tim u m sig n a l level ran g es. Id e a lly , a s th e in p u t sig n a l lev el in c re a s e s , th e g a in sh o u ld re m a in a t its m a x im u m v alu e u n til th e o p tim u m d e m o d u la to r in p u t lev el is re a c h e d , a n d th e n fo r fu rth e r in c re a s e s in th e in p u t th e g a in s h o u ld d e c re a s e in s u c h a fa s h io n t h a t th e o u tp u t c a rrie r level re m a in s c o n s ta n t. F ig u r e 7 .8 - 1 illu s tr a te s th e id e a l s itu a tio n fo r th e c a s e w h e re th e o p tim u m d e m o d u la to r v o lta g e in p u t is 1 V a n d th e m a x im u m a m p lifie r g a in is 8 0 d B . P r a c tic a l
332
m ix e r s ; r f a n d if a m plifiers
7 .8
10,000
1000
. 3
100 10
10 100 1000 10,000
0.001
10
100 1000 10,000
Input, |iV (a) Fig. 7 .8 -1 amplifier.
Input, |iV
(b)
(a) Ideal gain vs. input signal for A G C amplifier, (b) Ideal v0(t) vs. vt(t) for A G C
a m p lifie rs u su a lly d e p a rt fro m th e id e a l s itu a tio n b o th a t lo w in p u t le v e ls, w h ere th e g a in b e g in s to d e c re a s e s o o n e r th a n it s h o u ld , a n d a t h ig h le v e ls, w h e re s o m e a m p lifie rs b e c o m e s e rio u sly o v e rlo a d e d . A n o th e r p r a c tic a l p ro b le m w ith m o s t g a in c o n tr o l s c h e m e s is th a t th e y m o d ify th e a c tiv e d e v ic e s in p u t a n d o u tp u t im p e d a n c e a n d h e n c e c a u s e d e tu n in g and / or b a n d w id th c h a n g e s . I n a d d itio n , m a n y o f th e s c h e m e s m o d ify th e c ir c u it s n o is e a n d d is to r tio n p r o p e r tie s in w h a t m a y tu rn o u t to b e a n u n s a tis fa c to r y m a n n e r. re q u ire m e n ts. B e fo r e w e c a n in te llig e n tly d is cu ss o v e r a ll sy ste m s, we n eed to o u tlin e th e p o s s ib le g a in c o n tr o l m e c h a n is m s . A s w e s h a ll see, th e re m a y b e s e v e ra l p o s s ib le m e a n s o f v a ry in g th e g a in o f a g iv e n d ev ice . T h e s e m a y v a ry w ith th e fre q u e n c y o f o p e ra tio n . In s o m e c a s e s s e v e ra l id e n tic a l-lo o k in g c ir c u its m a y in fa c t o p e r a te in s o m e w h a t d iffe re n t m a n n e rs , s in c e th e y o p e r a te a t w id ely d iffe re n t c e n te r fre q u e n cie s. T h e m o s t s tra ig h tfo rw a rd m e th o d o f g a in c o n tr o l is to v a ry g m in th e d e v ice m o d e l sh o w n in F ig . 7 .8 - 2 . S u c h a sim p lifie d m o d e l c a n r e p r e s e n t a v a c u u m tu b e , a ju n c t io n F E T , a M O S F E T , o r a b ip o la r t r a n s is to r in th e fre q u e n c y ra n g e w h e re b o th th e b a s e s p re a d in g r e s is to r rBBa n d th e b a s e r e c o m b in a tio n r e s is to r r B C o r r n m a y b e n e g le c te d a s w e h a v e b e e n d o in g in p re v io u s s e c tio n s. V a c u u m tu b e p e n to d e s e x is t in w h ic h gm v a rie s s m o o th ly (b u t n o t lin e a rly ) fro m , say , 5 0 0 0 /im ho a t z e r o g r id -to -c a th o d e v o lta g e to z e ro m ic r o m h o s a t a Vgk v a lu e o f 3 0 V . In o th e r tu b e s th e s a m e g m ra n g e m a y b e c o v e re d in o n ly a 5 V sw in g o f th e b ia s v o lta g e . T h e w id e -ra n g e o r r e m o te - c u to ff d e v ice is m a d e b y e ffe ctiv e ly p a ra lle lin g (in th e s a m e e n v e lo p e ) s e v e ra l tu b e s tru c tu re s . O n e s tru c tu re h a s a h ig h g m a t z e ro v o lta g e b u t c u ts o ff a t a re la tiv e ly lo w g r id - to - c a th o d e v o lta g e , w h ile a n o th e r h a s a low g m a t z e ro v o lta g e a n d d e c re a s e s o n ly slo w ly w ith in c re a s in g b ia s. T h e a d v a n ta g e o f s u c h a c o n t r o l c h a r a c te r is t ic is th a t, a t la rg e b ia se s a n d lo w gms a n d h e n c e lo w g a in s , th e g m is n e a rly c o n s ta n t o v e r a w id e v o lta g e r a n g e ; h e n c e th e d e v ic e w ill b e a b le to h a n d le la rg e sig n a ls w ith o u t d is to r tio n . F ig u r e 7 . 8 - 3 illu s tr a te s th e g m vs. K ; k fo r a p e n to d e v a c u u m tu b e , a s w ell a s th e g a in fo r a tw o -s ta g e ta n d e m o f su ch p e n to d e s in w h ich R t = 1 0 k i 2 is a s su m e d fo r Thus th e b e s t g a in c o n t r o l c ir c u it is u su a lly a c o m p r o m is e a m o n g a n u m b e r o f c o n flic tin g
7 .8
GAIN CONTROL CIRCUITS
333
'o
^ (P )
Fig. 7 .8 -2 (a) 7t-model for a device, (b) Equivalent y-model for the device o f Fig. 7.8 2(a). e a c h stage. T h e a m p lifie r illu s tra te d d o e s h a v e a ra n g e o f c o n tr o lle d g a in o f m o r e th a n 10 6 /1. W h e th e r th is w h o le ra n g e is u s a b le is a q u e s tio n we m u st n o w e x a m in e . E v e n if g m is set to z e ro in th e m o d e ls o f F ig . 7 .8 - 2 , th e re m a in in g v o lta g e g a in o f a sin g le sta g e h a s a m a g n itu d e o f l/^/ l c o n d u c ta n c e .
+ [(g0 + G L)/w C 2] 2 w h ere G L is th e lo a d

If C 2 = 1 pF,
F o r la rg e v a lu e s o f to th is te rm a p p r o a c h e s u n ity .
a) = 6 0 x 10^, a n d g 0 + G L = 1 0 0 //mhos, th e n th e r e s u lta n t g a in is 0 .51 r a th e r th a n z e ro . I f tw o s ta g e s a r e c a s c a d e d , th e n th e o v e r a ll g a in d e p e n d s n o t o n ly o n h o w th e g m o f e a c h s ta g e is c o n tr o lle d , b u t a ls o o n th e c o m p o s ite m o d e l. T h e o v e r a ll re su lt is th a t th e c a p a c itiv e fe e d th ro u g h te rm p re v e n ts o n e fro m r e a c h in g th e lo w e r p o r tio n s o f th e c h a r a c t e r is tic o f F ig . 7 .8 - 3 a t h ig h fre q u e n cie s. T h is c a p a c itiv e e ffe ct is re d u ce d in th e s a m e w ay th a t it w as re d u c e d in S e c tio n 7 .6 , t h a t is, by n e u tra liz a tio n . In a lm o s t all A G C c ir c u its , p ro p e r n e u tr a liz a tio n w ill e x te n d th e lo w e r-g a in en d o f th e c u rv e by th e o r d e r o f 2 0 d B . T h e lim it to su c h e x te n s io n s is th e a c c u r a c y o f th e n e u tr a liz a tio n o f a p a r tic u la r stag e. In a d d itio n to th e n o rm a l to le r a n c e p r o b lem s, th e A G C a c tio n is lik e ly to v ary th e in te rn a l fe e d b a c k p a ra m e te r s , an d a t lo w g a in s th e la rg e in p u t sig n a ls p re s e n t m a y e ffe ctiv ely v ary th e s m a ll-s ig n a l m o d e l p a ra m e te rs. In b o th ju n c t i o n a n d M O S F E T s, gm is p r o p o r tio n a l to yJTD\ h e n c e o n e c a n o b ta in gm vs. ^ 1D (o r g vs. Vas - Vn c u rv e s fo r M O S tr a n s is to r s o r gm vs. V Vc cu rv e s fo r ju n c t io n F E T 's ) . In e ith e r c a s e it is p o s s ib le fo r th e m a n u fa c tu re r to b u ild r e m o te -c u to ff " d e v ice s o r fo r th e u ser to p a ra lle l s ev e ra l u n its to o b ta in th is effect. In th e o ry , o n e c a n o b ta in re s u lts s im ila r to th o s e fo r v a cu u m tu b e s, a lth o u g h p r o b a b ly
334
m ix e r s ; r f a n d if am pl ifier s
7 .8
G rid-cathode dc voltage, V Fig. 7 .8 -3

gm
and two-stage gain vs.
Vg k
(vacuum-tube gain-controlled amplifier).
w ith a s o m e w h a t re d u c e d g a te -s o u r c e ran g e . A g a in n e u tr a liz a tio n w ill b e n e c e ss a ry to re a c h th e lo w e r g a in levels. F o r b ip o la r tr a n s is to r s o p e ra te d in th e fre q u e n c y ra n g e w h ere F ig . 7 .8 - 2 is a v alid r e p r e s e n ta tio n ( c o C jr B T
1)
a n d w ith a lo w e n o u g h b ia s c u rr e n t th a t th e e m itte rFor
b a s e tr a n s itio n re g io n c a p a c ita n c e d o m in a te s C t ( C , = C = C B C), g m is p r o p o r tio n a l to I E a n d th u s th e re is a lin e a r r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n g a in a n d e m itte r c u rr e n t. c u rr e n ts b e lo w 1 m A le a d to th e d esire d o p e r a tio n , t t F o r higher currents C , becomes a linearly increasing function o f / ; hence the current gain becomes a "co n stan t as the decrease in the input impedance tends to com pensate for the increase in gm. In addition, the variation o f C , with I E may cause serious detuning problems. m a n y h ig h -fre q u e n c y tr a n s is to r s w ith s m a ll e ffe ctiv e d iffu sio n c a p a c ita n c e s , b ia s
7.8
GAIN CONTROL CIRCUITS A n u m b e r o f o th e r ty p es o f g a in c o n tr o l c ir c u its a re p o s sib le a n d a re in use.
335
A ll tr a n s is to r s h av e a lp h a s a n d b e ta s th a t a re to so m e e x te n t fu n c tio n s o f th e d c b ia s c u rre n t. N o r m a lly th e tr a n s is to r d e s ig n e r trie s to m in im iz e th e s e c h a n g e s ; h o w e v e r, in a n A G C s itu a tio n h e m a y try to u tiliz e th em . O n e a p p r o a c h is re p re s e n te d by th e t e t r o d e tr a n s is to r s , in w h ic h a s e c o n d b a se c o n n e c tio n is ad d e d to th e d ev ice. p o s sib le fo r a
10/1
T h e s e c o n d b a se c u r r e n t n o w c o n t r o ls th e
a lp h a o r b e ta o f th e n o r m a l tra n s is to r . B e ta v a r ia tio n s o f 20/1 o r m o r e sh o u ld b e v a r ia tio n o f c o n tr o l c u rre n t. A s e c o n d a p p r o a c h uses th e fa ct th a t th e g a in o f c e r ta in b ip o la r tr a n s is to r s falls o ff, n o t o n ly a s l E in c re a s e s , b u t a ls o a s Ktb d e c re a s e s , p a rtic u la r ly w hen th e a b s o lu te v alu e o f K n is sm a ll. In su ch tr a n s is to r s (a 2 N 2 4 1 5 a t 7 0 M H z , fo r e x a m p le ), by F o r la rg e r v a lu e s o f A c ir c u it u sin g th is v a ry in g VCB fro m 1.2 V to 2 .5 V (th is is e q u iv a le n t to a 1.3 m A c h a n g e a c r o s s a 1 k f i r e s is to r) o n e c a n c h a n g e th e g a in b y a fa c to r o f 1 0 0 (4 0 d B ). VCB th e g ain w ill b e r e a s o n a b ly in d e p e n d e n t o f
K :b
(o r VCE).
p h e n o m e n o n fo r g a in c o n tr o l p u rp o se s is k n o w n a s a fo rw a rd -a c tin g A G C c irc u it. S in c e v a ria tio n o f VCB, e sp e c ia lly fo r s m a ll'v a lu e s o f th e v a r ia b le -v o lta g e type. A ll b ip o la r g a in c o n t r o l c ir c u its in w h ich l E is v a ried a c tu a lly o p e r a te by m e a n s o f a c o m b in a tio n o f th e m e c h a n is m s o u tlin e d p re v io u s ly p lu s m is m a tc h in g e ffe cts at b o th th e in p u t an d o u tp u t o f th e d ev ice. F ig u r e 7 . 6 - 4 c le a rly in d ic a te s su ch in p u t a n d o u tp u t a d m itta n c e v a r ia tio n s a t 1 0.7 M H z a n d 1 0 0 M H z . A t lo w e r fre q u e n cie s th e v a r ia tio n s in o u tp u t im p e d a n c e m a y b e c o m e less im p o r t a n t ; h o w e v e r, th e v a r ia tio n o f in p u t im p e d a n c e w ith I E c o n tin u e s d o w n to dc. In th e u su al tu n e d a m p lifie r, o n e d o e s n o t w a n t to d ep en d o n m is m a tc h in g fo r g a in c o n tr o l, s in c e m is m a tc h in g a ls o c a u s e s d e tu n in g a n d s e le c tiv ity c h a n g e s ; h e n c e o n e d e lib e ra te ly ta p s th e in p u t a n d o u tp u t tra n s fo rm e r s d o w n to th e p o in t w here th e c irc u it n o t o n ly is s ta b le a n d a lig n a b le b u t is a ls o re la tiv e ly im m u n e to sh ifts in tu n in g ca u sed by A G C a c tio n . T h e g a in s o f c a s c o d e c o n n e c tio n s a re v aried a s a c o m m o n e m itte r sta g e , w h ile th e gm o f th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir c o n fig u r a tio n is c o n tr o lle d by v a ry in g I k. A n o th e r a p p r o a c h to th e A G C o r A V C p ro b le m is to use a s e p a ra te a t te n u a to r s e c tio n o r to sh u n t o n e o f th e tu n e d c ir c u its by a v a ria b le a tte n u a to r . o r a d io d e a t t e n u a t o r a s illu s tra te d in F ig s. 5 .5 - 7 , 5 .5 - 9 , o r 7 . 4 3. In an y c a s e , o n e m u st d eriv e a fe e d b a c k v o lta g e (o r c u rr e n t) to d riv e th e A G C c irc u it fro m th e sig n a l itself. T h is is n o rm a lly d o n e b y m e a n s o f o n e o f th e d e te c to r c ir c u its o f C h a p te r 10. O n e s h o u ld n o te th a t th e d esired r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e A G C v o lta g e (o r c u rr e n t) a n d a n in c re a s e in th e s ig n a l a m p litu d e d e p e n d s o n th e ty p e o f A G C e m p lo y e d . It sh o u ld a ls o b e a p p a r e n t th a t th e d e s ira b le fe a tu re o f a d e la y in th e s ta rt o f g a in re d u c tio n u n til a d esire d m in im u m o u tp u t is o b ta in e d m a y be in c o r p o ra te d e ith e r in th e d e te c to r c ir c u it o r in th e g a in c o n t r o l c irc u it. F o r e x a m p le , b ip o la r c irc u its th a t d ep en d o n a re d u c tio n o f VCB d o n o t p ro d u c e la rg e c h a n g e s in g a in u n til VCB falls b e lo w a b o u t 2.5 to 3 V. H e n c e if Vc c is 9 V , if th e re is a 1.5 k i i P o s s ib ilitie s in clu d e a n F E T o r lig h t-c o n tr o lle d re s is to r a s illu s tra te d in F ig s . 6 .9 - 3 a n d 6 . 9 - 4 c a u s e s a la rg e v a r ia tio n in C B C, it w ill b e d ifficu lt to a c h ie v e n e u tr a liz a tio n w ith fo r w a r d -a c tin g A G C o f
336
m ix e r s ; r f a n d
if a m p l i f i e r s
7 .9
d ro p p in g re s is to r, if VB = 0, a n d if 1EQ = 3 m A , th e n th e first 1 m A c h a n g e in I E w ill n o t c a u s e m u c h c h a n g e in g a in , w h ile th e s e c o n d 1 m A c h a n g e in I E w ill c a u s e a la rg e c h a n g e in th e g ain . It sh o u ld a ls o b e a p p a r e n t th a t, s in c e th e A G C sy ste m is a fe e d b a c k sy ste m , th e lo o p filte rin g m u s t b e p ro p e r ly d esig n e d o r o s c illa tio n s m ig h t o c c u r. sig n a l fro m th e c o n t r o l sig n a l p ath . I n p a rtic u la r, e x c e ssiv e lo w -fre q u e n c y filte rin g m u st n o t b e ad d ed to re m o v e th e m o d u la tio n
7.9 N O IS E , D IS T O R T IO N , AND C R O S S M O D U L A T IO N
N o is e a n d c ro s s m o d u la tio n a re p r o b le m s o n ly in th e e a rly sta g e s o f a r e c e iv e r ; if th e se p ro b le m s a re n o t so lv e d th e re , n o la te r s ta g e c a n c o r r e c t th e m . N o n lin e a r d is to r tio n m a y o c c u r in a n y sta g e , b u t o n c e a d e q u a te filte rin g h a s re m o v e d a n y in te rfe rin g c a r r ie r s , th is ty p e o f d is to r tio n is m o s t lik e ly in th e la s t s ta g e o f th e a m p lifie r w h ere th e sig n a l level is a m a x im u m . T h e te c h n iq u e s o f C h a p te r 4 in d ic a te , fo r v a rio u s d ev ice s, w h at sig n a l lev els a re p o s sib le w ith o u t su ch n o n lin e a r d is to r tio n a n d w h at fo rm it w ill ta k e w h en it o c c u rs. W e sh a ll n o t d is c u ss it fu rth e r h ere. N o is e h a s s ev e ra l p rim e so u rc e s. O n e is th e a n te n n a ; n o ise a rr iv in g fro m th is I f a ll th e e a r lie r s ta g e s o p e r a te s o u rc e m u st b e re m o v e d by a d e q u a te filte rin g .
lin e a rly an d if n o is e te rm s a t a ll th e p o te n tia l in te rfe rin g fre q u e n c ie s a re a d e q u a te ly re m o v e d , th e n th e I F s e le c tiv ity w ill re m o v e th e o u t-o f-b a n d p o r tio n s o f su ch n o ise . T h e se c o n d c o m p o n e n t o f n o ise is in -b a n d n o is e g e n e ra te d in th e re c e iv e r itself. S u c h n o ise is p ro d u c e d in th e F E T , th e b ip o la r tra n s is to r, o r th e v a cu u m tu b e . W h ile ev ery d e v ice h a s its o w n p e c u lia r itie s , th e n o ise n o rm a lly h a s b o th an in p u t c irc u it an d a n o u tp u t c ir c u it c o m p o n e n t a n d it n o rm a lly in c re a se s w ith th e b ia s c u rre n t. In g e n e r a l, a n te n n a n o ise d o m in a te s b e lo w a b o u t 3 0 M H z a n d fro n t-e n d re c e iv e r n o ise d o m in a te s a t h ig h e r fre q u e n cie s. O n e w ay to c o m p a r e a m p lifie rs w ith re s p e ct to th e ir n o isin e s s is by th e n o ise figu re, F : P S ig n a l/ N o ise R a t i o a t In p u t S ig n a l/ N o ise R a t i o a t O u tp u t
F o r a n id eal n o ise le ss a m p lifie r, F is u n ity o r z e ro d B , sin ce th e a m p lifie r a d d s n o n o ise o f its ow n. P r a c t ic a l a m p lifie rs a lw a y s h a v e F > 1. (O b v io u s ly b o th in p u t an d o u tp u t sig n al/ n o ise r a tio s n eed to b e m e a s u re d in the sa m e b a n d w id th ; o th e rw ise , v alu e s o f F a p p a r e n tly less th a n o n e c a n b e o b ta in e d .) In a d d itio n to th e n o ise p ro d u c e d in th e d esire d b a n d itself, b o th a n te n n a a n d re c e iv e r n o ise o u ts id e th e b a n d m a y g et tra n s la te d in to th e b a n d b y d ir e c t m o d u la tio n o f a n a m p lifie r, by c ro s s m o d u la tio n in a n a m p lifie r, o r b y b e in g a t th e a p p r o p r ia te m ix e r in te rfe re n c e p o in t. M o d u la tio n b y lo w -fre q u e n c y n o ise (w h ich is o fte n a n o rd e r o f m a g n itu d e la rg e r th a n in -b a n d n o ise ) is a v o id e d by p ro v id in g a d e q u a te lo w fre q u e n cy b y p a ss in g a n d b y o p e r a tin g th e in itia l a m p lifie r in a lin e a r m a n n e r.
7 .9
NOISE, DISTORTION, AND CROSS MODULATION
337
S in c e th e a m p lifie r n o is e fig u re is r e la te d to th e a m p lifie r s p o w e r g a in , it w ill b e a fu n c tio n o f th e s o u r c e im p e d a n c e see n b y th e d ev ice. N o rm a lly th e re is a lev el o f s o u rc e im p e d a n c e th a t is o p tim u m fro m th e v ie w p o in t o f th e n o ise figu re. F o r t u n a te ly , th is m in im u m in F a s th e s o u r c e im p e d a n c e is v aried is fa irly b r o a d ; h e n c e 2/1 n o is e m is m a tc h in g s h o u ld c a u s e le ss th a n a 1 d B in c re a s e in F . F o r a ju n c t i o n o r M O S tr a n s is to r th e o p tim u m s o u rc e im p e d a n c e is o f th e o rd e r o f 2 k i i , fo r a b ip o la r tr a n s is to r
200
i 2 is a p t to b e m u c h m o r e r e a s o n a b le .
S in c e th e e r r a tic d iv isio n o f c u r r e n t b e tw e e n th e g rid s m a k e s m u ltig rid tu b e s m u c h n o is ie r (p e rh a p s five tim e s n o is ie r), o n e u ses trio d e v a c u u m tu b e s a s R F a m p lifie r s in fre q u e n c y re g io n s w h e re re c e iv e r n o ise is im p o r ta n t. still b e e x e rc ise d h ere. A g o o d R F p e n to d e a t 6 0 M H z m ig h t h a v e a n o p tim u m s o u rc e im p e d a n c e o f 3 k Q a n d a n o ise fig u re o f 4 d B , w h ile th e s a m e tu b e c o n n e c te d a s a trio d e m ig h t h av e a n o p tim u m s o u rc e im p e d a n c e o f 1.4 k Q a n d a n o is e fig u re o f 2 d B . C r o s s m o d u la tio n c a n o c c u r w h e n ev e r th e serie s e x p a n s io n fo r th e o u tp u t c u rr e n t a s a fu n c tio n o f th e in p u t v o lta g e c o n t a in s a c u b ic te rm . F o r e x a m p le , i f th e o u tp u t c u rr e n t o f a n a m p lifie r h a s th e fo rm 'W = /dc + gm!(f) + a 2v2(t) + rt3 i-3 (f), w h ere v(t ) is a s su m e d to h av e th e fo rm v(r) Vl c o s a j 1t + V2[l + m 2f(t)'\ c o s w 2 t [\f(t)\ <
1
O f cou rse, a
g o o d p e n to d e m a y s till b e b e tte r th a n a n o isy trio d e , so d is c r im in a tio n m u st
(7 .9 - 2 )
( 7 .9 - 3 )
a n d th e h ig h e st r a d ia n fre q u e n c ie s in f ( t ) a re m u ch less th a n to, o r ca2],
th e n th e re w ill be o u tp u t te rm s w ith c e n te r fre q u e n c y c! a s sh o w n in E q . ( 7 .9 - 4 ) : LW = {S n ,K + + m 2f ( t i ] 2a 3 } c o s c o ^ ( 7 .9 - 4 )
T h u s ev en if th e o rig in a l sig n a l a t a ), is u n m o d u la te d , a n in te rfe rin g sig n a l a t co2 m ay tra n s fe r its m o d u la tio n to th e d esire d s ig n a l fre q u en cy . I f f (t) = c o s fi2 t, th e n th e tra n s fe rre d m o d u la tio n w ill h a v e s id e b a n d c o m p o n e n ts a t b o th n 2 a n d 2 x2 . I f m 2 is s m a ll e n o u g h , say 0 .1 0 , o n e m ig h t ig n o re th e s e c o n d , h a r m o n ic te rm a n d a s k fo r th e size o f V2 th a t w ou ld c a u s e 1 % s in u s o id a l m o d u la tio n o n th e d esire d c a r r ie r . F r o m E q . ( 7 .9 - 4 ) th is v a lu e w o u ld be V 2 3 m 2 = 0 .0 1 , gm ( 7 .9 - 5 )
w h ich is in d e p e n d e n t o f V , a n d o f co2 - T h u s , u n le ss a 3 ca n b e m a d e v ery s m a ll w ith re s p e c t to gm, a d e q u a te s e le c tiv ity m u st b e p ro v id e d to k e e p V2 a t th e d e v ice in p u t b e lo w th e d esire d level. F o r e x a m p le , if |a3/ g j = 1 a n d m 2 = 0 .1 0 , th e n V2 < 1 8 0 m V . A n id eal F E T a m p lifie r , w ith n o se rie s re s is ta n c e , h as a 3 = 0 a n d h e n c e n o c ro ss m o d u la tio n p ro b le m s . Id e a l d iffe re n tia l p a irs a ls o h av e a 3 = 0 a n d a g a in sh o u ld P r a c tic a l F E T s a n d d iffe re n tia l p a irs w ill h a v e n o n n o t c a u s e c r o s s m o d u la tio n . effects.
z e ro b u t sm a ll v a lu e s fo r a 3 ; h e n c e th e y s h o u ld h av e o n ly v ery s m a ll c r o s s -m o d u la tio n
338
7 .9
T h e c r o s s -m o d u la tio n te r m fo r th e b ip o la r tr a n s is to r c a n b e c a lc u la te d fro m E q . ( 7 .2 - 7 ) i f w e a s s ig n cos to th e d esire d s ig n a l a n d a>0 to th e in te rfe rin g s ig n a l ; th e n ias(t) = 2 I ESe qVdJkTl 0(x )I ,(>) c o s w st, w h ere y = Viq / k T is th e n o rm a liz e d v e rs io n o f th e d e sire d s ig n a l a n d ( 7 .9 - 6 )
.
X
q V z V + / (*)] kT
is th e n o rm a liz e d v e rs io n o f th e u n d e s ire d s ig n a l. F o r s m a ll v a lu e s o f x a n d y we ca n e x p a n d I 0(x) a s /0 (x ) x 1 + ( x 2 /4) a n d / ,(y ) a s / j(y ) y /2 so th a t ^ ( r ) b e c o m e s
I f f ( t ) = m 2 c o s n 2t, th e n fo r s m a ll v a lu e s o f m 2 th e v a lu e o f V2 th a t w ill c a u s e
1
% c r o s s m o d u la tio n o f th e d esire d c a r r ie r is a p p r o x im a te ly l q V 2\2 m 2 < 0 .0 1 . kT I 2 ( 7 .9 - 8 )
F o r m 2 = 0 .1 0 , V2 m u st b e less th a n
8.6
mV.
In a d d itio n to c r o s s m o d u la tio n , th e c u b ic te rm a ls o c a u s e s d is to r tio n o f th e m o d u la tio n o rig in a lly o n th e d e sire d c a rrie r. F o r e x a m p le , if
ii(t) =
+ g W Jc o s a v ,
th e n th e c u b ic te rm c a u s e s a c u rr e n t c o m p o n e n t a t to , o f | K ? {1 + 3 g ( i ) + 3 [g (t ) ] 2 + [g (f)]3 }c o s o j, f . ( 7 .9 - 9 )
O b v io u s ly s u c h a te rm w ill c a u s e d is to r tio n
in a sin g le s in e -w a v e m o d u la tio n a n d
in te r m o d u la tio n in a n y m u ltifre q u e n c y m o d u la tio n . A s a p r a c tic a l m a tte r , 1 % c r o s s m o d u la tio n is b a re ly v is ib le in a te le v isio n p ic tu re a n d e a s ily to le r a b le in v o ic e c o m m u n ic a tio n . W it h 5 % c r o s s m o d u la tio n a te le v isio n p ic tu r e is b a d ly d is to rte d , a lth o u g h v o ic e c o m m u n ic a tio n is s till p o s s ib le w ith o u t u n d u e d ifficu lty .
PRO BLEM S 7.1 Assume a mixer o f the type show n in Fig. 7.2 1(a) with a silicon F E T having IDDS = 4 mA, Vp = 4 V, and an ac bypassed source resistor o f 2 kii. T he oscillator peak voltage is 1.8 V. E valuate the conversion an d am plifier transconductance from the gate-ground term inals to the drain current. F o r an input sinusoidal signal of 1 mV peak am plitude, determ ine the drain cu rren t com ponents at the input signal frequency, at the oscillator frequency, an d at the difference frequency. 7.2 In the m ixer of P roblem 7.1, w hat is the limit on the size of an interfering signal input before nonlinearities result in the transfer o f am plitude m odulation from this signal to the difference frequencies? Explain.
PROBLEMS
339
7.3 C onsider a b ipolar mixer o f the type show n in Fig. 7.2-3. Assuming th a t the dc com ponent o f the em itter cu rren t is 1 mA and th at the oscillator drive voltage (across the em itter side o f the driving transform er) is 100 m V peak, determ ine Gc and Gm. Assum ing that the input signal has a peak am plitude of 2 mV, evaluate the collector current com ponent a t the signal, the oscillator, and the difference frequencies. 7.4 Estim ate the effect on the results for the mixer of Problem 7.3 of adding an unbypassed 20 Q resistor in series w ith the tra n sisto rs em itter while leaving all other quantities unchanged.
R eso n an t at
3x10* rad/sec
v(/) = 4Vcos 9 x 10*/

Figure 7 .P -1
7.5 Estim ate the conversion transconductance of the mixer show n in Fig. 7.P-1. Use the same transistor p aram eters as in P roblem 7.1. The oscillator peak voltage is 4 V. 7.6 C onsider the differential-pair mixer show n in Fig. 7.4-4. H ow large can V, be w ithout introducing m ore th an 7 % second-harm onic d istortion in Ik (assum ing a pure sine-wave drive from the V, cos co0t generator)? W hy is it desirable to keep the second-harm onic com ponent in Ik sm all? W hy is it desirable th a t the voltage-current characteristic o f the differential pair be sym m etrical? 7.7 F o r the mixer circuits show n in Fig. 7.P-2, show th a t the equivalent linear loading the tran sisto r places across the input-tuned circuit is given by
Ggp
1 + 0
In
I q( x )
qV J kT '
w here Vx = VEE- V0, x = qVJkT, and g in = qIEQ /kT. 7.8 F or the mixer circuit shew n in Fig. 7 .P -3, determ ine an expression for t)0(i) for th e case where g(r) = (1 mV)[l + mf(t)], a>s = 9 x 107 rad/sec, an d the outp u t-tu n ed circuit has sufficient bandw idth to pass the m odulation. (Assume Q i , Q i , and Q 3 to be identical an d th a t a ^ 'l . l
340
7.9
F o r the converter show n in Fig. 7.P -4, determ ine an expression for t;0(r). Justify all assum ptions. ws = 9 x 107.
7.10 F o r the front e n d show n in Fig. 7.P -5, determ ine an expression for vjt). Justify all assum ptions an d d o n o t neglect the loading of L 2 by Q , (cf. P roblem 7.7). Assume that L6C 6 passes the m odulation. At the frequencies o f operation, transistor reactances are negligible. 7.11 A nonlinear device has an input v o ltag e-o u tp u t current transfer characteristic given by i'o = a0 + a t v, + a2vj + a 4vÎf v t = t> s(i) cos a>st + V, cos a>0r, w here |us(i)l v show th at the voltage-controlled transconductance o f such a device for vs cos cost is given by g J K , cos w Q t) = a , + 2a2V, cosa>0t + 4 a J Vx cos a>0f)3. Also show th at the conversion transconductance between cos and a>0 w s is given by G = a 2Vt + 3/2 a 4 V],
PROBLEMS
341
Figure 7 .P - 3
7.12 It is possible to choose an IF frequency at either a>0 + cos or |<w 0 oij. Explain in term s of the local oscillator tuning com plexity why |co0 a>s| is alm ost always chosen for the interm ediate frequency. 7.13 Show th at for the A VC circuit of Fig. 7. P -6 the envelope detector o u tp u t is given by
v rC O
0 1
Also show th at the envelope detector o u tp u t approaches

K co[l + mf(t)]
for A 0 Vi | Vm\. In this case the o u tp u t level o f the envelope detector is insensitive to input variations. 7.14 W ith the assum ption th at the m odulation is n o t fed around the AVC loop o f Problem 7.13, show th a t the poles of the closed-loop system are given by the roots of
Ko ~ = o,
342
m ix e r s ; r f a n d if am plifiers
where H lFL(p) is the low -pass equivalent transfer function o f the IF filter and H,(p) is the transfer function of the low-pass filter. U sing a three-pole IF filter, show by m eans of a root locus plo t how oscillations are possible as A 0 V\IVm is increased to provide an o u tp u t level w hich is insensitive to input-level variations. Show also how increasing the RC time constant of H L(p) reduces the possibility o f oscillations at the expense of a sluggish A VC loop. 7.15 A simplified version of a 10.7 M H z IF amplifier is show n in Fig. 7.P-7. The transistor is a 2N918 biased at 2 mA w ith = 10 V. At the collector, the adm ittance seen by the tra n sistor consists o f a parallel co m bination o f 8 kO, 3 /H, and C, where C t is to be adjusted, in conjunction with C 22 o f the transistor, so as to produce resonance at 67 x 106 rad/sec.
20 V
Figure 7 .P -4
PROBLEMS
343
Figure 7 .P -5
C hoose values of input conductance and susceptance (to be presented at the base tap) so th at the overall base adm ittance will be real at w = 67 x 106 rad/sec and so that the alignability factor at this point will be 0.15. D o the num erical values that result seem realistic? Explain. 7.16 R edistribute the loss between the input and o u tp u t circuits of Problem 7.15 so that the bandw idths are roughly equal and neither Q is larger than 30, while at the sam e time keeping k < 0.15. Sketch the shape of the bandpass (to the 3 d B points) that would be seen at the base circuit under this new arrangem ent. (Assume a current source for the signal supply a t the base term inals.) 7.17 Reexamine P roblem 7.16 assum ing th at a 0.9 p F neutralizing capacitor is properly connected (via a unity voltage gain arrangem ent) across the transistor. 7.18 F or the circuit of P roblem 7.17, find the effect on the base circuit passband of varying the dc em itter current to 1 mA an d then to 3 mA, while leaving all circuit com ponents at the values found for the 2 mA case.
344
m ix e r s ; r f a n d if a m plifiers
Low-pass filter removes modulation Figure 7 .P -6
Figure 7 .P -7
APPEND IX TO CHAPTER 7
C O M P A R IS O N S
O F
^ -P A R A M E T E R S
F O R
B IP O L A R
T R A N S IS T O R S : S IN G L E -E N D E D , D IF F E R E N T IA L -P A IR , AND CASCO D E
If o n e a s su m e s th a t id e n tic a l tr a n s is to r s a re u sed in a ll th re e c o n fig u r a tio n s , if o n e n e g le c ts v a rio u s p a r a s itic r e a c ta n c e s a n d re s is ta n c e s , a n d i f o n e a s su m e s sim p lifie d m o d e ls fo r th e tr a n s is to r s , th e n o n e c a n c a lc u la te th e y -p a r a m e te r s fo r e a c h c a s e in
a relatively straightforward fashion. The purpose of this appendix is not to do this

a lg e b r a , b u t m e re ly to p o in t o u t th e a p p r o x im a te c o m p a r a tiv e v a lu e s to b e e x p e c te d fro m th e th re e c a se s . S in c e th e y -p a r a m e te r s a re a fu n c tio n o f fre q u e n c y a n d sin ce w e a r e o n ly try in g to g iv e o r d e r -o f-m a g n itu d e re s u lts, o n e m u st n o t a tte m p t to ap p ly th e se re su lts to p re c is e c o m p a r is o n s b e tw e e n c irc u its . I f w e a s su m e e q u a l p o w e r-s u p p ly c u r r e n ts fo r a ll th re e c o n fig u r a tio n s , th e n th e d iffe re n tia l-p a ir tr a n s is to r s e a c h h a v e o n ly h a l f th e d c c u rr e n t o f a ll o th e r t r a n s is to rs , h e n c e th e ir v a lu e s fo r r E w ill b e d o u b le d a n d th e ir v a lu e s fo r g m w ill b e h alv ed . In a d d itio n , th o u g h th e ir v a lu e s fo r a lp h a o r b e ta m a y b e c h a n g e d , we sh a ll ig n o r e su ch c h a n g e s. W ith th e s e a s s u m p tio n s a n d th e r e a liz a tio n th a t fro m th e s m a ll-s ig n a l v ie w p o in t th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir c o n s is ts o f a n e m itte r fo llo w e r d riv in g a c o m m o n b a s e sta g e , w h ile th e c a s c o d e c o n n e c t io n c o n s is ts o f a c o m m o n e m itte r s ta g e d riv in g a c o m m o n b a s e sta g e , w e c a n m a k e th e c o m p a r is o n s sh o w n in T a b le 7 .A -1 .
Table 7.A 1 D ifferential p air com pared to com m on em itter stage with twice the dc bias current of each transistor o f the differ ential pair >u 1/4 1/30 to 1/200 1/4 1 to 1/3 C ascode connection com pared to com m on em itter stage with the same dc bias current
yi2 > 21
>221
1 1/200 to 1/2000 1 1 to 1/3
t F or u> C B Er BB 1, y 21 s pCs c( 1 + g mr B B ), while for the two configurations with common base output stages it is approxim ately p C B c . (Ideally the cascode case should have an even smaller y 2 2 ', in practice, parasitic term s tend to keep it from being much smaller.) In s p e c tio n o f th e re su lts in T a b le 7 .6 - 2 w ill in d ic a te th a t th e re s u lts sh o w n in T a b le 7 .A -1 a re g e n e r a lly s im ila r t o th o s e r e p o rte d e a rlie r . T h e y n re s u lts fo r th e
345
346
d iffe re n tia l p a ir a n d th e c a s c o d e c o n n e c tio n sh o w th e e x p e c te d 4/1 d iffe r e n tia l; h o w e v e r y t , fo r th e s in g le -e n d e d s ta g e (n o t th e sa m e t r a n s is to r in th is c a s e ) is c o n s id e ra b ly s m a lle r th a n th e c a s c o d e v a lu e . T h is im p lie s t h a t th e 2 N 9 1 8 u sed fo r th e sin g le -e n d e d e x a m p le is a b e t t e r h ig h -fre q u e n c y t r a n s is to r th a n th o s e u sed in th e C A 3 0 0 5 in t h a t it h a s a s m a lle r to t a l in p u t c a p a c ita n c e (b y a f a c to r o f a b o u t fo u r) a n d a h ig h e r b e ta (b y a fa c to r o f a b o u t th re e ). T h e s e c o n c lu s io n s fo llo w fr o m th e fa c t th a t, o v e r th e ra n g e o f fre q u e n c ie s b e in g c o n s id e r e d , th e c o m m o n e m itte r s ta g e h a s a n in p u t a d m itta n c e y n ~ S b 'c + P (C B'c + C b e ) d e p e n d in g o n o n e s c h o ic e o f n o ta tio n . or J>11 g + P (C B'c + C n),
CHAPTER 8
A M P L IT U D E M O D U L A T IO N
8.1 A M P L IT U D E M O D U L A T IO N SIG N A LS
I f th e a m p litu d e , fre q u e n c y , o r p h a s e o f a h ig h -fre q u e n c y sin u s o id is fo rc e d to v ary in p r o p o r tio n to a d esire d lo w -fre q u e n c y s ig n a l f ( t ) , a m o d u la te d sig n a l is g e n e ra te d w h o se fre q u e n c y s p e c tru m is c o n c e n tr a te d in th e v ic in ity o f th e fre q u e n cy o f th e u n m o d u la te d h ig h -fre q u e n c y sin u so id . T h e m o d u la te d sig n a l, u n lik e th e m o d u la tio n f ( t ) , m a y b e fre q u e n c y -d iv is io n m u ltip le x e d w ith o th e r s im ila rly m o d u la te d sig n a ls a t d iffe re n t c e n te r fre q u e n c ie s (cf. C h a p te r s 3 a n d 7 ) ; it c a n a ls o b e tra n s m itte d e ffic ie n tly b y a n te n n a s n o t n e a rly so la rg e a s th o s e w h ic h w o u ld b e re q u ire d to tra n s m it / (f) d ire c tly . S p e c ific a lly , i f f ( t ) w e re a s in g le to n e a t a fre q u e n c y o f 1 k H z , a
3
w a v e le n g th
a n te n n a to tr a n s m it f ( t ) in to th e a tm o s p h e r e w o u ld b e 7 5 k m lo n g , w h e re a s if / (f) m o d u la te d a 1 0 0 M H z sin u s o id th e c o r r e s p o n d in g a n te n n a le n g th w o u ld b e o n ly | m. In th is c h a p te r w e c o n s id e r c ir c u its th a t c a n a m p litu d e -m o d u la te a s in u s o id a l c a r r i e r ; in C h a p te r 11 w e sh a ll fo c u s o u r a tte n tio n o n c ir c u its w h ic h m o d u la te the fre q u e n c y a n d p h a s e o f a s im ila r c a rrie r. T h e n in C h a p te r s 1 0 a n d 12 re sp e ctiv e ly , we e x a m in e th e te c h n iq u e s by w h ic h a m p litu d e - a n d fre q u e n c y -m o d u la te d c a rrie rs a re p ro c e ss e d to r e c o v e r / (i) a t th e re c e iv e r. A ty p ic a l a m p litu d e -m o d u la te d c a r r ie r h a s th e fo rm u(r) = A[\ + m f(t )] c o s (a>0r + 0 o) = g(r) c o s (a>0 r + 0 o), ( 8 .1 1)
w h ere A is th e c a r r ie r a m p litu d e , m is th e m o d u la tio n in d ex , / (f) is a s ig n a l w h ich is p r o p o r tio n a l to th e m o d u la tio n in fo r m a tio n a n d w h ic h h a s th e p ro p e rtie s

1/(01
max
= 1
and
7 ( 0
= o,
(8 . 1 -
(o0 is th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y , 0 O is th e c a r r ie r p h a s e a n g le (w h ich is u su a lly c h o s e n a s z e ro w ith o u t l o s s 'o f g e n e r a lity ), a n d g (i) = A [ l + m f (t )] is th e e n v e lo p e fu n c tio n o f th e A M w ave. F o r th e c a s e w h e re g(t ) > 0 fo r a ll tim e , o r e q u iv a le n tly m < 1 (w h ich w e re fe r to a s no rm a l A M ), g (i) fo rm s th e u p p e r e n v e lo p e o f v(t ) w h ile - g(t) fo rm s th e lo w e r e n v e lo p e o f u(r), a s illu s tra te d in F ig . 8 .1 - 1 . F o r n o r m a l A M th e m o d u la tio n in d e x c a n b e o b ta in e d d ir e c tly fr o m th e w a v e fo rm o f v(t) b y m e a n s o f th e r e la tio n s h ip
m -
(8.1-3)
w h e re C is th e m a x im u m p e a k -to -p e a k v a lu e o f v(t) a n d B is th e m in im u m p e a k -to p e a k v alu e o f v(t). O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f g(f) d o e s n o t re m a in p o s itiv e fo r a ll tim e ,
347
348
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
8.1
g(t) not always greater than zero

(b ) F ig . 8 . 1 - 1 T y p i c a l A M s i g n a l s f o r w h i c h ( a ) g( t ) > 0 f o r a l l t i m e a n d (b ) g ( t ) d o e s n o t r e m a i n
g r e a t e r t h a n z e r o f o r a ll tim e .
|g(i)| a n d - |g(r)| fo r m th e u p p e r a n d lo w e r e n v e lo p e s o f v(t) re s p e c tiv e ly , a s illu s tra te d in F ig . 8 .1 - 1 . F o r th is c a s e m c a n n o lo n g e r b e o b ta in e d fro m E q . (8 .1 - 3 ) . A s w e sh a ll see in C h a p te r 10, o n ly n o r m a l A M c a n b e d e m o d u la te d b y s im p le e n v e lo p e d e m o d u la to r s (o r d e te c to rs ). I n a ll o th e r c a s e s s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n , w h ic h is m u c h m o r e c o m p lic a te d t o im p le m e n t, m u st b e e m p lo y e d . C o n s e q u e n tly a lm o s t a ll c o m m e r c ia l A M s ta tio n s tr a n s m it n o r m a l A M to k e e p th e re c e iv e r a s s im p le a s p o ssib le . A s d e riv e d in C h a p t e r 3 , th e F o u r i e r tr a n s fo r m K(co) o f v(t) h a s th e fo r m
I 'M =
i[G (c t) +
a>0 ) +
G (f t) -
a0 ) ] ,
(8 -1 -4 )
w h e re G(oj) = A [2n{u>) + m F (a j)] is th e F o u r ie r tr a n s fo r m o f g(f) a n d F(tu ) is th e F o u r ie r tr a n s fo r m o f f ( t ) . A s k e tc h o f |F(oj)| vs. a> is a g a in p re s e n te d in F ig . 8 . 1 - 2 fo r th e c a s e w h e re F (a >) a n d in tu rn G(co) a re b a n d -lim ite d to com < co0. A s illu s tra te d in th e fig u re , th e p o r tio n o f th e s p e c tru m ly in g a b o v e to0 is re fe rre d to a s th e u p p e r s id e b a n d o f =
0
w h e re a s th e p o r tio n o f th e s p e c tru m ly in g b e lo w co0 (a n d a b o v e
) is re fe rre d to a s th e lo w e r s id e b a n d o f K(eo).
8. 1
AMPLITUDE MODULATION SIGNALS
349
|G M l
1
dc component
1
f -Olm
"
(* ) >
|G(w -a*,) | 2 I T l
|K(W)|
^ /C a rrie r
A G(u>~ iq) I
w0 < M * ~<uo
w0+u),
oj0
to
(jj0 f
Upper sideband
Lower sideband
Fig. 8 .1 -2 Frequency spectrum o f y(i).
I f a n o r m a l A M s ig n a l v(t) is p la ce d a c r o s s a 1 Q re s is to r, th e p o w e r d eliv ered to th e re s is to r is g iv e n b y f /) i ii = /l c o s 2 co0 f [ l + 2 m f(t ) + m 2 f = A 2 c o s 2 u>0 t[ 1 + m 2 f 2(t )] A2 = T A 2m 2 + f{t) ( 8 .1 - 5 )

2 (f)]
= P C + P m,
w h ere P c = A 22 is th e c a r r ie r p o w e r, P m = ( A 2m 2/ 2 ) f 2{t ) is th e m o d u la tio n p o w e r, a n d f 2 d e n o te s th e tim e a v e ra g e o f f 2 o r e q u iv a le n tly th e m e a n s q u a re v a lu e o f f ( t ) . S in c e |/(f)| < 1, th e n f 2(t) < 1 ; h e n c e th e c a r r ie r p o w e r is g r e a te r th a n o r e q u a l to th e m o d u la tio n p o w e r (o r th e s id e b a n d p o w e r) e v en w ith m = c o s u>mt a n d m =
1
(1
0 0
% m o d u la tio n ).
F o r e x a m p le , i f / (f) = c o s a>mt a n d m = 1, th e n / 2 (f) = \ a n d P c = 2 P m. I f f ( t ) = th e m o d u la tio n p o w e r h a s d e c re a s e d to o n e -e ig h th o f th e c a r r ie r p ow er. F o r e ffic ie n t tra n s m is s io n o f n o r m a l A M , it is c le a r t h a t w e w a n t th e m o d u la tio n in d ex to b e a s c lo s e to u n ity a s p o s sib le . B e c a u s e o f th e la rg e a m o u n t o f c a r r ie r p o w e r, w h ich c a r r ie s n o in fo rm a tio n , th a t m u st b e tra n s m itte d in a n o rm a l A M sig n a l, th e c a r r ie r is s o m e tim e s re m o v e d (o r n o t g e n e ra te d in th e first p la c e ) b e fo re tr a n s m ittin g th e A M sig n al. T h e re su lt is a su p p ressed c a r r ie r A M s ig n a l o f th e fo rm
A'
v(t) = A m / (f) c o s co0t = g(f) c o s (u 0 (f), (8 . 1 6 )
w h ere g(f) = A f ( t ) an d g(f) = 0. In th e tim e d o m a in a su p p ressed c a r r ie r sig n a l h a s th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig .

8
.1 --1 (b), w h e re a s in th e fre q u e n c y d o m a in th e s p e c tru m is
+ In evaluating P |fl we use the relationships A + B = A + B and AB = AB. relationship is valid only if A and B are independent as / (r) and cos a > 0t are.
The second
350
8.1
id e n tic a l w ith th a t sh o w n in F ig . 8 . 1 - 2 e x c e p t th a t th e im p u ls e s a t c o 0 a re a b s e n t. T h e p ric e th a t m u s t b e p a id fo r th e re d u c e d p o w e r a t th e tr a n s m itte r is in c re a se d re c e iv e r c o m p le x ity . S t ill a fu r th e r s a v in g in tra n s m itte d p o w e r, a s w ell a s a r e d u c tio n in th e fre q u e n cy s p e c tru m , c a n b e a c h ie v e d b y re m o v in g th e u p p e r o r lo w e r s id e b a n d o f a su p p ressed c a r r ie r A M s ig n a l to fo rm a s in gle-sid eb a n d A M sig n al. A filte rin g te c h n iq u e , to fo rm a s in g le -s id e b a n d sig n a l, illu s tra te d in F ig . 8 .1 - 3 , is ju s tifie d b y th e fa c t th a t a ll th e in fo r m a tio n n e c e s s a ry to r e c o n s tr u c t g (t) is c o m p le te ly c o n ta in e d in th e p o s itiv e (o r n e g a tiv e ) p o r t io n o f G(a>). I f g (t) is re a l (w h ic h it a lw a y s is), th e n G (qj) = G *( oj). Sideband
filter
(0
H(jw)
^ SSB (0
v(0=g<f) cosou0(0 |G(w+w0)| 2 \ ; 1 1 K(tu) | |G(tiuo)|
2 V V
-Md- w , <*'0 - 'o+H , cqw, w0 ai0 +<jj, 1 1 Uppersideband filter -Wo Uppersideband K M | SSB J 1 < *k> < M ) 1H Lowersideband |(/w )| filter A
Cl 'n w 0
+o j,
- w 0.
u> 0
1
1 Lower1sideband 1 SSB r v O J q
|K s(i)|
U Q
n -O JmCQ
Fig. 8.1 - 3 G eneration o f upper and lower single-sideband signals.
8.1
AMPLITUDE MODULATION SIGNALS
351
Therefore, the positive and negative portions of G( a>) contain identical in f o r m a t i o n ;

i.e., th e n e g a tiv e s p e c tru m c a n b e c o m p le te ly c o n s tr u c te d i f th e p o s itiv e s p e c tru m is kn o w n . T o e v a lu a te a n e x p r e s s io n fo r th e s in g le -s id e b a n d sig n a l vSSB in th e tim e d o m a in , we o b ta in th e in v e rse F o u r ie r tra n s fo rm o f giv en by G(o) + a>0 ) K;SB(w )
w h ich fo r u p p e r-sid e b a n d S S B is
G(a> a>0 ) M > (8 .1 - 7 )
lo , A ssu m in g th a t g (i) is b a n d -lim ite d to a>m 0 , we o b ta in
| C | < w 0.
ssb M - 2- J
1 G(co
+ c%
e 1 ' doj +
G(<o -
oiQ ) e^ d o )
G (w )
e ian dm
COS O)0t
2
\ I h f
2
G^
' do}
]
( 8 . 1- 8 )
sin co.
[ j:
G(a>)( j sg n oj)eJl"' da>
g(0
COS OJrtt
g(0 sin
oj)]
u>0 t,
w h ere g(t) = &
i [G (oj)( j sgn
is re fe rre d t o a s th e H ilb e r t tr a n s fo r m o f g(t)
a n d sgn co is g iv en by
1
oj
> = <
0 0 0
, , . ( 8 .1 - 9 )
sg n
oj
0,
oj
- 1,
oj
In a similar fashion, lower-sideband SSB can be shown to have the form
WO fu n c tio n H H1(ja j) = y 's g n c j.
c ii)
~ Y
c o s u>0t
sin U)0t.
(8.1 - 1 0 )
N o te t h a t g ( 0 is o b ta in e d b y p la c in g g(t) th r o u g h a lin e a r filte r h a v in g th e tra n s fe r T h e filte r //HT(ya>), w h ic h is re fe rre d to a s a H ilb e r t p h a se c h a r a c te r is tic sh o w n in F ig . 8 .1 -4 . tra n s fo rm e r , h a s th e m a g n itu d e a n d
C le a r ly by sh iftin g a ll th e p o s itiv e fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n ts o f g (f) b y 7t/ 2 w e o b ta in
g(0In a d d itio n to c h a r a c te r iz in g S S B in th e tim e d o m a in , E q s . ( 8 .1 - 8 ) a n d ( 8 .1 - 1 0 ) su g g e st a n a lte r n a tiv e m e th o d o f g e n e r a tin g S S B w h ic h is s h o w n in b lo c k d ia g ra m
352
AMPLITUDE MODULATION \HhA M
S.l
arg Hm(jw) n 2 Hilbert transformer n 2

Fig. 8 .1 -4 fo rm in F ig . 8 .1 - 5 . P lot o f magnitude and phase o f the H ilbert transformer.
ou
H e re g(t) is s u p p r e s s e d -c a rrie r-m o d u la te d (o r m u ltip lie d ) by
c o s ojnt w h ile g (f) is s u p p r e s s e d -c a rrie r-m o d u la te d b y s in c u 0 i. T h e re s u lta n t su m (o r d iffe re n c e ) y ie ld s E q . ( 8 .1 - 8 ) o r E q . ( 8 .1 -1 0 ). A lth o u g h th e b lo c k d ia g ra m o f F ig . 8 .1 - 5 a p p e a rs t o b e a v e ry r e a s o n a b le m e th o d o f g e n e r a tin g S S B , it e n c o u n te r s th e s e v e re p r a c tic a l p ro b le m t h a t th e H ilb e r t tr a n s fo rm e r is a n o n r e a liz a b le filte r (its im p u ls e re s p o n s e h HT(t) = l /n t is n o n c a u sa l). C o n s e q u e n tly its re s p o n s e m a y a t b e s t b e a p p r o x im a te d o n ly o v e r a re a s o n a b ly n a r ro w b a n d o f fre q u e n c ie s. p h a se o f th e fo rm \ +
0
I n a d d itio n , s u c h a p p r o x im a tio n s u su a lly p ro d u c e a
M ,
w h ic h m u s t b e c o m p e n s a te d fo r b y p la c in g g(t) th r o u g h a filte r w ith c o n s ta n t m a g n i tu d e a n d w ith a p h a s e o f 0(co) b e fo re m u ltip ly in g it b y c o s a > 0 t. In g e n e ra l, n o re a lly s a tis fa c to r y S S B m o d u la to r s o f th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 8 . 1 - 5 h a v e b e e n p ro d u c e d .
M ultiplier
F ig. 8.1 - 5
A lternative m eth od o f generating a single sideband.
8.2
AMPLITUDE MODULATION TECHNIQUES
353
E v e n d ir e c t s id e b a n d filte rin g o f su p p re sse d c a r r ie r A M t o p ro d u c e S S B h a s its p r a c tic a l lim ita tio n s . I t is a d ifficu lt m a tte r to d e sig n a s id e b a n d filte r w h ic h c u ts F o r S S B v o ic e m o d u la tio n , m e c h a n ic a l, o ff s u fficie n tly ra p id ly to a tte n u a te o n e s id e b a n d w h ile n o t d is to r tin g th e o th e r s id e b a n d e ith e r in m a g n itu d e o r in p h ase . c r y s ta l, o r c e r a m ic b a n d p a s s filte rs a re u su a lly e m p lo y e d to re m o v e th e u n d esired s id e b a n d (S e e F ig . 7 .6 - 1 fo r a n e x a m p le ). E v e n th o u g h th e s e filte rs h a v e c o n s id e r a b le rip p le in m a g n itu d e a s w ell a s s ig n ific a n t n o n lin e a r ity in p h a s e in th e p a s sb a n d , th e ir e ffe ct o n th e in te llig ib ility o f a v e ra g e s p e e c h is n e g lig ib le. F o r o th e r fo rm s o f m o d u la tio n th e s id e b a n d filte r u su a lly h a s t o b e h a n d -ta ilo r e d to th e m o d u la tio n to m in im iz e d is to rtio n . In a ll c a s e s , h o w e v e r, th e s h a rp c u to ff re q u ire d o f t h e b a n d p a s s s id e b a n d filte r is p o s s ib le o n ly i f th e filte r c e n te r fre q u e n c y is n o t t o o h ig h (th e re q u ire d Q o f th e tu n e d c ir c u its in th e filte r t o m a in ta in a fix e d B W is d ir e c tly p r o p o r tio n a l to a)0). C o n s e q u e n tly , in a lm o s t a ll S S B tr a n s m itte r s , th e in fo r m a tio n is s u p p r e s s e d -c a rrie rm o d u la te d a t a r e a s o n a b ly lo w c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y (5 0 k H z to 5 0 0 k H z fo r v o ic e m o d u la tio n ) w h e re s id e b a n d filte rin g is a c c o m p lis h e d , a n d th e n th e re s u lta n t S S B sig n a l is h e te ro d y n e d to th e d esire d c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y co0 . In a d d itio n t o th e c o m p lic a tio n s th a t S S B c r e a te s a t th e tr a n s m itte r , its d e m o d u la tio n is p o s s ib le o n ly b y s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n , w h ic h re q u ire s a re fe re n c e o s c illa to r a t th e ra d ia n fre q u e n c y co0 . S in c e it is im p o s s ib le to d eriv e th is fre q u e n c y fro m th e S S B sig n a l itse lf, a s m a ll p ilo t c a r r ie r is u su a lly tra n s m itte d a lo n g w ith th e S S B sig n a l to p ro v id e th e re fe re n c e a t th e re c e iv e r. T h e d e m o d u la tio n o f S S B w ill b e p u r su ed in m o r e d e ta il in C h a p te r 10. In th e s u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s o f th is c h a p te r we sh a ll c o n s id e r th e th e o r e tic a l m e th o d s by w h ic h a m p litu d e m o d u la tio n (o r m u ltip lic a tio n o f tw o sig n a ls) m a y b e a c c o m p lis h e d . W e sh a ll th e n e x a m in e s o m e p r a c tic a l c ir c u its w h ic h im p le m e n t th e th e o r e tic a l m e th o d s .
8.2 A M P L IT U D E M O D U L A T IO N T E C H N IQ U E S I n th is s e c tio n w e in v e s tig a te th e th e o r e tic a l m e th o d s b y w h ic h w e c a n m u ltip ly o r m o d u l a te c o s a>0 t b y g(t) to o b ta i n th e A M s ig n a l

v{t) = g(t) c o s w 0 t = A [1 + m f (t)] c o s co0t. ( 8 .2 - 1 )
In g e n e ra l, th e r e a r e f o u r b a s ic m e th o d s b y w h ic h a m p litu d e m o d u l a ti o n c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d :
a) b) a n a lo g m u ltip lic a tio n , c h o p p e r m o d u la tio n ,
c)
d)
n o n lin e a r d e v ic e m o d u l a ti o n , a n d
d ir e c t tu n e d -c ir c u it m o d u la tio n .
A s w e s h a ll see, a ll th e s e m e th o d s c a n b e e m p lo y e d to g e n e r a te n o r m a l A M , w h e re a s o n ly d ir e c t a n a lo g m u ltip lic a tio n a n d c h o p p e r m o d u la tio n c a n b e e m p lo y e d to g e n e ra te su p p ressed c a r r ie r A M . In a d d itio n , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e d ir e c t tu n e d c ir c u it m o d u la to r , m o d u la tio n is a c c o m p lis h e d a t lo w p o w e r le v e ls a n d a m p lifie d
354
8.2
(c la s s B see S e c tio n 4 .2 a n d 9 .2 ) t o th e d esire d o u tp u t level. T h e d ir e c t tu n e d -c ir c u it m o d u la to r d ir e c tly m o d u la te s th e a m p litu d e o f a h ig h -p o w e r c a r r ie r w h ich h a s b e e n a m p lifie d b y m o r e e ffic ie n t c la s s C a m p lifie r s t o th e d esire d level.
Analog Modulation
A n a lo g m o d u la tio n (o r m u ltip lic a tio n ) is a c c o m p lis h e d in a n y d ev ice w h o se o u tp u t
0
o(r)] is d ir e c tly p r o p o r tio n a l t o tw o in p u ts [i>,(f) a n d i>2 ( 0 ], th a t is, v(t) = K v i (t)v2{t). ( 8 .2 2
C le a rly , i f v t(t) = c o s oo0 t a n d v2(t ) = g(f)> th e n v0(t) = K g ( t ) c o s u>0 t, w h ic h is th e d esire d A M w av e. I n s u c h d e v ice s n o th e o r e tic a l lim ita tio n s e x ist ; h o w e v e r, p ra c tic a l d e v ice lim ita tio n s u su a lly im p o s e 'lim it s o n b o th th e a m p litu d e a n d fre q u e n cy o f v t (t), v2(t), a n d v0(t) in o r d e r to m a in ta in th e v a lid ity o f E q . (8 .2 -2 ). A n a lo g m o d u la tio n c a n a ls o b e a c c o m p lis h e d w ith tw o s q u a re -la w d ev ice s a s
Fig. 8.2-1
sh o w n in F ig . 8 .2 - 1 . g iv en by
A nalog m o d u lato r constructed with two square-law devices.

In th is s y s te m th e o u tp u t o f th e to p s q u a re -la w d e v ice , v3 , is
v3 = K g {v 2 i + 2 v iv 2 + vl)-, th e o u tp u t o f th e b o tto m s q u a re -la w d e v ice , v4 , is g iv en by v4 = K giv ] 2 v tv2+ v l).
( 8 .2 - 3 )
( 8 .2 - 4 )
T h e sy ste m o u tp u t v = v3 v4 is th u s g iv e n by v0{t) = 4 K sV l(t)v2(t), w h ich is th e fo rm o f th e o u tp u t o f a n a n a lo g m o d u la to r. I f th e s q u a re -la w d e v ice s a r e h a lf s q u a r e la w r a th e r th a n fu ll s q u a r e law , i.e., if fK s t;? , 1 0, Vi > 0 , Vj < 0 , } ( 8 .2 - 5 )
th e n t;, + v2 a n d v , v 2 m u st b e c o n s tr a in e d t o b e g r e a te r th a n z e ro t o p ro d u c e th e
8 .2 d e sire d o u tp u t. T h u s if
355
= A [ 1 + m f{t)] a n d v2 = Kj c o s co0 i> w h e re f ( t ) is th e

8
m o d u la tio n in fo r m a tio n (cf. E q .
.1 - 2 ) , th e n
Vo(0 = 4 K s F i/ 4[l + m f(t)] c o s coQ t, p ro v id e d th a t ,4(1 m ) V x > 0 o r e q u iv a le n tly
( 8 .2 - 7 )
<< 1 I -------Vl m A
( 8 :2 - 8 )
S in c e Vx > 0 , w e o b s e r v e th a t, w ith h a lf-s q u a re -la w d ev ice s in th e c ir c u it o f F ig .

8 .2
1,
th e m o d u la tio n in d e x is c o n s tr a in e d t o b e le ss th a n u n ity a n d th u s th e c irc u it
c le a rly c a n n o t b e u sed to g e n e r a te s u p p re sse d c a r r ie r A M . E v e n th o u g h th e c ir c u it d o e s n o t p ro d u c e a 1 0 0 % m o d u la te d A M w av e (w h ich is d e s ira b le fo r e ffic ie n t tra n s m is s io n ), th e m o d u la tio n in d ex a t th e o u tp u t c a n be in c re a s e d b y s u b tr a c tin g s o m e o f th e e x c e s s c a r r ie r fro m th e u n d e rm o d u la te d sig n al. T h is te c h n iq u e is re fe rre d to a s c a r r ie r can cella tio n . F o r e x a m p le , i f w e s u b tra c t D c o s o>0 t fro m v(t) --- A [ 1 + m f(t)] c o s co0t, w e o b ta in v(t) in th e fo rm m1 (8 .2 - 9 )
fro m w h ic h it is a p p a r e n t th a t we c a n in c re a s e th e re s u lta n t m o d u la tio n in d ex m' to u n ity b y c h o o s in g D s u c h th a t {A D )/A = m o r D /A = 1 m.
Chopper Modulation
C h o p p e r m o d u la tio n is a c c o m p lis h e d b y c h o p p in g g(t) a t th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y ra te a n d p la c in g th e re s u lta n t s ig n a l th r o u g h a b a n d p a s s filte r c e n te re d a t th e c a r r ie r fre q u en cy .
8 .2
T h e b a s ic s k e le to n c ir c u it o f th e c h o p p e r m o d u la to r is sh o w n in F ig .
- 2 , in w h ic h th e sw itc h , w h ic h is c o n tr o lle d b y c o s a > 0 i, re m a in s o p e n fo r A c o s u)0t > 0 a n d c lo s e d fo r A c o s a>0 t < 0. T o d e m o n s tr a te th a t th is c irc u it a c c o m p lis h e s a m p litu d e m o d u la tio n , w e first w rite va(t) in th e fo rm va(t) = g(t)S(t), w h ere S(t) is a s w itc h in g fu n c tio n h a v in g th e p ro p e r tie s c o s a>0t > c o s a)0 t <
0 0
( 8 .2- 10)
, .
( 8 .2 - 11)
C le a rly , th e n , S (i) is a s q u a re w av e w ith u n ity a m p litu d e w h ich m a y b e e x p a n d e d in a F o u r ie r se rie s o f th e fo rm
356
8.2
Fig. 8 .2 -2 to yield Va(t) = ^ + M
Chopper modulator.
} CO S(O 0t- . M
l c o s 3 0t +
( 8 .2 - 1 3 )
2
co0 , 3<w0 , 5<w0 , . . . .
3 ti
F r o m E q . ( 8 .2 - 1 3 ) w e n o te t h a t va(t) is th e s u p e rp o s itio n o f A M w a v e s c e n te re d a t I f th e b a n d p a s s filte r H (ja j) a tte n u a te s th e lo w -fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n ts o f va(t) a s w ell a s th e A M c o m p o n e n ts o f v j t ) in th e v ic in ity o f 3<0 , 5 co0 th e n th e o u tp u t v(t) is g iv e n b y
* M o J c o s [t o0t + 0(coo)].
( 8 .2 - 1 4 )
w h e re hL(t) is th e im p u ls e re s p o n s e o f th e lo w -p a s s e q u iv a le n t o f th e b a n d p a s s filte r a n d #(co0) is th e p la n e a n g le o f H (jo i) a t o> = co0 . I f th e lo w -p a s s e q u iv a le n t filte r is
8 .2
357
flat o v e r th e b a n d o f fr eq u en cies o c c u p ie d b y g(t ), th en va(t) sim p lifies to th e d esired
form v0(t) = # (0) cos [<u0i + 0( o)], (8.2-15)
w here H L(jio) is the F o u rier transform o f hL(t). N o te th a t ch o p p er m o d u latio n is possible only if the spectrum of the desired A M wave does n o t overlap th e spectra o f any o f the other co m ponents of u0(f)- A typical sketch o f \Va(w)\, w here Va(oj) is the F o u rier transform of va(t), is presented in IK M l , , s ^ r |C M ! 1 ! /
/|G ( uH-cjo)| *
G(uj3cm o)| 3 * \,
3wo
0
c0 wo f tum Fig. 8 .2 -3 Spectrum of va(t).
|
3w0 cu
Fig. 8.2-3 for the case w here g(t) is band-lim ited to u> m. It is a p p aren t from the figure that, unless wm < 2, (8.2-16)
then the spectra overlap an d ch opper m odulation is impossible. In addition, the closer iom is to co0/ 2, the m ore com plex the bandpass filter m ust be to effect the frequency separation. N o te th a t no restriction h as been placed on the m odulation index o f g(t); there fore, norm al A M w ith a m o d u lation index o f unity as well as suppressed carrier AM m ay be generated w ith the ch opper m odulator. In o rd er to relax the inequality o f Eq. (8.2-16) an d in tu rn m ake the design of the filter H(jto) sim pler, the single-pole voltage-controlled switch o f Fig. 8.2-2 may be replaced by th e double-pole vollage-controlled reversing sw itch show n in Fig. 8.2-4. T he reversing sw itch has the effect o f m aking va(t) sym m etrical a b o u t zero.
COS W 0 l
Fig. 8.2-4 Balanced chopper modulator.
358
8.2
th u s elim inating the low -frequency com ponent o f va(t). C onsequently, w ith the ch o p p er m o d u la to r of Fig. 8.2-4, m o d ulation is possible if m < co0. (8.2-17)
E q u atio n (8.2-17) ensures th a t the spectra o f the desired AM wave centered at a> 0 an d th e A M w ave centered a t 3w0 d o n o t overlap. O n a rigorous basis we observe th a t for the balanced chopper m o d u lato r o f Fig. 8.2^4 .(0 = g(i)S'(i) where (8.2-18)
1,
cos oi0t > 0,

cos 0t < 0.
[ 1,
Since S'(t) is a square wave w ith a peak-to-peak am plitude of 2 and zero average value, S'(t) m ay be expanded in a F o u rier series of the form 4 4 S'(t) = - cos ai0t <?os 3co0i + . n in H ence va(t) = 4 g(t) n 4g(i) cos co0t ---------- cos 3w 0t + -, 3n (8.2- 21) (8.2-20)
which, as expected, has no low -frequency com ponent. E q uation (8.2-21) also indicates th a t the reversing switch perm its us to obtain twice as m uch o u tp u t from the m o d u lato r of Fig. 8.2-4 as from the m o d u la to r of Fig. 8.2-2. In m any practical cases the switch S(f) in the chopper m o d u lato r o f Fig. 8.2-2 has a resistance r in series w ith it which prevents com plete atte n u atio n o f g(t) when S{t) is closed.C onsequently, va{t) is sw itched betw een g(i) and rg(t)/(r + R) in lieu of g(t) an d 0. T his m ay be expressed m athem atically as ^ , S M 1 ~ S(t)]r va(t) = g(0 S(0 + ----------- 5 r + R It is ap p aren t th at the fundam ental com ponent of va(t) is given by 1 -------' I cos w 0t = ^ r + RJ n cos co0t, (8.2-23)
( 8 .2 2 2
7 t \
R + r
an d in tu rn va(t) is given by [2g(t) ^ cos [co0t + 0 K ) ] . R + r (8.2-24)
T hus we see th a t the only effect o f the series resistance r is to a tten u a te the o u tp u t by th e factor R /(R + r). If r = R, the o u tp u t level is reduced by a factor of 2.
8.2
359
Nonlinear Device Modulation

N o n lin ear device m o d u latio n is accom plished by sum m ing the m odulation and the carrier, applying th em to a nonlinear device, and then passing the device ou tp u t th ro u g h a b a n d p ass filter centered at tu0 to extract the desired AM signal. A block d iag ram o f a n o n lin ear device m o d u la to r is show n in Fig. 8.2-5. As we shall see, the no n lin ear device m o d u la to r h as m ore restrictions for its p ro p er op eratio n th an any
I 0 ) 1
v$t)=g(t)=A[\ + m /(i) 1
2(0= V\ cost*/ Fig. 8 .2 -5 Block diagram o f nonlinear modulator.
o f the previously considered m odulators. F irst o f all the nonlinear device m ust have no g reater th a n a second-order (square-law ) nonlinearity. Second, the m axim um m o d u latio n frequency u> m m ust be less than a> 0/3 ; and third, if the nonlinear device contains a half-square-law term , 100% m od u latio n o r suppressed carrier m o d u lation is not possible. T o determ ine the reason for these restrictions as well as an expression for the o u tp u t signal v0(t), let us first express the o u tp u t o f the nonlinear device v j t ) in the form of a M acL auren series, va = a0 + a tVi + a2vj + a3vf + -, where _ 1 dva
n \ dv;
(8.2-25) v, = o
W ith Vi = v x + v 2 , v a reduces to Va = ao + Oi(vi + + a 3(t;f +

V2)
+ a 2(vl +
2 v xv 2
+ v$ (8.2-26)
+ 3 v t vl + r^) +
A little th o u g h t indicates th at, if u2(t) = Vx cos co0t and t;,(f) = g(t), the following com ponents o f va (as well as a num ber o f o th er com ponents) have frequency spectra
360
8 .2
in the vicinity o f w 0 : a ,v2 = c o s co0t,
l a 2v l v2 = 2a2Vlg(t)cos w 0t, 3a3v2 l v2 = 3a 3K!g2(i)cos ai0t, nav"~1v 2 = '(f) cos a>0i(8.2-27)
It is a p p aren t th a t any filter w hich extracts the desired term 2 a2K1g(f)cos < o0t from va(t) also extracts the rem aining term s o f Eq. (8.2 27) ; however, the term s w ith the coefficient a for n = 3,4, 5 , . . . possess envelopes which are no n lin ear functions of g(i). C onsequently for p ro p er o p eratio n the M acL auren expansion o f the nonlinearity m ust have a = 0 for n > 3. W ith this restriction, va(t) simplifies to
lo w -f r e q u e n c yle r m s e c o n d -h a rm o n icte r m
+
y
d e s ir e dte rm
V\
C O S 2 (O0t.
(8.2-28)
Since g 2(i) has a spectrum w hich is band-lim ited to 2com if g(f) is band-lim ited to a> m, it becom es a p p a re n t th a t the spectra o f the desired co m ponent o f va(t) and the low -frequency co m p o n en t o f va(t) overlap unless (8.2-29) H ow ever, if Eq. (8.2-29) is satisfied an d the nonlinearity is square law (a = 0 for n / 2), then v j t ) reduces to v(t) = 2a1Vl [g(t) * hL(t )] cos [co0t + 0(coo)], (8.2-30)
or, for the case w here H L(jaj) is flat over the b a n d o f frequencies occupied by g(f) =
A'
v0(t) = 2VIH L(0)a2A [ l + mf(t)\ cos [co0t + 6(oj0)],
(8.2-31)
w hich is the desired A M wave. If the n o n lin ear device is half square law ra th er th an full square law, w hich is alm ost alw ays the case in practice, then the argum ents leading to Eq. (8.2-8) apply in this case an d th e m o d u latio n index is lim ited to m < 1 V J A . H ence again n either 100% A M m o d u latio n n o r suppressed carrier m o d u latio n is possible.
8 .2
361
D ire ct T u n ed -C ircu it M o d u la tio n
D irect tuned-circuit m o d u latio n is effected by em ploying g(t) = A[\ + m/(f)] to directly control th e voltage across a parallel resonant circuit tuned to the carrier frequency an d driven by a periodic cu rren t source. Figure 8.2-6 illustrates such a m odulator. If the loaded Q T o f the tuned circuit is sufficiently high, it is a p p aren t th at v0(t) contains only a fundam ental term. In addition, from Exam ple 5.5-3 we recall th a t the peak value o r envelope of v0(t) m ust be g(t); consequently the high-level m o d u lato r p roduces the desired AM signal. %(/)
Fig. 8.2 -6 D irect tuned-circuit modulator.
Like all the o th e r m o d u lato rs previously considered, the high-level m o d u lato r has a lim it on the m axim um m o d u latio n rate com. If g(t) increases to o rapidly, the norm al increase in th e envelope o f v0(t) can n o t keep p?ce, the diode rem ains open, an d the envelope o f v(t) is independent o f g(t). T he resultant disto rtio n is called failure-to-follow distortion. An exact relationship specifying the m axim um perm is sible w m to prevent failure-to-follow disto rtio n is obtained in Section 8.6. In the direct circuit m o d u lator, g(t) is constrained to be greater th an o r equal to zero [a negative value of g(t) w ould result in an infinite dc current th ro u g h the d io d e ]; therefore, suppressed carrier m o d u latio n is n o t possible even though norm al AM w ith a m o d u latio n index o f unity m ay be obtained. Since an exact expression for v0(t) as well as all the properties o f the circuit o f Fig. 8.2-6 are obtained in Section 8.6 an d in C h a p te r 9, n o further general analysis is attem pted at this point.
M ea su rem en t o f E n velop e D isto r tio n
W hen any of the m o d u lato rs discussed in this section are im plem ented by practical circuits, the possibility exists th a t the circuits will introduce envelope distortion. F o r exam ple, if f ( t ) is th e m o d u latio n inform ation, then the m o d u lato r o u tp u t m ight have the d isto rted form
v(t) = A[l + mfd(t)] cos co0t ,
(8.2-32)
362
8 .3
w here f d(t) is a n onlinear function o f /(f). In general, from direct observation o f v(t) the d isto rtio n is n o t a p p a r e n t; however, if a Lissajous pattern o f v(t) vs. A f( i) is form ed on the face of an oscilloscope, a trapezoidal p attern results which m akes any envelope nonlinearity clearly evident. A typical trapezoidal p a tte rn is show n in Fig. 8.2-7. If n o envelope disto rtio n exists, then f d(t) = f ( t ) and the up p er and low er edges o f the trapezoid are straig h t lines. Any d ep a rtu re o f these edges from straight lines quickly m akes evident the n a tu re and m agnitude of the no n lin ear envelope distortion.
8.3 PRACTICAL ANALOG M O D U LA TO R S A ND M ULTIPLIERS
A lthough the need for an alo g m ultipliers seems to be universal, the existing circuits th a t are capable o f accom plishing the task are few an d far between. In addition, m ost practical m ultipliers suffer from either significant d isto rtio n in one or b o th in put channels, w hich lim its the dynam ic range, o r a p o o r frequency response in one or b o th channels. F o r exam ple, a H all m ultiplier, which is show n in Fig. 8.3-1, p ro duces a transverse voltage Vt w hich is directly p ro p o rtio n al to the longitudinal cu rrent
Fig. 8 3 - 1
Hall multiplier.
8.3
PRACTICAL ANALOG MODULATORS AND MULTIPLIERS
363
iL a n d the m agnitude of the n o rm al m agnetic induction field B n, th at is, V, = kiLB n. A lthough perfect m u ltiplication seems possible, the norm al B field is severely limited in its m axim um frequency. This lim itation is due to the fact th a t the voltage am plitude required to p ro d u ce th e necessary B field increases linearly with frequency; thus unless special high-voltage circuitry is em ployed, B m ust be lim ited in frequency to under 10 kH z for no rm al H all m ultipliers. As a second exam ple, an N -channel ju n ctio n F E T with a sm all drain-to-source voltage m ay be closely m odeled as a voltage-controlled conductance of the form gDS = (l - ^ r ) , \vDS\ < 100 mV, t;GS > VP, (8.3-1)
where gDS is the d rain -to -so u rce conductance, I DSS is the d rain cu rrent w ith vGS = 0 an d vDS = VP, an d VP is the pinch-off voltage. If this F E T is placed in the input of
Rr
Fig. 8 3 - 2
F E T multiplier.
a high-gain operational amplifier as shown in Fig. 8.3-2, then the output voltage
va(t) m ay be w ritten as
364
8 .3
which is p ro p o rtio n a l to the p ro d u ct of v ^ t ) an d v2(t). H ow ever, this F E T m ulti plier is restricted in dynam ic range. T he voltage |t>,(i)| = \vDS\ m ust be kept less than 100 mV to lim it d isto rtio n , an d v2(t) is restricted to positive values less th an | VP\ + 0.7 V. N egative values o f v2 w ould cut off the F E T , while positive values in excess o f | VP\ + 0.7 V w ould tu rn o n the gate-to-source diode. An even sim pler version o f the m ultiplier o f Fig. 8.3-2 m ay be obtained by replacing the o p eratio n al am plifier by a single transistor, as show n in Fig. 8.3-3. In this circuit C E is chosen sufficiently large to be a short circuit for the frequency com ponents o fu ^ t), an d / dc is chosen sufficiently large so th a t gin = q IdJ k T gDSmax; hence ^ ( f ) ap p ears directly across the FE T . In addition, no dc voltage ap p ears across the F E T because o f C E; thus vDs = vi(0 ,
d ( 0 8 d s v i ( 0 'c i ( f ) = a [ / dc + *d ( 0 ] ,
8 .3
365
and finally,
vo(t) = Vcc ~ a ^dc^L ~ a gDS^Lv i(f )
T/
~ K :C
ID
2(xR l I dSS
y Vl( 0
^)
It is a p p a re n t th a t v j t ) co n tain s a term w hich is directly p ro p o rtio n al to the p roduct o f i>i(i) an d v2(t ) ; how ever, as in the case o f the o p erational am plifier-F E T m ultiplier, |u,(t)| = |dos| m ust be kept less th a n 100 m V while v2(t) is restricted to positive values less th an | Fp| + 0.7 V. M ultipliers w hich em ploy m echanical shaft ro ta tio n of a linear potentiom eter to p roduce m ultiplication, as show n in Fig. 8.3-4, are also lim ited by the m axim um frequency at w hich the shaft can ro ta te and by the fact th at x is constrained to be positive.
Fig. 8 .3 -4 P otentiom eter multiplier.
T he advent of integrated circuits, how ever, has now m ade possible an analog m ultiplier in w hich b o th inputs have a linear range which is a good fraction of the supply voltage an d also have a frequency characteristic w hich extends into the gigahertz region. A typical integrated m ultiplier, introduced by G ilb e rtf an d m aking use o f the differential p air as its basic building block, is show n in skeleton form in Fig. 8.3-5. F o r this circuit, if I ES1 = I ES and I ES3 = I ES4 (a condition which requires the transistors to be integrated on the sam e chip a n d to have the sam e geometries), then from Eq. (4.6 3)
L = iA =
_ _ L _ and
h.
! _
(8 .3 _ 4 )
1 + ez
1+ e = ij + (1 oc)j3,
where z = < 2(1 ^ v2) k T an d

., _
it + i2 . In ad d itio n , since i\ Ik + (1 _ a) h _ h i+e" I T ?
/0 ,
( " 5)
t B. Gilbert, A Precise Four-Q uadrant M ultiplier with Subnanosecond Response. IEEE

Journal o f Solid State Circuits, SC-3, No. 4, pp. 365-373 (Dec. 1968).
366
8 .3
JT Q >
Q}
(1 - a ) i j
a
Qi
-J
04
(1
,(t)
a) i4
a n d Q j are a ctiv e, since vc s ; ^ > 0

/, + i 2 = /t" i'x+ ii = /* '
/;= /."+ ( i - o ) / t
d>
Qi
---------< '1
Fig. 8.3 -5 DifTerential-pair multiplier.
w here l k = I'k + (1 a.)Ik = i\ + i'2 . Therefore, com bining Eqs. (8.3 4 ) an d (8.3-5), we observe th a t 1 - ' 4 1 an d in a sim ilar fashion *It (8.3-7) (8.3-6)
It is a p p a re n t th a t, w hen the tw o differential pairs are com bined as show n in Fig. 8.3-5, 13 varies in p ro p o rtio n to w hile i4 varies in p ro p o rtio n to i'2 . In addition, b o th i3 an d iA vary directly w ith I k; thus if we constrain I'k to be a co n stan t (we can accom plish this by developing i\ and i'2 from the collectors of an o th er differential p air biased w ith a c u rre n t source Jo), then i3 is p ro p o rtio n al to the p ro d u ct o f i\ and l k w hile i4 is the p ro p o rtio n a l to the p ro d u ct o f i'2 and I k. An alternative, b u t som ew hat m ore practical, form o f the differential-pair m ultiplier is show n in skeleton form in Fig. 8.3-6. As can readily be seen from the figure, i'f an d i'2 a re outw ard-flow ing cu rren t sources which, unlike the corresponding sources o f Fig. 8.3-4, m ay be developed from an N P N differential pair. T he ability
8.3
367
Fig. 8 .3 -6 Alternative form of differential-pair multiplier.
to em ploy all N P N tran sisto rs in a circuit greatly simplifies the m ass integration
process. T h e p e n a lty w h ic h m u st b e p a id for th is a d v a n ta g e is th a t th e m u ltip lier
requires large values o f fi = a /(l a), usually in excess of 150, for its p ro p er operation. F o r th e differential-pair m ultiplier o f Fig. 8.3-6 it is again readily dem onstrated th a t if I ESl = I Es 2 an d 1ES3 = I Es 4 i then l = rk h= 1 ik l + ^ h _ U_ 1 rk ik l +
w here z = q(vt - v2)/kT. In this configuration it is the currents in the diagonally opposite tran sisto rs w hich are p ro p o rtio n al. N ow if (1 a)i4 i , and ( 1 a)i3 i2 (this is the high-j9 requirem ent), then < 1 = '"l- <2 = 2. < 3 = ~jr> an d I4 = (8.3-8)
Ik
These eq uations are identical to Eqs. (8.3-6) and (8.3-7). Here again, if / k = /, -t- i2 = i\ + i'2 is co n strain ed to be a co n stant, i3 is p ro p o rtio n al to the p ro d u ct of I k and . Since in b o th differential-pair m ultipliers i\ , 2 , and I k m ust be positive (to prevent any tran sisto r from being cut offt), the m ultipliers in their present form p roduce o u tp u ts lying w ithin only one q u a d ra n t of a cartesian coo rd in ate plane and are therefore referred to as a o n e -q u a d ra n t m ultipliers. H ow ever either m ultit In addition, both and i'2 must be less than I'k to prevent either Q, or Q2 from being cut off.
368
8 .3
plier can be extended to a tw o -quadrant m u ltip lier by taking advantage o f the bal anced n atu re of the differential pair. If we define Ifl(r) = 2i; or equivalently, / Ik hi h = 2---j and Ik hi ' 2 = 2
ir2,
(8.3-9)
then a (i) has a dynam ic range between I 'k and therefore occupies tw o quadrants. (This definition merely im plies a dc shift in i[, which occurs naturally if a differential p air develops i\ an d i 2.) In term s of /n (i), Eqs. (8.3-6) an d (8.3-7) (or Eq. 8.3-8) reduce to = and u = ( 5 f + l). (8.3-10)
By su b tractin g i4 from 3, which is readily accom plished a t the collector o f the differential pair, we obtain ia = (*3 - U) = 77'n, (8.3-11) Ik w hich is a tw o -q u ad ran t m u ltiplication o f I k(t ) and in (f). A voltage va = iR can be developed differentially by placing resistors o f value R in the collectors of Q 3 and Q 4 in a fashion sim ilar to th a t show n in Fig. 8.3-8 or using the schem e illustrated in P ro b lem 8.13. In general, tw o -q u ad ran t m ultiplication is sufficient for generating norm al AM , since g(t) is alw ays greater th an zero and can be applied to the I k input. However, for suppressed carrier AM , a fo u r-q u ad ran t m ultiplier is required. A fo u r-q u ad ran t m ultiplier can be constructed from two tw o -q u ad ran t m ultipliers by connecting them as show n in Fig. 8.3-7. A corresponding fo u r-q u ad ran t differential-pair m ultiplier is show n in Fig. 8.3-8. F o r the m ultiplier o f Fig. 8.3-8, both th e 6 3 - 6 4 p air a n d th e Q 5~Q6 pair share com m on base voltages w ith the Q x Q 2 p a ir ; hence if 3 is high b o th i3 and i5 are p ro p o rtio n al to i\ as well as their respective em itter bias suppliers, an d i4 and i6 are p ro p o rtio n a l to i'2 as well as their respective bias supplies. T herefore, from Eq. (8.3-8) we ob tain
h 0<,2 </.
Fig. 8 .3 -7 Synthesis o f four-quadrant multiplier.
Fig. 8 .3 -8
Four-quadrant differential-pair multiplier.
370
8.3
and in turn r , \ M , , 'il'* 'oi a(>3 + 'e) ^ 11 + 777 Z \ lv l. j jk JkO

.2 = (4 + 5 ) = ^
( l
\
1 k 1 kO/
(8 .3 -1 3 )
Finally, provided th a t i0lR < Vcc VBB + 2V0 and io2R < Vcc - VBB + 2V0 to keep the differential pairs from satu ratin g (V0 x | V for integrated silicon),
Vo = W . 1 i.2) = ^ in /,2 ,
*k
(8 .3 -1 4 )
w here l'k < in < /c an d / k0 < ii2 < i k0; thus we see th a t the circuit o f Fig. 8.3-8 functions as a fo u r-q u ad ran t m ultiplier w ith a scale factor K = xR/I'k. Since (, ! m ay be as large as I'k an d ii2 m ay be as large as I k0, we observe from Eq. (8.3-13) th a t iol has a m axim um value of oclko. Sim ilarly io2 has a m axim um value of a/jto- T herefore, a sufficient condition to ensure th a t the differential pairs d o not satu rate is th at a I k0R < Vcc - V bb + 2V0. (8.3-15)
Figure 8.3-9 illustrates a typical circuit for developing the required differential cu rrents to drive the m ultiplier o f Fig. 8.3-8. f In this circuit, if R E rin = 2 k T /q I k, which is usually the case, then Ate , ^<01 ci = '1 = < * T + j for
and
f Aie
y - ^ J
(8.3-16)
In addition, if Q 3, Q4 , an d Q s are identical in geom etry, then I E3 = l E4 = 1ES = I E an d hence a net cu rren t o f (3 2a)IE flows th ro u g h R B. T hus 2 = ai E = a(VEE ~ Vo) Vee ~ V . E R ^ 3 - 2a) RB (g.3-17) K
Figure 8.3-10 illustrates a com plete integrated m ultiplier w hich includes the differential cu rren t source drivers. In this circuit (if R E r in) we can identify
2 < x v n
*1 = ~ 5 1 >
2ai)i2
l i2 =
K E2 .
*kO ~
a ^dc2>
anc*
I'k = a ^ d c l J
t An alternative circuit form would have two series emitter resistors of value R F j 2 with a single current source driving their common node. This approach suffers from two disadvantages in comparison with the circuit of Fig. 8.3-8. First, an additional resistor is needed which requires more area on an integrated chip than the transistor it replaces; second, the bias current IdJ2 flows through the resistor, making the Q-point a function of R E.
8 .3
371
hi2
_L R'c
R'f
-I- 2rm 2kT o +

MO
02
Re
-AAA-
* " 2
o
(3 2 a)/
A :. I
\
04
2I
05
r ^ 03 n
Ir
/f
-o
v.
1 f S .3
es4
~ I
esS
E 4
Ie 5
Q( Ê E
2
V0)
V E
ô_ ( 1 .B> I X
(3 -2 a ) s ~
Fig. 8.3 -9 C u rren t drive for differential-pair m ultiplier.
hence, provided th a t all tran sisto rs rem ain in their active region, from Eq. (8.3-14) the fo u r-q u ad ran t m ultiplier o u tp u t becom es
4 a 2R
I'oiO =
(8.3-18)
ÊlÊ2^d
which is the desired product o f the two input voltages in (i) and vi2(t). T o ensure the validity of Eq. (8.3-18), the following restrictions on the m agnitudes of Vn(t), vi2(t), and I dc2 m ust be observed : I)
2)
~ ^ +
ÊE +
< ui 1 < ^BB

^0 < ^1
V i2 < VBB ~ Vo
to keep Q-i active, to keep Qg active, to keep Q 7 and Q 8 from being cut off,
3)
- I .del
I del
^1
4)
~ Idc2 <
V i2 < Idc2
R< ( x 2I Ac2R < Vcc - VBB + 2V0
to keep Q 9 and Q i0 from being cut off, to keep Q 3, Q4 , Q 5, o r Q6 from saturating (cf. Eq. 8.3-15).
5)
^ In m ost integrated an alo g m ultipliers o f the form shown in Fig. 8.3-10, the tran sisto rs a re in teg rated on one chip ; how ever, the resistors R, R B1, R B2, R El >^ E 2> and R bb m ust be supplied externally by the engineer m aking use of the m ultiplier.
372
8 .3
Fig. 83-10 Complete integrated multiplier. In general, R is chosen sufficiently sm all so th a t it is n o t appreciably loaded by either th e in p u t im pedance o f the next differential pair or stray o u tp u t capacitance. F o r exam ple, if 20 p F o f o u tp u t capacitance exists and the m ultiplier is to o p erate up to frequencies of 20 M H z, then R <
2 n (2 0
1
x 106)(2 0 x 1 0 ~ 12)
= 400 a
O n the o th er h an d , R is n o t chosen any sm aller th a n necessary; otherw ise, enorm ous cu rren ts w ould be required to develop a reasonable o u tp u t voltage.
8 .3
373
O n the assu m p tio n th a t Vcc is specified a t 10 V, VEE is specified at 5 V, and

lîllmax I ^ 2 1m a x 4 V,
is chosen to be greater th an 4 V + 0.75 V = 4.75 V to avoid satu ratin g Q 9. A choice o f 5 V in this case w ould be reasonable. W ith R = 400 Q and VBB = 5 V. restriction (5) lim its / dc2 to 1 6.5 V a2 400Q 16.3 mA.
P ro b ab ly a value of 16 mA w ould be selected, since a sm aller value w ould require a larger value o f R E2 [restriction (4)] and thus a sm aller o u tp u t voltage. W ith / dc2 = 16 mA the m inim um value of R E2 is Re2 = 2 !^ L a x = 500 Q
dc2
(a stan d ard value of 510 i i w ould be chosen). N ow for m axim um o u tp u t voltage we also desire I dciR Ei to be as small as possible; however, IdclR Ei is constrained to be greater than 2|i>n |max x 8 V. A choice of / dcl = 9 mA and R El = 1 kQ is reasonable. W ith these values we can be sure th at all transistors operate in their active region and that
v oU) =
y i . i W M f ) -
(8.3-19)
Finally, we choose 5V ~ 9 m A ~ 5-6 to yield the desired value for

BB
4.25 ~ to yield the desired value of / dcl, and 4.25 9 mA
V ~ 470 2
to yield the desired value o f / dc2. N ow , for this m ultiplier, if nit) = (4 V )/(f) then the o u tp u t r(f) takes the form u0(t) = (5.57 V )/(i) cos 108t, which is a suppressed carrier AM signal. Clearly the scale factor could be decreased to any value less than 5.57 V by increasing either R Ei o r R E2 o r by decreasing R. and vi2{t) = (4 V) cos 108f,
374
8 .3
Analog Multipliers with One Nonlinear Input Channel

M any m ultipliers exist in which one in put channel is linear while the o th er input channel is highly nonlinear. A n exam ple of this type of m ultiplier is a single differential p air for w hich the collector c u rre n t is directly p ro p o rtio n a l to I k a n d a highly nonlinear function of u i v2 (Eq. 4.6-3). A lthough m ultiplication in such a device is n o t ideal, am p litu d e m o d u latio n can be accom plished by applying the carrier to the nonlinear in p u t channel and the m o d u latio n to the linear in put channel while placing the o u tp u t through a bandpass filter centered a b o u t the carrier. T he b a n d pass filter rem oves the h arm onics o f the carrier generated by the nonlinear channel.
Such a m o d u la to r em ploying an integrated differential p air is show n in Fig. 8.3-11. F o r this m o d u lato r, Q 3 and QA act as a current source to develop a current drive I k(t) to the differential p air of the form hU) = />[ 1 + (8.3-20)
where I k0 = < x(VEE - V0)/(2 a.)RB and m = V2/{ VEE - V0). This assum es, of course, th a t Q 3 and Q4 are integrated on the sam e chip and w ith identical geom etries, so th a t /53 = I ES4.) In a d d itio n , from Eqs. (4.6-9) a n d (4.6-10),
>E2 = AkWDz a i ( x ) c o s a>0t a 3(x) c o s co0t ],
( 8 .3 - 2 1 )
8 .3
375
w here x = q V J k T and a ^ x ) is the F o u rier coefficient plotted in Fig. 4.6-4. Therefore, the fundam ental co m p o n en t of the collector current o f Q2 is given by 'c 21 = - / M iW [ l + mf(t)] cos co0t, w hich results in v0(t ) = vcc + W * i(* ){ [l + " i/( i) ] c o s a v } * Z n (f) = Vcc + /k o a iM U l + mf(t)] * z, 1L(f)} cos w0f, (8.3-23) (8.3-22)
where z ^ i t ) is the im pulse response of the o u tp u t tuned circuit an d Zj lL(t) is the lowpass equivalent of z , , (r) (cf. Fig. 3.1-3). Im plicit in the expression for vB (t) given by Eq. (8.3-22) is the fact th a t the tuned circuit has a sufficiently high Q to rem ove the low-frequency and higher-harm onic com ponents of ic2(t). If, in addition, the o u tp u t filter is flat over the b and of frequencies occupied by iC2 i(r), then v0(t) simplifies to vo(t) = Vcc + hoRL<ii(x)[l + which is clearly the form of the desired AM signal. As a num erical exam ple let Vcc = 12 V, R b = 6kQ , VEE = - 12 V, R t = 5 k il, and Vi = 1.56 mV, C = 1000pF, /( f ) = cos 105t, V2 = 5.63 V, L = 10#iH, cos a> 0t, (8.3-24)
io0 = 107 rad/sec, from which it follows th at m = h
11 25 V / t0 = = 1.875 mA, 6 k i2
x = 6,
and from Fig. 4.6-4, a t(6) = 0 .6 . Therefore ci'Jt) = (1.25m A )(l + \ cos 105f)cos 107i and v jt) = (12 V) + (1.125 mA)[(l + c o s 105r) z t it) cos 107r] = (12 V) + (5.63 V) 1 -i ^t= cos ( 105r 2^2 \ 4 cos 107i.
The atten u atio n of the cos 105f term by l / y / 2 and its phase shift by n/4 results directly from the fact th a t the low-pass equivalent o f the o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit has a 3 d B b andw idth of 105 rad/sec. N o te th at the m inim um value of v j t ) is 4.4 V ; hence Q 2 does not saturate.
376
8 .4
8.4 PRACTICAL CHOPPER M O D ULATORS
T he key com ponent in a ch opper m o d u lato r is the voltage-controlled switch which opens an d closes at the carrier rate. Therefore, in this section we shall look at two voltage-controlled single-pole single-throw (SPST) sw itches one em ploying a diode bridge an d the o th e r em ploying a single F E T and then we shall consider the problem of em ploying these single-pole switches to construct a voltage-controlled reversing switch. T he SPST switch is used in the single-ended chopper m o d u lato r show n in Fig. 8.2-2, w hereas the reversing switch is em ployed in the balanced chopper m o d u lato r show n in Fig. 8.2 4. N o te that, alth o u g h the voltage-controlled switch is being discussed in con ju n ctio n w ith ch o p p er m odulators, it functions equally well as a synchronous de m o d u lato r o r a m ixer in the sam e configuration as Fig. 8.2-2. F o r a synchronous detector, however, the o u tp u t filter m ust be replaced by a low-pass filter, whereas for a mixer the o u tp u t b an d p ass filter m ust be tuned to the interm ediate frequency. D iode-Bridge M odulator A lm ost all single-ended ch opper m o dulators in use today em ploy the diode bridge as the voltage-controlled switch. Figure 8.4-1 illustrates a typical diode-bridge m o d u lato r in w hich a positive value of v ^ t) causes all the bridge diodes to conduct thereby bringing va(t) close to ground potential, and in which a negative value of reverse-biases all the bridge diodes, thereby perm itting va(t) to follow g(r). It is ap p aren t th at the am plitude F, of r ,(i) m ust be sufficiently large when u, is negative to keep all the diodes reverse-biased. A little th o u g h t indicates th at for g(t) > 0, and with i',(f) = V,, D2 and D 3 are on the verge of conduction when g(t) = V, + 2V0 ; and th at for g(t) < 0, D, and Z)4 are on the verge of conduction for |g(i)l = K + 2V0 . H ence to ensure th a t all the bridge diodes rem ain reverse-biased for r , = K,, we require th at V, > g(t ) - 2V0 (8.4-1)
for all f. It is also a p p aren t th at Vv m ust be sufficiently large when = + Vy to keep all the diodes forw ard-biased so th at the bridge presents a low im pedance to g ro u n d ; th at is, va{t) should be a small voltage with v, = V T o determ ine the required m agni tude of K, in this case, we define the current leaving the r , source as I 2 and the current leaving the g(f) source as i^t). Since, in general, the four bridge diodes are integrated on a single chip w ith identical geom etries, the bridge is balanced and ^(r) and l 2 split equally betw een the tw o bridge arm s; thus
( 8 .4 - 2 )
8.4
PRACTICAL CHOPPER MODULATORS
377
V |( 0
Fig. 8.4-1
Chopper modulator employing diode bridge.
If we assum e th at each diode is characterized by the volt-am pere relationship

iD
=
l s( e ^ lkT
1) %
l seqr /kT,
(8.4-3)
then lD 2 kTl I 2 + ii(t) i 2 - /,(i)\ '- I n Vn i = ---- 1In 2/c < z 2 IS

kT
(8.4 4)
In \ l - ii U V h l
By expanding va(t) in a M acL auren series in i / / 2, we obtain + 3 12 , ' 5I t

(8 .4 - 5 )
where rd = {kT/q)(2/12) is the sm all-signal diode resistance with / 2 2 as a bias current. It is ap p aren t th at, if we wish to keep nonlinear com ponents of /, [which is p ro p o r tional to the m odulation g(f)] out of the ou tp u t to avoid envelope distortion in va(t), then i/3 /2 1. W ith this restriction t> a(f) = rdi,(t) and the forw ard-biased diode
378
8.4
bridge may be m odeled as a single resistor of value rd shunting v a ; hence the diode bridge takes the form of an ideal voltage-controlled switch in series w ith a resistance rdW ith this m odel ii(0 = while 2 =
g(f)
R i + ra 2R i
Vi - 2V0
and
rA =
q(V, - 2V0)/kT
thus to keep if /3 /f < 0.01,

5 .8 g (f)R 2
f * > r 7 T T 7 + 2Ko
(8 .4 -6 )
for all (. T he inequalities of Eqs. (8.4-1) and (8.4-6) may be satisfied sim ultaneously by choosing Vt > g(t) 2V0 an d choosing R 2 o f the o rd e r of r o R j . F o r exam ple, if |g(t)lmax = 10 V, then the bridge rem ains open with u, = Vx for > 8.5 V (Vo = ?V ). ^ we select Vx = 9 V, then if
+
rd ^
7.75
~ 7 .7 5
the bridge appears as a resistor rd w ith v t = Vt . A com plete diode-bridge m o d u la to r which incorporates the floating source v t(t) as well as the o u tp u t filter is show n in Fig. 8.4-2. In this circuit the transform er
Fig. 8.4 -2 Practical balanced modulator.
8 .4
379
is a closely coupled transform er operating in its m idband range, and therefore functions as an ideal transform er. In addition, (1 + fi)RE is large in com parison with R, so that the tran sisto r does not load the bridge. C onsequently, if the o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit is bro ad enough to pass the m odulation and yet narrow enough to rem ove the low-frequency and higher-harm onic com ponents of va(t\ then from Eq. (8.2-19)
v oU) =
n R E R , + rd
cosoV
vc c
(8.4-7?
E quation (8.4-7) assum es, of course, th at Eqs. (8.4-1) and (8.4-6) have been satisfied and th at the tran sisto r rem ains in its active region. T he control voltage ^ ( r ) m ay be supplied by a sufficiently large sine wave of radian frequency o0 instead of a square wave. If, as show n in Fig. 8.4-3, K, is large in com parison w ith Va and Vf (Eqs. 8.41 and 8.4 6), then the sine wave functions in essentially the sam e fashion as the square wave in controlling the states of the bridge.
O ne m ain advantage of a sine-wave drive is th at the transform er coupling v ^ t) to the diode bridge need not be nearly as broadband. On the other hand, the larger value of V, with a sine-wave drive requires a m uch higher breakdow n voltage for the bridge diodes. W hether r,(f) is a sine wave or a square wave, in practical diode bridges shortd u ratio n transient spikes ap p ear on v j t ) in the vicinity of the bridge transitions from open to closed because of parasitic capacitance and diode charge storage. These spikes are, in general, of little consequence, since they contain sufficiently highfrequency com ponents so th at they are not transm itted to the ou tp u t through the bandpass filter H{ jw). FET M odulator A ju n ctio n o r an insulated-gate F E T may be em ployed instead of the diode bridge as the voltage-controlled switch in a chopper m odulator. Figure 8.4-4 illustrates a
380
8 .4
Fig. 8.4-4 N-channel junction FET chopper modulator. typical N -channel ju n ctio n F E T chopper m odulator. In this circuit, with v ^ t) = Vx < Vp(Vp is th e pinch-off voltage of the FET), the F E T opens, perm itting va(t) to follow g(r). O n the other hand, w ith t>,(i) = 0, then the F E T functions as an ohm ic conductance gDSS of value So = ^ .
VP
Vp \
P I vc s = 0
(8-4-8)
provided th at I t ^ l = \va\ < 100 mV. C onsequently the F E T m ay be m odeled as an ideal voltage-controlled switch in series w ith a resistance rDSS = l/g DSS. F o r typical ju n ctio n and insulated-gate F E T s, rDSS varies from several ohm s to several thousand ohms. W ith y,(f) = 0,
"r
D SS
thus to ensure th a t |iDS(f)i rem ains less th an 100 m V for all t we require sufficiently large so that
I IgWIn
to be
R l > rDSSl i o ^ v
(8.4-9)
F or exam ple, if |g(t)L ax = 5 V and rDSS = 5 0 0 Q, then R , > 2 4 .5 kQ. T o avoid loading by the o u tp u t tran sisto r when the F E T is reverse biased, the resistor R ,
8.4
P R A C T IC A L C H O P P E R M O D U L A T O R S
38 1
should not be chosen to o m uch greater th an this value. If, on the o th e r hand, R, is chosen to be less th an 24.5 kQ, then va(t ) exceeds 100 mV, rDSS becom es nonlinear, an d v j t ) is n o longer a linear function o f g (t); consequently nonlinear envelope dis to rtio n begins to ap p e a r on the o u tp u t AM wave. If R e is sufficiently large so th at transistor loading can be neglected, then v jt) is given by (cf. Eq. 8.4 7) v(t) = 2i - ) cos co0(t) + Vc c (8.4-10)
n R E R , + r DSS
However, if R h is not sufficiently large, then the loading m ust be incorporated with the ^(i)-K i netw ork as show n in Fig. 8.4-5 by form ing a Thevenin equivalent n e t work. Clearly g(r) is decreased by a factor of r\ because of the loading; however, in addition, a dc bias V is added in series with g(r). If g(i) = 0, as it is for suppressed carrier m odulation, then the presence of V produces an average com ponent in the m odu latio n voltage being chopped and thus a nonzero carrier at the output. T o elim inate this undesired carrier com ponent, either R E must be increased relative to R { or an isolation stage such as a source follower m ust be inserted between the chopper stage and the o u tp u t transistor.
Fig. 8.4-5 Effect of transistor loading. In addition to the diode bridge or the F E T chopper, a bipolar transistor being switched betw een satu ratio n and cutoff m ay be em ployed as the voltage-controlled switch. However, when satu rated, the tran sisto r m ay be m odeled as a resistor in series with a dc voltage source of approxim ately 100 mV (for silicon). This voltage source has the effect of introducing a carrier com ponent at the m o d u lato r output, which is quite undesirable if suppressed carrier A M is being generated. This saturation voltage m ay be largely balanced o u t by placing tw o transistors in series (em itter to em itter) an d placing the sw itching voltage betw een their bases.
382
8 .4
Balanced Chopper Modulator

Figure 8.4-6 indicates how tw o diode bridges can be em ployed to alternately apply + g(i) an d g(t) across and thus produce the effect of a reversing switch. N o te th a t the bridges are arran g ed so th a t one bridge is open when the o ther is closed. It is a p p aren t th a t the closed bridge is unaffected by the open bridge and thus Eq. (8.4-6) still determ ines the value o f Vx required to ensure th a t the bridge rem ains
Fig. 8.4-6 Reversing switch for balanced chopper modulator. closed for all t. O n the o th e r hand, the closed bridge does affect the open bridge in th at it increases th e voltage across the open bridge to
hence w ith the arg u m en ts em ployed to ob tain Eq. (8.4-1) we require V 7 , > g(t)\ 1 + R 1 + rc for all t to ensure th a t all the diodes in the open bridge rem ain reverse biased. Figure 8.4-7 illustrates a practical chopper m o d u lato r in which both g(t) and i>i(r) are supplied from g rounded sources. The transform er Tt is a closely coupled center-tapped au d io transform er with a m idband frequency range sufficient to pass the frequency co m ponents o f g(f) (see Section 2.2), while the transform er T2 uses a 2V0 (8.4-11)
8.4
383
closely coupled transform er w ith a m idband capable of passing the m ain frequency com ponents of i;,(f). If v ^ t ) is a large-am plitude sine wave, then the restrictions on T2 are nom inal. [A lthough unity turns ratios are indicated for the two transform ers, o ther turns ratios merely introduce a scale-factor change in g(f) and ii(f).] If we assum e that is n o t loaded by the tran sisto r and th a t Eqs. (8.4-6) and (8.4-11) are satisfied, then va(t) m ay be expressed as
I'J it) =
Ki + rd
(8.4-12)
w here S'(i) is given by Eq. (8.2-19). A nd if we assum e th at the tran sisto r does not saturate, we may w rite
ic = ccva(t)/RE
384
8.5
and in turn
4 a g (f)
R i z U L (t) cos w 0 t n R E
'(0 = K r
(8 .4
13)
K ,
r d_
w here z, , L(i) is th e low -pass equivalent im pulse response o f the o u tp u t parallel R L C circuit. If the o u tp u t filter passes g(/) undistorted while rem oving the 3w0 com ponent of u(r), then v0(t) reduces to the desired form
vo(t) = J 'c c
4 ocR R L KU) C O S (Jj0t. nRh : + rd
(8.4-14)
8.5
SQUARE-LAW M ODULATOR
T he square-law device, although quite attractive as a mixer, finds very little application as an am plitude m odulator. T he basic reason for this is th at m ost physical devices have half-square-law characteristics rather than full-square-law characteristics. As we saw in Section 8.2, unless a full-square-law characteristic exists, not only is su p pressed carrier m o d u latio n im possible but also norm al AM with 100% m odulation is impossible. C onsequently, unless a quick and d irty low-index m o d u lato r will satisfy the requirem ents of the situation, the other m odulators discussed in this chap ter are usually em ployed. T herefore, we shall look only briefly at one squarelaw m o d u lato r constructed with a ju n ctio n F E T operating w ithin its satu ratio n region. A typical square-law FE T m o d u lato r is show n in Fig. 8.5-1. If for this circuit we assum e th at the F E T operates w ithin its saturation (square-law) region and that R L is m uch less than the o u tp u t im pedance of the FET, then we may approxim ate the drain current as
1d =
d s s 11
j^ |
(8 .5 -1 )
w here VP is the pinch-off voltage and I DSS is the drain current with rGS = 0 and vDS = VP. F o r the bias arrangem ent show n in Fig. 8.5-1, iD reduces to l v + v A 2
lm ) ' DSS I y I
I K cos co0t + A[i + m f( t)] \2

y I(O.J-Z)
' DSS I
Since the co m p o n en t of iD (t) centered ab o u t a>0 is
2!dS' V 2 ' A{ \ + VP
c o s a)0t ,
then w ith the assum ption th a t the o u tp u t filter rem oves the low-frequency and secondh arm onic co m ponents o f i D, v(t) is given by 2 /n s s M v(t) = VDd -------- 772 [1 + * z n J i) c o s co0t. (8.5-3)
8 .5
SQUARE-LAW MODULATOR
385
If, in addition, the o u tp u t filter is flat over the band of frequencies occupied by the AM signal, va(t) simplifies to the desired form 21 o ss V \A R Lr
l'o U )
VD D
------------ 72--------[! + w / ( f ) ]
~V\
cos w 0f.
(8.5-4)
T o realize v0(t) in the form of Eq. (8.5-4) we m ust restrict va(t) > | VP\ for all time to ensure that operation remains within the saturation region. This may be accom plished for any F E T param eters by choosing a sufficiently small value of R , .
In a d d itio n ,
ti(i) + v2(t) > 0 for all tim e to keep the F E T from being cut off and
ih (t) + 1.-2 < \V p\ + V 0= V P

fo r a ll tim e to k e e p th e g a te -to -s o u r c e d io d e fro m tu r n in g on . T h e s e tw o re s tr ic tio n s
386
8 .5
imply th a t A, Vx , an d m m ust satisfy the following in eq u alities: A( 1 m) - Vt > 0, A (\ + m) + Vi < V'P. (8.5-5)
If we desire the largest possible o u tp u t with the smallest value of R L (to ensure R l /), then we satisfy Eq. (8.5-5) with an equality to obtain y
A
V'
and
vi =
= -y
-y ( l -
m).
T he o u tp u t voltage given by Eq. (8 .5 ^ ) then reduces to vo(0 = (1 [1 + mf(t)} cos a)0t. (8.5-6)
H ere again we see explicitly th at we can achieve a high m odulation index only at the expense of reducing va(t) in am plitude or increasing R Lto the point where it is an appreciable fraction o f the F E T o u tp u t resistance r. If R L ^> r B, then square-law o p eratio n no longer exists. As a num erical exam ple let VDD = 12 V,
VP = - 4 V,
V0 = 0.7 V,
I DSS = - 4 mA,
co0 = 107 rad/sec,
and
a> m = 2.5 x 105 rad/sec.
[<Bm is the m axim um frequency com ponent o f /(f)]- Let us now choose param eters for the circuit of Fig. 8.5-1 to achieve a m axim um o u tp u t voltage w ith m = Since K (t)|max < VDD + VP to ensure saturation-region operation, then from Eq. (8.5-6) we o b tain R L < 3.87 Q ; thus a reasonable choice w ould be R L = 3.6 k ii, which is m uch less th an the typical values of r 0, say 100 kX W ith this value R L an d a choice for the b an d w id th of the o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit of 5 x 105 rad/sec (the 3 d B point co rresponds to tom),
^ and in tu rn L = 1(o\G =
(3.6 kft)(5 x 105 rad/sec) ^
18 //H. Finally, A 2.35 V, Vt = 1.175 V, and v0 = (4.96 V)[l + m/(t)] cos co0f. (8.5-7)
The square-law m o d u lato r with the above param eter values is show n in Fig. 8.5-2. The gate bias circuitry is obtained by first noting from Fig. 8.5-1 th at % s = VP + A[ 1 + /(f)] + Vi cos 107f = ( - 1.65 V) + (1.175 V )/(f) + (1.175 V) cos 107f (8.5-8)
and then applying the 1.65 F to the gate by bleeding dow n the 12 V supply and coupling the ac sources to the gate th ro u g h a capacitor.
8 .6
TUNED-CIRCUIT MODULATORS
387
8.6 TUNED-CIRCUIT M ODULATORS
As we shall see in C h ap ter 9, it is generally difficult to provide linear, high-pow er o u tp u t am plifiers for AM signals; therefore, one usually tries to accom plish this m odulation a t as high a pow er level as is possible. In vacuum tube transm itters such m odulation is alm ost inevitably perform ed in the last stage. T o the extent that the tran sisto r behaves as a curren t source, the triode vacuum -tube-type m o d u lato r cannot sim ply be tran sisto rized . As we shall see in Section 9.9, it is possible to construct efficient tran sisto r pow er am plifiers if one both drives them with a m odulated signal and sim ultaneously m odulates the collector supply. It is the purpose of this section to present an idealized version of a circuit th at can be used to perform the initial m o d u latio n o f the carrier signal so th a t this prem odulated signal m ay then be used to drive a pow er-am plifying stage. As we shall see, at first glance both the m odulating and the pow er-am plifying stages look identical, but they do indeed operate in som e w hat different fashions. T he basic m odulating circuit being considered is show n in Fig. 8.6 1. The o peration of this circuit requires the collector-base ju n ctio n of the transistor to becom e satu rated (or to tu rn on) a t the peak o f every driving carrier cycle. T he cu rrent pulse that flows as a result of this satu ratio n has tw o effects. The direct effect in the output circuit is to cause the o u tp u t tuned-circuit voltage am plitude to follow the variations
388
8 .6
Fig. 8.6-1 Saturating collector AM modulator. in f(t). The indirect or reflected effect is to increase the loading in the base circuit, thus effectively causing the in put driving voltage also to follow the variations in f(i). In order to con cen trate o ur a tte n tio n on one problem at a time, we assum e for the present th a t the input voltage is supplied by a voltage source. T hat is, we neglect any possible variation of the input driving signal. Also, in order to be able to m ake very sim ple calculations, we m ake the further assum ption th at the voltage drive is -sufficiently large (x 10) so th a t the tran sisto r collector current m ay be assum ed to flow as a train of im pulses of strength q. If the tran sisto r is m odeled as a current source in parallel with an ideal diode and a b attery ^CE.at then by splitting the current source into tw o parts [and then rem oving the one in parallel w ith the + Vmf (t ) voltage generator] and redraw ing
L
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.6 -2 Two equivalent forms for the model o f the circuit of Fig. 8.6-1.
8 .6
389
the circuit, one can reduce the circuit from the form of Fig. 8.6-2(a) to the form of Fig. 8.6-2(b). If m is defined as
m - --------------and g(i) is defined as
Vcc Vce.
g(0 = (Vc c - V C E . J [ 1 + mf(t)l

then this circuit reduces to the form show n previously in Fig. 8.2-6. T he initial build u p of the tuned-circuit voltage in such a circuit is show n in Fig. 8.6-3. This build u p continues until the step on the tip of one of the carrier cycles exceeds g(t) and the tuned-circuit voltage is caught at this value. Thereafter, so long as g(t) does n o t vary too rapidly, the diode will conduct on every peak and the circuit will rin g betw een the peaks at its n atu ral frequency, w0.
<<('}
Streng th of q
y
T 2T
3T 8(r nT).
4T
T=2n/ujn
5T
6T
IT
ic(i) q Z
it
= a.
Fig. 8.6-3 Transient buildup of the tank voltage in a tuned-circuit modulator. If the tuned-circuit Q T is high enough (say m ore than 30) so that the energy decay between resettings can be considered linear, then for any constant value of g(t) the size of the step at each peak will be approxim ately g(t)n/QT. Therefore, the higher the value o f Q r , the sm aller the d istortion at each cycle peak. In a practical circuit we d o not drive w ith im p u lses; hence the ou tp u t voltage does n o t have steps. F o r exam ple, with current pulses that are 90 wide the voltage transient in the tunedcircuit voltage will be nearly im perceptible, even though the fundam ental current into the tuned circuit is essentially the sam e in the case of impulse, and in the case of w ider current pulses.
F a ilu re-to -F o llo w D isto rtio n
If g(i) increases to o rapidly in a cycle, then the m axim um step in the tuned-circuit voltage, A V q/C. will be insufficient to cause the diode to conduct and the tunedcircuit voltage will not track the m odulating signal.
390
8 .6
Jt';gan be show n for the im pulse drive case th at the necessary condition to prevent upw ard-going failure-to-follow disto rtio n is the satisfaction of the condition
[g (io )/ ] + g (t0 ) ^
I
(8 .6 -1 )
w here a is the real p a rt o f th e tuned-circuit pole, t 0 is the tim e a t any cycle peak, and / 1 = 2 q /T is the fundam ental com ponent of the collector im pulse train. A simple p ro o f of Eq. (8.6-1) requires only (1) the assum ption of a high enough value for Q T th at the envelope decay d uring a cycle is linear and (2) the assum ption of a^ lo w rate of Ghange for g(i). F u rth e r investigation indicates th at the result is valid for all values o f Q t an d of g(i0). . Intuitively it is obvious th a t the input drive m ust always be such th at I {R L exceeds the peak value o f g(t), otherw ise, failure-to-follow d istortion will certainly result. E q u atio n (8.6-1) establishes a further relationship am ong the drive signal, the circuit, an d the rate of change of the m odulation.
Phase Distortion
If g(t) decreases m ore rapidly th an the natu ral envelope decay of the tuned-circuit voltage betw een cu rren t pulses, then the period between diode conductions will fall below T = 2n/m 0 an d phase m o d ulation of the carrier com ponent o f the tunedcircuit voltage will result. T o prevent such distortion, g(t0 + T ) > g ( t 0)e - r
( 8 .6 - 2 )
is a necessary an d sufficient condition. W hen Q T is high an d the rate of change of g(i) is low, this equation may be ap p ro x i m ated by [(to)/]
+ gU o) >
0.
(8.6-3)
As in the case o f failure-to-follow d istortion, a m ore involved analysis shows th at Eq. (8.6-3) is in fact valid w ithout restrictions on either g(i) or Q T. T o prevent either type of d isto rtio n from occurring, the tw o previous restrictions may be com bined to yield I J 2 C > g{t0) + ag(f0) > 0, (8.6-4)
w here excessive positive values for g(t 0) lead to the violation of the left-hand inequality and excessive negative values of g(t0) lead.to the violation of the right-hand inequality.
Sinusoidal Modulation
F o r the specific case of sinusoidal m o d u latio n where ' g(i) = (Ic e - J'c e .JO + m cos w mt), one m ay evaluate Eq. (8.6^4) in order to show the restrictions necessary on m to avoid either type of distortion. F o r dow nw ard-going m odulation the restriction is m < . 1 = ; J 1 + (com /a )2 (8.6-5)
8 .6
391
for upw ard-going m o d u latio n the restriction is m < V M V ccZ W 1 -1 . y j 1 + ( t ja ) 2 (8.6-6)
H ence if R L is g reater th a n 2(VCC Vc,)> then the dow nw ard-going restriction governs in all cases. F o r 100% m o d u latio n this restriction on the m inim um size for 1 1 is im posed a t any rate ; hence no ad d itio n al hard sh ip is added by the ra te o f vari atio n of the m odulation. O ne way to ensure th a t m always satisfies the necessary restrictions is to place the m o d u latin g signal th ro u g h a low -pass filter w ith a 3 dB ban d w id th low er th an a an d to obtain g(i) a t the filter output. Specifically, if the filter transfer function is H(jaj), then m = (VCC- V c i j m o ) j l + COS [0)mt + arg H ( M J ] J . (8.6-7)
Since th e resu ltan t value o f m from Eq. (8.6-7) is \H(ja>m)\/H(0), then, if this function is alw ays equ al to o r less th a n l / ^ / l + (00J o ) 2, Eq. (8.6-5) will alw ays be satisfied. F igure 8.6-4 illustrates th is situation.
Fig. 8.6-4 Prefiltering of the modulation to ensure no distortion in the modulated output [I xR l > 2(Vc c - FC.J ],
F o r a practical circuit th e phase-distortion restriction should be reduced, since w ith a spread-out c u rren t pulse an earlier conduction time for the diode conduction should lead to a less ab ru p t phase shift in the output. C ertainly, if Eq. (8.6-5) is satis fied, then d isto rtio n should be avoided. T o sum m arize: W e have seen th at, if the collector-base diode of a tran sisto r co nducts on every cycle, then the circuit o f Fig. 8.6-1 perform s as an AM m odulator. As was p o in ted o u t in a previous section, it is possible to o b tain 100% m odulation from such a circuit w ithout the strain of driving the tuned circuit between zero and 2( K:c ^ one m erely m odulates to a peak value of, say, 70 % and then su b tracts a carrier co m p o n en t sufficient to bring the valleys dow n to zero.
392
8 .6
O nce again we shall point o u t that, though the m o d u lato r o f this section looks like the m o dulated pow er am plifier o f Section 9.9 the operation of the tw o devices is not identical. T he m o dulated pow er am plifier can operate perfectly satisfactorily even if the collector-base diode never goes into conduction, w hereas the whole basis of operation for the m o d u la to r of this section is the conduction of this diode.
PROBLEM S
8.1 Find the amplitude and frequency of the spectral components of v(t) = g(i)cosoj0f for each of the following cases: a) g(r) = (5 V) cos wmt , com co, b) g(t) = (5 V) + (3 V) cos a> mt, wm u> 0, c) g(t) is a symmetric square wave which varies between 0 V and 5 V with a period T = l/wm l/(t)0. 8.2 The voltage i>(f) given in Problem 8.1 appears at the input of an antenna having an input resistance of 100 i) in the neighborhood of a> 0. Determine the carrier power and the side band power delivered to the antenna for each g(t) given in Problem 8.1. 8.3 The voltage v(t) given in Problem 8.1 is applied to a single tuned circuit having a center frequency of a>0 , a bandwidth of 2a>m, and unity transmission at o0 Find the voltage at the filter output for each g(r). Sketch the frequency spectrumin each case. 8.4 The modulation g(r) = (5V)cosco,f + (10V )cos2i (w i < w2 w0) is applied to the SSB modulator shown in Fig. 8.1-5. Determine a) g(t), the Hilbert transform of g(r), b) an expression for vSSB(t ), c) the spectral components of i'SSB (r), and d) the power
fS S B (f) delivers to a lOOil resistor when placed across it.

cascade, the outputof
8.5 Show that, when g(r) is placed through two Hilbert transformers in the second Hilbert transformer is g(t) ; that is, H[Hg(t)] = g(r).
8.6 Determine the amplitude of the carrier which must be subtracted from t>(r) = {10 V)[l + 0.2/(i)] cos cu0f to yield a modulation index of 0.9. 8.7 In the circuit shown in Fig. 8.2-2, g(t) = (5 V)(l + cos 104t), oi0 = 107 rad/sec, and H(ju>) is a single tuned filter having a bandwidth of 2 x 104 rad/sec and a center frequency of 3 x 107 rad/sec. Assuming that the filter has unity transmission at resonance, find an expression for 8.8 In the circuit shown in Fig. 8.2-5, A = 10 V, F, = 5 V, and V i < 0, t), > 0,
where va an d u, are in volts. C alculate the m axim um o u tp u t m odulation index which can be achieved w ithout causing envelope d istortion in v0(t). 8.9 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 8 .P -1, find v0(t). W hat is the m odulation index? Sketch i f / ( 0 = cos 103f.
PROBLEMS
393
lO k ii
10 V
Figure 8 .P -2
394
8.10 For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.P-2, calculate i!(?) if/(<) = cos 1.66 x 105f. Repeat, assum ing that f( t) is a square wave with transitions between +1 and 1 and with a 100 ^sec period. 8.11 a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.P-3, determine an expression for v0(t) assuming that none of the transistors saturate, that all the transistors are identical, and that |t,(f)| < lOOmV b) Evaluate v0(t) for the case where
d ss = 4 m A , KP =
and
0 < v2(t) < \VP\ + V0.
2V,
RL =
k O ,
I /c
1 0 V ,
R B = 3.9kfi,
t, = lOOmV cos 107f,
and
D 2(f) = (1 V)( 1 + 0.6cos 103f).
Does any transistor saturate?
Figure 8 . P 3
PROBLEMS
39 5
? Vcc
V cc
II
V o (0
R
o
V v V
+
V|(f)
Qi
rll /?
Figure 8 .P -4
.12 For the two-quadrant multiplier shown in Fig. 8.P-4, show that a qRLr vJt) = 2kT(R + r)
provided that
a) Qi and Q2 are identical with sufficiently high values of fl so as not to load r, b) neither Q , nor Q2 saturates, c) Ik(t) > 0, and
d) |tir/(R + r)| < 16 mV.
Given
R = 1 kfi, r = io n ,
R,
10 V,
k(t ) = (2.5 mA)[l mi {t)],
D,(t) = 1 V cos 107t,
and
find an expression for t;0(i). Are the assumptions justified? .13 Figure 8.P-5 illustrates a circuit for unbalancing a differential output. Show that if Q, and Q'i are identical transistors, i = 1,2, 3, with high values of fl, then * (< 2 - h)R l (This is the same voltage that would be obtained differentially between the collectors of Q 5 and Q i if R , were placed in the collectors of both Q 5 and (?4.) Show how this unbalancing network may be used in conjunction wiui me circuits of Figs. 8.3-10, 8.P-3, and 8.P 4. Write an expression for i) for each case.
396
For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.P-6, determine an expression for v0(t) as well ast-0l(r) and vo2(t). Assume that all transistors are identical with [i > 200 and VBE v 0.7 V. 8.15 Determine an expression for vjt) in the circuit shown in Fig. 8.P-7. Assume that ji = 99, VBE st 0.7 V, and that the tuned circuit passes the modulation. 8.16 For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.4-1, g(i) = (10 V)cos 103f, C = 1000 pF, io0 = 107 rad/sec,
L = 10 fiH, R x = 1 kii, R L = 1 kfi,
8.14
and
gm = 10,000 M.
Determine the minimum value of Vt and the maximum value of R 2 which permit proper circuit operation. With these values write an expression for va(t). 8.17 For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.P-8, calculate v(t) if I DSS = 4 mA and VP = 4 V. 8.18 8.19 Derive Eqs. (8.6-1) and (8.6-3). For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.P-9,
i,(r)=
n -
X
- qo
Q S it- n T ) ,
where T = 2n x 10 7 sec and Q = 30rc pC. Make an accurate sketch of v0(t). Indicate regions where failure-to-follow distortion occurs.
PROBLEMS
397
8.20 For the circuit of Problem 8.19, tit) = (10 V)(l + m c o sl0 ;r). Find the maximum value of in before either phase distortion or failure-to-follow distortion occurs. 8.21 For the circuit of Problem 8.19, v(t) [10 9 nil r j] V. Assuming that r, occurs on a negative peak of r{t), write an expression for (or plot) (i) for two carrier cycles beyond is there any phase distortion?
Figure 8.P -6
398
10 V
l
v, (100 mV) cos 10 /(
0
Q3 V )/(0
6 -1 0 V
- - 5 V
Figure 8.P-7
PROBLEMS
399
v(/)
CHAPTER 9
POW ER A M P L IF IE R S
In previous ch ap ters we have been concerned with perform ing som e operation upon a signal, rath er th an w ith the efficient conversion o f supply pow er into signal power. In this chap ter we shall co n centrate upon this pow er conversion problem . Again we shall begin by considering the basic problem s in a device-free context, and then we shall m odify these general results by taking into account the ad d itio n al lim itations im posed by specific types of devices. Intuitively we see th a t th e efficient conversion of supply pow er into signal pow er requires th a t the losses in the conversion device be minimized. If we consider the frequency ranges an d circuit adjustm ents where device voltage d ro p s and device cu rren ts are in phase, then it follows th at device pow er is m inim ized if m axim um cu rren t flows d u rin g m inim um voltage drops while m axim um voltage dro p s are accom panied by m inim um current flows. In additio n , if th e signal to be am plified is either absent or sm all for a substantial p art of the tim e (speech o r m usic, for example), then it is clear th at the long-term average device dissipation will be m inim ized by m inim izing the stan d b y o r Q -point pow er th ro u g h the device. Pow er am plifier o u tp u t for a given device is norm ally lim ited by one o f two fa c to rs: 1) excessive d isto rtio n or 2) som e device a n d /o r circuit lim itation (other th an distortion). Exam ples of the device lim itations include: (a) voltage breakdow n, (b) current handling lim it, and (c) m axim um allow able device tem perature. Exam ples of com bined circuit an d device lim itations in c lu d e : (a) operating path lim itations (e.g., violation of the safe operating region or SO A R f) and (b) therm al runw ay t A device manufacturer may specify regions of the characteristics of a certain device in which it is safe to operate. These regions may be functions of the type of output circuitry and the shape and frequency of the driving waveshape. Most high-power transistors have such regions as a portion of their specifications. Part of the design procedure for any power amplifier is to ensure that the operating path (see Fig. 9.4-3, for example) lies completely within the safe operating region. t Thermal runaway is a phenomenon wherein device self-heating causes more dc current to flow; this leads to more device heating, and the process continues until the device is destroyed. This positive feedback problem is peculiar to transformer- (or choke-) coupled circuits, since with dc resistive loads the increased device current must decrease the device dc voltage and eventually the circuit will reach equilibrium. The problem is controlled by a combination of
400
9.1
IDEAL POWER AMPLIFIERS CLASS A, SINGLE-ENDED
401
9.1 IDEAL POW ER AM PLIFIERS CLASS A, SINGLE-ENDED
Initially we shall co n cen trate on the lim itations im posed by d istortion caused by the drive w aveshape an d the circuit configuration. T h a t is, we neglect gradual internal device distortion's by assum ing th at until the device reaches cutoff o r satu ratio n the o u tp u t p aram eter (current o r voltage) is a faithful copy o f an in put param eter (current or voltage). W e further simplify the situ ation by assum ing th at our devices are currentsource-like o r voltage-source-like. F o r exam ple, with a current-source-like device the o u tp u t cu rren t depends only on the input param eters and is independent of the o u tp u t voltage. Figure 9.1-1 show s a b ro a d b an d version of such an idealized device together with a possible circuit for its use as a pow er amplifier. If such a circuit is operated in such a way th a t id alw ays exceeds, zero, i.e., the device never reaches cutoff, it is called a Class A am plifier.!
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9.1 -1 Device characteristic and possible Class A power amplifier circuit, (a) /, as a param eter. (b) Idealized circuit.
reduced thermal resistances, increased bias stability, and the use of external temperature com pensation elements. For details, see Chapter 3 of Transistor Circuit Analysis by M. V. Joyce and K K. Clarke (Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1961). t Power amplifier classes are defined in terms of the device conduction angle and/or the type of device operation: Class A ; "Linear" operation, 360 conduction angle Class B: Linear operation, 180 conduction angle Class C: Fixed drive, less than 180" conduction angle Class D : Switched operation, conduction angle may vary with time from0 to 360 or may be fixed Class AB: "Linear" operation, conduction angle less than 360 but more than 180 In certain cases a particular circuit may be viewed as belonging simultaneously to several different classes.
402
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9.1
It is a p p a re n t th a t am o n g the variables to be chosen in this circuit are Vcc , n , R L, the Q -point, th e w aveshapes o f i, , an d the peak value of the driving w aveshape. T he choice o f these variables indicated in Fig. 9.1-1 is the o p tim um one assum ing a given Vc c , a given I inm, an d th e desire to o p erate in a Class A fashion with the m axim um possible efficiency: i.e. vd = Vmin K sa, when id = / max. If it is sym m etrical a b o u t /max/2 an d never passes cutoff o r / imax, then the o u tp u t cu rren t will be sym m etrical a b o u t I Q, which will be equal to / dc. A t the sam e time, since we are assum ing m id b and o p eratio n where the transform er reactances m ay be neglected an d the upp er an d low er break p o in ts are widely separated, the device voltage will be sw inging sym m etrically a b o u t Vcc In som e cases, certainly w ith very low -frequency signals o r w ith devices th a t have very sh o rt therm al tim e constants, one wishes to consider in stantaneous ra th e r th an average device pow er. H ow ever, it norm ally suffices to average the-pow er over a cycle o f the low est-frequency signal to be amplified. T o locate the circuit o f Fig. 9.1-1 in the pow er am plifier hierarchy, let us begin by calculating its pow er o u tp u t, pow er input, pow er dissipation, an d pow er conversion efficiency q, all as a function of in p u t w aveshape. '< / = I q + 1 1 cos cot, I Q + / , < / max, Iq
Aic>
R l = n2R, / , K t < Vcc - Vsal, (9.1-1)
V4 = Vcc + h R L c o s t,
and
device
Pic - Pac = Pdcd -
w here P dc is the pow er supplied by the b attery an d P ac *s the pow er consum ed by the load. (A ctually P ac is the pow er available a t the in p u t term inals o f the transform er. Som e sm all-o u tp u t pow er transform ers have transfer efficiencies as low as 0.60; hence all o f P ac m ay n o t actually reach the load.) W hen this circuit has n o sinusoidal drive, all the pow er supplied by the battery o r by the pow er supply m ust be dissipated by the device. As the drive increases, so does t], a n d th e device dissipation falls. W ith the m axim um drive allow able before cutoff o r satu ratio n occurs an d gross d isto rtio n results, one finds
r i )p j~ =
(9.1-2)
(9.1-3) (Vcc + V s J h c
1 device min
where I t R L = Vcc - Fs>la n d l y = / dc. Suppose th a t K sat = 0.05 Vcc ; then f/max = 0.475
9.1
IDEAL POWER AMPLIFIERS
CLASS A, SINGLE-ENDED
403
while P device falls from VccI dQ w ith no sinusoidal drive to 0.525 VccI dc with full sinu soidal drive an d P ac clim bs from zero w ith no drive to 0.475 VccI dQat full drive. Figure 9.1-2 indicates the relative values of P dc, P ac, P device, and r] as a function of i !//dc or
V J(V C C-
Fsat). In all cases the normalization is with respect to P d C m sj< .
F ro m Fig. 9.1-2 it is obvious that, if the drive signal varies in am plitude and is occasionally zero, then the device m ust be capable of dissipating / dcFct w atts and the overall long-term efficiency m ay be 10 % or less.
A/4
Fig. 9.1-2 Normalized powers and efficiency for a sinusoidally driven Class A amplifier (Vm = 0.05 Vcc). Square-W ave Drive Broadband Load If we assum e th a t the device and the o u tp u t transform er will both handle square waves w ithout d isto rtio n , then, if the peak-to-peak value of the square-w ave current
is
lp, where Ip< 2/dc, it follows that

p
I2 pR l n = t 4 /dcFcc
V ! p \ 2 Vcc 2 /h Vn
(9.1 4)
In this case rjm dX = 1 - Fsat/F c c , while P dcvice decreases from Pdc with no drive to ^dc at m axim um drive. Figure 9.1-3 indicates the norm alized variation as a function of / p/ 2 / dc or FP/(FCC K sat). If th e drive ever d ro p s to half its m axim um value, the efficiency will
//2/d c Fig. 9.1 -3 Normalized powers and efficiency for a square-wave-driven Class A amplifier (Fsal = 0.05 Vcc).
404
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9.1
d ro p from 95% to 2 4% while the device dissipation will rise from 50% o f the dc Q -point pow er to 76 % o f this pow er. Hence, except for the special case of continuous m axim um drive, th e device m ust be prepared to dissipate I iQVcc an d the average overall efficiency, while higher th a n in the sine-wave case, m ay easily be 20 % o r less.
Class A Narrowband Operation

As we have seen, a pow er am plifier consists o f a controlling device, a load, a basic pow er source, an d a driving waveform. W e have also seen th a t the results obtained w ith pow er am plifiers are q uite sensitive to the type o f driving waveshape. The results are also a function o f the load circuit. In general, there are tw o useful types of loads. In the b ro a d b a n d case one wishes the load to look resistive and co n sta n t over a frequency range o f a t least 10/1 and m ore norm ally 100/1 o r even 1000/1 or m ore. In the n arro w b an d o r high-(? case one is often satisfied if the 70% variation p o in ts of the load im pedance are w ithin several percent o f the center frequency. A gain one w ould norm ally like the im pedance to be resistive at the center frequency. O n e basic difference betw een the tw o types o f loads is th a t in the b ro ad b an d case the load ca n n o t be cou n ted on to rem ove signal distortion, while in the n arro w band case the filtering properties o f the load m ay lead to o u tp u t voltages o r currents th at are quite different from the driving waveshapes.
If we replace the b ro a d b an d transform er and load com bination by a high-Q parallel R L C circuit, then the circuit o f Fig. 9.1-4 will result. In order to see the different effects o f driving w aveshapes and to com pare the bro ad b an d and narrow band cases, let us calculate the results for this circuit w ith sine- and square-w ave o u tp u t device currents. (Again we assum e th at id contains a dc com ponent of half its m ax im um value, / max, R slne wave = 2(VCC - Vsai)/Imix while tfsquare wavc equals ( Vcc - K sal)/ 2 / max. W e also assum e th a t the driving w aveshape has a fundam ental radian fre quency of co0 .) The results are show n in Table 9.1-1. T he results for the case o f sinusoidal drive are identical to those for the broad b an d case as sum m arized in Fig. 9.1-2. O n the o ther hand, the case of the square-w ave
9 .2 Table 9 .1 -1
CLASS B LINEAR RF AMPLIFIERS
405
Sine wave
d = he +
Pac = K c l dc
Square wave
d ^dc + j
cos w0t
Pdc = ^-c/dc 11 n Ip' Ip

71
/, = / ,
I , = / , / < < Vcc - K
^m ax
V - -fyi
< ' V k(( - V Val
l\R
= n= ^device
2 HR
1 i L V i V c c - K,
2 n \l
2 \id J \
i de.ke = Pd c ( ! I)
^dci ^
V )
driving w aveshape now h as a m axim um possible conversion efficiency of 0.635 (practical efficiency o f 0.60 if K sat = 0.05 Vcc) in com parison to a b ro ad b an d practical efficiency o f 0.95. F o r a case w here P dc = 10 W the practical device dissipation is \ W for b ro a d b a n d m axim um drive an d 4 W for narro w b an d m axim um drive. This eightfold increase in actu al dissipation w ith a m axim um am plitude square-w ave drive is the significant difference betw een the b ro ad b an d and the narro w b an d cases. T he im p o rtan t difference betw een the sine- an d square-w ave cu rrent pulse drives into a tuned-circuit load is th a t for the sam e supply voltage and the sam e m axim um allow able device cu rren t the square-w ave drive case yields Ajn tim es as m uch o u tp u t power. 9.2 CLASS B LINEAR RF AMPLIFIERS W hen the signal to be pow er-am plified is am plitude-m odulated in one o f the forms discussed in C h a p te r 8, there m ust be a linear relationship betw een the envelope of the pow er am plifier o u tp u t an d the envelope of the in put driving signal. T his desired linearity o f the envelope transfer function does n o t preclude the p ro p er piecew ise-linear o p eratio n o f the device and does n o t require u n d isto rted cu rren t o r voltage w aveshapes th ro u g h o u t the system. W hat is required is th at there be a linear relatio n sh ip betw een the am plitude of the fundam ental com ponent of the device o u tp u t cu rren t pulses an d the in put envelope. W ith such a relationship and w ith a n arro w b an d o u tp u t filter, one can o b tain a useful pow er am plifier for SSB, suppressed carrier o r no rm al A M signals. By using a cu rren t pulse tra in instead o f keeping the device current alw ays on, one expects to reduce device d issipation and increase conversion efficiency. This increase in efficiency should occur because cu rren t flow will be stopped during the
406
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9.2
p art o f the period when the device voltage is high an d /o r the device voltage will be reduced d u rin g the p a rt of the cycle w hen the cu rren t is high. Tw o possible current pulse shapes are h alf sine waves and a train of rectangular pulses of w idth r(t 7 0 = 2n/T). w here a> F igure 9.2-1 indicates tw o idealized possibilities for a com bination o.r device characteristic an d driving w aveshape that, w hen followed by an a p p ro p ria te n arro w band filter, will allow lin ear- R F pow er am plification. T he fundam ental com ponent of the half-sine-wave tips is equal to /p/2; hence,
(b) Fig. 9.2 -1 Two possibilities for device characteristics and driving waveshapes that will allow linear R F amplification.
if the device characteristic is straight all the way dow n to the origin, one may linearly am plify a 100% m o dulated AM wave in a single-ended Class B am plifier with a si n usoidal driving w aveshape. F o r any p articular value of I p for which , VCC - ^sa, Ip S ^ , Rl so that
VrrI CC p
, _ / <Hr
I = - 1 2
and
I2 P ac = TT*.
and
= *
Vr r
and since R L = 2[VC C - Kat]/^max> to achieve optim um efficiency n = / 1 max

Vr ,
\
K a .U
I
I V VCC
14 H
(9.2-1)
which has a m axim um value o f (n/4)(VCC VSM )/VCC when p = 7max. Figure 9.2-2 indicates the o p eratin g path for this case and com pares it with the Class A case (shown dashed).
9 .2
C LA SS B L IN E A R R F A M P L IF IE R S
407
It is a p p a r e n t fro m th is fig u re w hy th e C la s s B d ev ice d is s ip a tio n s h o u ld b e re d u ced w ith re s p e ct to th e C la s s A d is s ip a tio n . F o r th e h ig h -v o lta g e h a lf o f r d the d ev ice c a r r ie s n o c u r r e n t a t all. T h is c ro w d in g o f th e c u rr e n t in to th e lo w -v o lta g e h a lf o f th e c y c le is in tu itiv e ly e x a c tly w h at o n e w a n ts in o r d e r to re d u c e th e p o w e r lo ss in
the device.
It is a ls o a p p a r e n t th a t m a x im u m d ev ice d is s ip a tio n w ill n o lo n g e r o c c u r a t the m a x im u m d riv e p o in t b u t a t s o m e in te rm e d ia te p o in t w h ere th e p ro d u c t o f th e d ev ice c u rr e n t a n d v o lta g e d ro p g o e s th ro u g h a m a x im u m . th e re su lt e q u a l to ze ro :
^Prndd
i
T o find th is m a x im u m
d is s ip a tio n p o in t, o n e d iffe re n tia te s P device = P dc P ac w ith re s p e ct to / p an d sets
1/
V cc
t / 1
p
d e v i c e ir>iS x
__
V c c ' l ma x
2 i/
K '(
i 7
IQ 1
1
71
*
* max
*C C
'sat
* CC
*s at
T h u s fo r e q u a l v alu e s o f Vc c an d /max th e C la s s B sta g e h a s a m a x im u m d ev ice d is s ip a tio n o f a p p r o x im a te ly I th a t o f a C la s s A stage. P u t a n o th e r w ay, th e r a tio o f th e m a x im u m lo a d p o w er. P l t . to the m a x im u m d ev ice d is s ip a tio n is
ror0litssB .
l ; - ',
,9 .:
3,
= 1 Vci Z
for Class A.
Fig. 9.2 -2 Class A and Class B operating paths (sinusoidal input signals).
408
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9 .3
or, when Vsat = 0.05 Vc c , the ratio for the sinusoidally driven Class B stage is 2.2 com pared to 0.475 for the C lass A stage. T hus to supply a m axim um load pow er of 100 W via a Class A stage requires a device capable o f dissipating 210 W , w hile a C lass B stage requires only a 45 W device.
9.3 CLASS C LINEAR AM PLIFIERS
W ith a sinusoidal driving signal, when one attem pts to increase the conversion effici ency beyond n/A by reducing the conduction angle of the cu rrent pulses to less th an 180, one loses the linear relationship betw een the fundam ental com ponent o f the pulses an d their peak value. T he reason is th a t in this case the conduction angle, and hence the ra tio o f the fundam ental cu rren t to the peak current, becom es a function of the am plitude. O n the oth e r h and, for a rectangular pulse train of any finite w idth the fundam en tal am plitude is related to the peak am plitude by 21 . m I , = -s in (9.3-1) 1 n T so th a t a linearly m odu lated pulse A M signal at the input of a zero-biased piecewiselinear stage w ould yield a linearly m odulated AM signal across its o u tp u t tan k circuit.
-h
--
4 t -I -----
Fig. 93-1 RF amplifier with pulse drive. If one considers the case of a fixed-am plitude pulse train into an o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit as show n in Fig. 9.3-1, then, for / lmax R L = Vcc ~ âi R, = yCC K., 1 *sat n 2 sin (nz/T)' m ax ,2 sin ) cc ~ V" ^ In Tj n
(9.3-2)
I X Pdc j p rp I max V *XC *max *

and
(9.3-3)
Vcc - ^sat sin jn z/T ) ^ max Vcc nx/T
( 9 .3 - 4 )
9.3
CLASS C LINEAR AMPLIFIERS
409
F o r a given value of I p/ I m a% the available o u tp u t pow er increases as a sinusoidal function as x / T increases from zero to j . At the sam e time, the circuit conversion efficiency decreases as a s in x /x function. Table 9.3-1 indicates the relative Pac, efficiency, and in 1 (sin x /x ) the relative device dissipation for a.pulse-driven Class C am plifier w ith the co n d u ctio n angle as a variable. N o te that increasing the conduction angle from 120 to 180 increases the output power by only 15% but increases the device dissipation 1.56 times. F ro m these d a ta one would norm ally expect to operate w ith x /T in the range from to y (120 > 6 > 60).
Table 9.3-1
T T 1 2 1 3 1 4 i 6
. nr sin jr 1.00 0.866 0.707 0.500
sin (nx/T) nx/T 0.635 0.83 0.90 0.955
sin x
X
180 120 o O' 60
0.265 0.17 0.10 0.045
N o te th at these d a ta are perfectly valid if the bias point is chosen anyw here to the
left o f th e b r e a k p o in t in F ig . 9 .2 - l ( b ) . T h e o n ly tim e th a t b r e a k p o in t b ia s o p e r a tio n is
necessary is w hen lin ear envelope am plification is required. As in the Class B case of sine-wave drive with a constant supply voltage, when the device operates in an on-off fashion the m axim um device dissipation does not occur at the m axim um drive b u t a t som e interm ediate level. Again this m axim um level is found by writing = P.d c Pac, differentiating w ith respect to / , and setting the result equal to zero. W hen this is done for the case of rectangular pulses the point of maximum device dissipation, / , is found as 1 L
Vr,
sin (n x / T ) n x/T
(9.3-5)
2 Vcc - K*
At this drive level the actual efficiency is n = 1 sin (nx/T) n x /T

( 9 .3 -6 )
which for 8 = 90 and Fsal = VCC/2Q is dow n from 0.855 at m axim um drive to only 0.405 of the m axim um device d issipation p o int o f / Pmdd/ / m ax = 0.475. Figure 9.3-2 indicates the o perating paths for no m odulation and for 100% positive peak m o d u latio n for a 90 rectangular pulse drive Class C lin ea r amplifier. It will be d em o n strated in Section 9.9 th a t the overall efficiency can be increased if the o u tp u t voltage is varied in step with the input. T he general results of th at section can also be applied to the pulse-driven linear Class C am plifiers of this section. F o r o rd in ary pow er am plification of unm odulated signals, Class C is preferred over C lass B. At higher frequencies the pulse-like drive signals are difficult to produce
410
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9.4
No modulation Fig. 9.3-2 Operating paths for 90 linear Class C amplifier. and one tends to use sinusoidally driven Class C amplifiers. Such am plifiers are discussed in Section 9.4. W ith a triode vacuum tube the o u tp u t current pulse is a function of the ou tp u t voltage; hence direct o u tp u t m odulation of such stages is possible. F urtherm ore, they can be adjusted for reasonably linear operation up to nearly 100% m odulation. Therefore, vacuum tube am plifiers are m odulated in the final pow er am plifier w hen ever possible. N orm ally single-sideband and suppressed carrier operations are p er form ed at low pow er levels. These signals do require linear pow er am plifiers for all subsequent stages. T ransistors w ould seem to lend them selves quite readily to the m odulated Class B am plifier schem e of Section 9.9. Since the best-m odulated Class C am plifier seldom has an overall efficiency of m ore than 80% , one is really sacrificing alm ost nothing in this case. O f course, FM , PM , binary AM , and the various industrial uses o f C W are com pletely indifferent to the lin earity of the pow er am plifier employed. 9.4 RF CLASS C AMPLIFIERS The norm al R F pow er am plifier does n o t have a piecewise-linear device characteristic, n o r is it driven by a sq u a re pulse. It is norm ally operated into a tuned-circuit load, so th at no m atter w hat the shape of the input current pulse one can begin by assum ing th at the o u tp u t voltage is sinusoidal. If one know s the actual input driving waveshape, if one know s that the o u tp u t voltage is sinusoidal, and if one has the pro p er device characteristic, then one can always calculate the o u tp u t current waveshape. In some cases this current pulse will have a know n analytic form, and the dc and fundam ental term s may be w ritten by inspection. Even if the analytic form is not know n, one can norm ally ap p roxim ate any sym m etrical pulse by one of several forms such as rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, cosine, cosine squared, or sine-wave tip. (If the o u tp u t circuit is tuned to be resistive, then a sym m etrical input pulse will yi^ld a sym m etrical o u tp u t pulse.)
9.4
RF CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
411
T o a id in th e a n a ly s is o f th e c u rr e n t p u lse s, th e a p p e n d ix to th is c h a p te r ta b u la te s th e e q u a tio n s fo r v a rio u s p u lse fo rm s a n d p re s e n ts n o rm a liz e d cu rv e s fo r /dc, l { , an d I 2 vs. th e p u lse w id th o r c o n d u c tio n an g le . A s th e se cu rv e s in d ic a te , th e v a ria tio n s a m o n g th e d iffe re n tia l w a v e sh a p e s a re n o t la r g e ; c o n s e q u e n tly a n e x a c t fit is n o t n e c e ss a ry in o rd e r to o b ta in a r e a s o n a b le e s tim a te o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l a n d d c valu es.
Fig. 9 .4 1 Triode Class C amplifier
The circuit of Fig. 9.4-1 provides an exam ple of the use of these curves as well as i f the determ in atio n of the current w aveshape for an idealized triode vacuum tube m which the plate curren t is a function of both vPk and v0K. in order to simplify our I-.xatuple slightly, lei us assum e that the device characteristics are as shown in Fig. l.4-2. (As show n in Fig. 9.4-2, this tube has a constant /; = 10 and a constant ; p 1.8 kQ In a real tube the curves w ould be neither straigh! nor equally spaced.) T he bias has been chosen so that with a sine-wave drive of 5.4 kV peak and with a Knm + 2 kV for the plate-cathode voltage, the conduction angle will be 120.+ For com parison purposes let us assum e three different driving waveshapes, in each case the bias and supply voltages are constant but R , is changed, so th at we always drive up to vGk vPK = 2 kV in the upper left-hand co rner: 1. S inusoidal: 5 .4 k V ,0 p = 120
2. P u ls e : 5 . 4 k V , 0 p = 120 3. C o m p o s it e : ( 5 . 4 k V ) ( l . l c o s u>t 0.1 c o s 3 a ) , 6 p ~ 140 T h e o p e ra tin g p a th s fo r th e th re e c a s e s a re sh o w n in F ig . 9 .4 - 3 . T h e s e p a th s a re 3.4 k V ,
c o n s tr u c te d b y d ra w in g th e d riv in g v o lta g e a lo n g th e v e rtic a l a x is c e n te re d at -
+ For idealized tubes the relation among as V cc

Kb 'A IVPK m in + M
and the conduction angle 0p may be written

COS
(9p/2)
/1 - cos (0J2)
(9.4-1)
hence for VBB = 12 kV, n = 10, vPK Vcc = - 3400 V.
= 2 kV, vG K
= 2kV, and 9p = 120, it follows that
412
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9 .4
Fig. 9.4-2 Mythical triode characteristics (1 = 10, rp = 1800 fi).
draw ing a 10 kV sine wave along the h o rizontal axis centered aro u n d 12kV , and plotting the resultant Lissajous pattern. All the circled points in any vertical line represent the sam e an g u lar distance m easured from the peak o f the cu rrent pulse (or from the valley o f the o u tp u t tan k circuit voltage). N ote, as in previous cases, the extrem e dependence o f the o p erating p a th on the driving waveshape. O nce the o p eratin g p ath is sketched, the current pulse is draw n alm ost by inspection, since each circle indicates the plate o r grid cu rrent for its particular angular displacem ent. T he respective cu rrent pulses are show n in Fig. 9.4 4. In o rd er to com pare the three cases let us approxim ate the various cu rrent pulses as follows. 1. Sinusoidal d r iv e : /' cosine pulse of 120 w idth, /, = 3.8 A, /dc = 2.1 A ; iG trian g u lar pulse of 102 width, I G 1 = 0.85 A, I G0 = 0.45 A.
9.4
RF CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
413
2. Pulse drive: iB square pulse of 120 w idth m inus a triangular pulse of 120 w idth and 0.2 A height, / , = 5.5 - 0.6 = 4.9 A, /* = 3.33 - 0.33 = 2.0 A ; zG square pulse of 120 w idth and 2.2 A height plus a triangular pulse of 120 w idth and 1 A height, / G 1 = 1.2 + 0.30 = 1.5 A, I G0 = 0.733 + 0.167 = 0.90. 3. C om posite d riv e : iB sym m etrical trapezoid o f 140 w idth, / 1 = 5 A, / dc = 2.0 A; iGcosine p.ulse o f 120 w idth, I Gl = 1.14 A, l GJ = 0.42 A, I G0 = 0.63 A.
Fig. 9.4-3 O perating paths for three different driving waveshapes and load resistors (Vcc = 3400 V, V = 1 2 lcV).
414
P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
9.4
12.5
60
0 (a)
60'
60
0 (b)
60
60"
0 (c)
60
Fig. 9.4-4 Plate and grid current pulses for the three operating paths of Fig. 9.4-3. (a) Sinusoidal drive, (b) Pulse drive, (c) Composite drive. F ro m these current w aveshapes and their harm onic analyses in addition to the assum ption of a know n driving w aveshape and a know n o u tp u t w aveshape (10 kV peak sinusoid), we can derive values of i and iG for the necessary value of R, as well as the various pow ers listed in Tables 9.4-1 and 9.4-2. The grid circuit calculations are explained in Section 9.8. W hich driving w aveshape is allow able will depend on the device lim itations. F o r example, if the peak allow able c u rre n tf is 10 A, then the pulse drive would not be satisfactory although the o th er two w ould be. (Actually the peak cathode currents do not differ too drastically, since for the pulse case the valley in iB corresponds to the peak in iG.) If the peak plate dissipation is 7 kW or the peak grid dissipation is 900 W, then only the sinusoidal case would be allowed. The com posite drive does yield the sam e o u tp u t pow er as the p ulse drive, but does it at a higher efficiency, with 20% less peak current, with 76% of the grid dissipation, and with a w aveshape that is m uch easier to generate th an is the pulse w'aveshape. The last colum n of Table 9.4-2 f The maximum cathode current should be supplied by the manufacturer of the device. If it is not, then the most reasonable procedure is to find the peak allowable cathode current in milliamperes per watt of filament power for another tube having the same type of filament material and roughly the same power rating. This "constant can then be used to determine ^ for the tube in question. For pure tungsten filaments run at their rated power input, this value is usually about 5 mA/watt. As the filament power decreases, the emission per watt falls but the life increases. Thus reducing the filament power to 90% of its rated value (normally this means reducing the filament voltage to about 95 % of its rated value) will approximately double the life of the filament while reducing the maximum emission per watt to perhaps 75% of its original value. ' The lives of thoriated tungsten filaments cannot be extended by low-power operation. Normally the filament voltage for these tubes should be regulated to within 5 % of the nominal value. Such filaments are much more efficient emitters than pure tungsten. However, they should not be operated within a factor of 2 or 3 of their temperature saturation currents; hence one has a nominal mA/watt figure in the region of 15 to 17 for this type of filament. Oxide-coated cathodes are generally too delicate to withstand the ionic bombardments of high-voltage operation. With small tubes that have oxide-coated cathodes one can assume that peak cathode currents of 40 mA/watt will not cause damage.
9 .5
N A R R O W B A N D C LA SS D P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
415
indicates the pow er gain of the stage. F rom this and from the driver pow er figure it is apparent th at a pow er am plifier will be needed to drive this stage. Table 9.4-1 Plate circuit values Driving waveshape
------
---- :----- ---------2620 2040 2000
R i, n
--------19 24.5 25
-------
Pdt. kW 25.2 36 35.5
Pplat.: - kW
Sinusoidal Pulse Composite
6.2 11.5 10.5
Table 9.4-2 Grid circuit values Driving waveshape Sinusoidal Pulse Composite
P fro n , driver-
P lo b a t t e r y or b i a s c i r c u i t - W 'T
w 770 1800 1147
J.c/Pdhv.r 8.3 5.05 7.1
2300 4850 3400
1530 3050 2253
It is ap p aren t th at one could generate a series of curves of Pac, rj, and P dcvice vs. conduction angle for different assum ed device current waveshapes. In general, the results will all be sim ilar to those of T able 9.3-1 for the rectangular pulse. T h at is, the pow er o u tp u t will rise as the conduction angle increases, but the device dissipation will rise even m ore rapidly; hence norm ally the conduction angle m ust be held below 180. In order to increase the efficiency while m aintaining the pow er o u tp u t, one w ants to operate the device com pletely as a switch so th at the device voltage d ro p rem ains at or near the m inim um value over a half-cycle of current flow. The next section exam ines such switched-device or Class D circuits. 9.5 NARROWBAND CLASS D POWER AMPLIFIERS T he tw o basic form s of the R F Class D pow er am plifier are show n in Fig. 9.5-1. In both cases the switch is driven back and forth at the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit. Initially the tim e when neither contact is m ade is assum ed to be zero.
V o lta g e -S w itc h in g C a se Id eal (1 0 0 % E fficien cy)
Since the switch spends half its tim e in each position, the voltage r,-(f) is a square wave of am plitude 2VCC. T his square wave can be expanded by m eans of Eq. (4.2-4) to o b tain a dc value of Vcc and a fundam ental value of V1 = AVcc/n. Since the circuit is resonant at the fundam ental frequency of the square wave and is assum ed to have > 5, the cu rren t is essentially a sinusoid of peak am plitude / , = V JR. Since this current m ust also flow through the switches, it follows that the current through each
Q r
416
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9 .5
/Sw itch
(b)
Fig. 9.5-1 (a) Voltage-switching Class D circuit, (b) Constant-current-switching Class D circuit.
switch is a h alf sine wave. H ow ever, once the cu rren t th ro u g h the battery is know n, then P dc can be calculated and the analysis problem is solved.
V o lta g e -S w itc h in g C a se P r a ctic a l
The efficiency of this circuit d eparts from 100% because of losses in the switches and in the in d u cto r a n d /o r capacitor. Since the device is assum ed always to be saturated when on, the closed switches m ay be m odeled as show n in Fig. 9.5-2. Vo

Fig. 9.5 -2
jh
-V W -
Device model in saturated region.
N ow if rL is the com bined effective series loss elem ent of the inductor and the cap acito r an d if R z = rs + rL + R, then the effective peak-to-peak input voltage square wave is reduced in m agnitude to 2( Vcc V0), from which
' - 7 n O bviously the devices m ust n o t break dow n at a voltage of 2VCC; on the o th er hand, if they are to be used to the lim its o f their current, then the peak cu rren t / , will be set at /max (certainly 1 x < / max). W ith these assum ptions,
VJi
Pdc
Vl =
4(KCc - V0)
and
4 (VCC -
K0 ) I iQn (9 .5- 1)
2 V CCI d c ,
Pac
d e v ic e
Pc
Vcc ~ V0
VC C
d c
9 .5
NARROWBAND CLASS D POWER AMPLIFIERS
417
and
Coverall D
R Vcc - V 0 T / Vcc
(^*5
I f / , = /max then R Imax

dc =
4(KC C - |/0) 7t/

^ ^ * ac load
_ 2(Fcc - K0)
_
(9.5-3) R^ 'max rj Ky
and
^perdevice
P
/m _ K r 0* ax , ' /m 2 ax* r5
,q r
L r)
av
F o r exam ple, if / m ax = 2 A, K cc = 20 V, F0 = 0.4 V, rs = 0.25 Q, rL = 0.125Q , and = 100, then -Rmax = 12.12 i2 and the loaded Q of the series circuit is approxim ately 10. T hus P dc = 25.4 W, and = 0.255 + 0.25 = 0.55 W.. H ence the ratio of ac load pow er to to ta l device dissipation (two devices) is nearly 22/1 ; this value should be com p ared to the ratio o f 2.2/1 for the Class B sinusoidally driven stage. Figure 9.5-3 illustrates tw o tran sisto r arrangem ents th a t w ould be possible as switches. As we shall see in a subsequent section, it is a straightforw ard m atter to build a transform erless driver for the com plem entary sym m etry version of the switch. The driving circuit m ust supply enough tu rn-on cu rrent to keep the on transistor satu rated d u rin g its conducting half-cycle, and then enough turn-off cu rren t to get it o u t of satu ratio n rapidly. If the base cu rren t is sinusoidal and /i is constant as the cu rren t varies, then I Bl > /[//?, so th a t if / 1 = 2 A and [3 % 10, then I Bi > 200 mA. T he turn-off problem is im p o rta n t because if one unit stays saturated while the second unit com es on, the result is alm ost a dead sh o rt from 2 l/cc to ground. Unless the pow er supply has a cu rrent-lim iting feature, the transistors m ay be destroyed by these repeated surges. If a square-w ave drive is em ployed, then a speed-up cap acito r m ight be added
in parallel with the base resistors to increase the turn-off and turn-on times.
P acload = 24 W,
n = 0.95.
As the carrier frequency increases, the assum ption of negligible transition times for the switch will n o longer be valid. Since a heavy current flows during this interval while th e switch is going off, the rise tim e does n o t have to becom e appreciable before the transition-region losses are equal to the saturation-region term s and the very
418
9.5
O2V cc
-W v -
-A W
(a) Fig. 9.5 -3 Two possible voltage-sw itching circuits.
(b)
lo w c a lc u la te d v a lu e s fo r P device a re d o u b le d o r trip led . In e s tim a tin g th e tr a n s itio n lo sse s, w e c a n a s su m e lin e a r rise a n d fa ll tim e s, e a c h o f d u r a tio n t,. T h e n th e to ta l t r a n s itio n -r e g io n p o w e r lo s s w ill b e a p p r o x im a te ly (f,/ T )P dc. T h u s i f th e d ev ice p o w e r fo r o u r p re v io u s e x a m p le is n o t to b e m o r e th a n d o u b le d , we n eed t J T < 0 .0 2 . T h is m e a n s th a t fo r o p e r a tio n a t 5 0 0 k H z , t, < 4 0 n se c, a n d fo r o p e r a tio n a t 1 M H z , t, < 2 0 nsec. S in c e th e s e n u m b e rs re p r e s e n t a p p r o x im a te ly th e lim its o f p re s e n t-d a y p o w er t r a n s is to r s , o n e c a n h o p e to a c h ie v e r a tio s o f lo a d p o w e r to to t a l d e v ice lo ss o f a b o u t 10/1 o n ly up to c e n te r fre q u e n c ie s o f a b o u t 1 M H z . F o r lo w e r fre q u e n c ie s th e g a in s o v e r th e C la s s B o r C la s s C s ta g e c a n b e im p re ssiv e . C u rre n t-S w itc h in g C a s e Id e a l F o r th e c irc u it o f F ig . 9 .5 1 (b ) th e c u r r e n t th ro u g h e a c h o f th e tw o s w itc h e s h a s th e fo rm o f a s q u a re w av e o f a m p litu d e 2 Ip . T h e s e s q u a re w av es m a y b e e x p a n d e d to p ro v id e a d c v a lu e o f
I p th ro u g h e a c h sw itch a n d a fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t 4 I p/ n
w h ich , b e c a u s e o f th e p h a s e re v e rs a l b e tw e e n th e tw o sw itch c u rr e n ts , m a y b e v iew ed a s flo w in g o u t o f th e b o t t o m o f th e ta n k c ir c u it a n d in to th e to p . T h a t is, fro m th e v ie w p o in t o f c u r r e n ts , th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 9 .5 1(b) m a y b e re p la c e d b y th a t o f F ig . 9 .5 -4 . S in c e th e tu n e d c ir c u it is p re su m e d to h a v e a re a s o n a b le Q, w e n e g le c t th e h a r m o n ic g e n e r a t o r s ; a n d s in c e th e sw itch is p re su m e d to sp e n d e q u a l tim e s o n e a c h
9 .5
N A R R O W B A N D C L A SS D P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
419
-k
Fig. 9 .5 -4
Equivalent circuit (from the current viewpoint) for Fig. 9.5-1 (b).
4 LR
LY JX
. Switch open , Switch closed
21,
Fig. 9 .5 -5 Device cu rren t an d voltage in th e current-sw itching circuit.

h a lf, w e c o m b in e th e fu n d a m e n ta l g e n e r a to r s . N o w K, = 4 I pR/n an d th e ta n k c irc u it v o lta g e is s in u s o id a l. T h e v o lta g e a c r o s s e a c h d e v ice is n o t s in u s o id a l b u t ta k e s th e
form of a train of half-sine-wave pulses as shown in Fig. 9.5-5.

C u rre n t-S w itc h in g C a s e P r a c t ic a l In a re a l c ir c u it th e c o n s ta n t c u r r e n t su p p ly m u st b e a b le to a d ju s t its e lf t o th e n eed s o f th e c ir c u it ; h e n c e it w o u ld b e m e c h a n iz e d b y a n in d u c ta n c e , L c c , th a t is a t le a st five tim e s a s g r e a t a s L in se rie s w ith a su p p ly v o lta g e Vc c . T h e n , s in c e n o d e v ice lo ss, P dc = P ac a n d
P dc = 2 Ip Vcc
w h ile th e a c p o w e r re m o v e d is 8/j;K/7i2, it fo llo w s th a t, fo r th e id e a l c a s e w h ere th e re is
h =
< 9 -5- 5)
I f w e w ish to set 21 p a t /max fo r e a c h sw itc h , th e n w e m u st set O nce
R a t a p a r tic u la r valu e. R is set, a ll th e p o w e rs a n d e ffic ie n c ie s c a n b e c a lc u la te d im m e d ia te ly .
In th is c a s e th e c u rr e n t d u rin g c o n d u c tio n is c o n s t a n t ; h e n c e fo r a n y p a r tic u la r /max o n e c a n sim p lify th e m o d e l o f F ig . 9 . 5 - 2 b a c k t o a sin g le b a tte r y o f v a lu e A g a in th e L a n d C lo s s e s c o u ld b e re p r e s e n te d a s a n e q u iv a le n t lo s s R t ; th u s th e ta n k c ir c u it e ffic ie n c y is /?,/(/?, +
R) a n d th e p o w e r in t o th e ta n k is
m -
420
w h ere
9.5
Ru R R ,/(R + R ,) = t]tankR ,
= 2I p pVcc, v CC>
f
_ ,^p\2^nk^
^ a c load
'
tc I
(9 5_6)
(9 .5 -7 )
each device
I p K
a t
a n d R is c h o s e n to lim it th e v a lu e o f 21 p to a v a lu e th a t th e d e v ice c a n h a n d l e :
K , > n- (V^
r V ^ l max
to th e lo ad .
(9 .5 -8 )
R a is in g a b o v e th is v a lu e w ill re d u c e th e p o w e r a v a ila b le
In o rd e r to c o m p a r e th e v o lta g e - a n d c u rr e n t-s w itc h in g c a s e s we m ig h t c a lc u la te n u m e ric a l v a lu e s fo r a set o i p a r a m e te r s s im ila r to th o s e used in th e v o lta g e -s w itc h in g c a se . S u c h v a lu e s a re sh o w n in T a b le 9 .5 -1 .
Table 9.5 I Voltage switch C urrent switch Vcc = 2 0 V ,/mai = 2A K sat = 0.9 V R, = 4.9 k n , Q, s 100 Loaded Q R = P dc = P ,oad = p perdevice _
'/overall
vcc = 20 V, / max = 2 A
0.4 V, rs = 0.25 O Vo rL = 0.125 k i) , Q l * 100 Loaded Q 10 12.1 Q 25.4 W 24 W 0.55 W 0.95
perdevice
10 48.5 i2 40 W 37.8 W oo yw
* 0.95
T h e c u rr e n t sw itc h is n o t s u b je c t to th e p ro b le m o f e x c e s s c u r r e n t w h en b o th sw itch e s a re c lo s e d s im u lta n e o u s ly , b u t it d o e s su ffer fro m e x c e s s d e v ice v o lta g e if b o th sw itch e s try to o p e n a t o n c e . I t a ls o su ffers fro m th e p r a c tic a l d ifficu lty th a t th e tu r n -o ff sw itc h in g s ta r ts fro m th e full o n c u rr e n t r a th e r th a n fro m th e th e o r e tic a l v alu e o f z e ro d e v ice c u rr e n t th a t s h o u ld b e p re se n t in th e v o lta g e sw itch a t th e in s ta n t o f sw itch in g . I f th e p e a k c u r r e n t o f th e d e v ice s is lim ite d , th e n th e s q u a r e c u rr e n t p u lse o f th e c u rr e n t sw itch w ill p ro v id e m o r e lo a d p o w e r th a n th e h a lf sin e p u ls e o f th e v o lta g e sw itc h in g case . O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f th e c ir c u it is d ev ice d is s ip a tio n lim ite d , th e n in th e o ry th e c ir c u its c a n y ield e x a c tly e q u a l o u tp u ts. In p r a c tic e , th e a c tu a l e ffic ie n cy o f th e c u rr e n t-s w itc h in g c ir c u it te n d s to b e lo w e r th a n th e e ffic ie n cy o f th e v o lta g e s w itc h in g c i r c u i t ; c o n s e q u e n tly , i f th e d e v ice d is s ip a tio n is lim ite d , th e v o lta g e sw itc h is th e b e tte r c h o ic e .
9.6
B R O A D B A N D C LA SS B A M P L IF IE R S
421
O t h e r fa c to r s to c o n s id e r w h en m a k in g a c h o ic e b e tw e e n th e c ir c u its h a v e to d o w ith th e p o te n tia l d e v ice fa ilu re m e c h a n is m s a n d w h e th e r e x c e s s c u rr e n t o r e x c e ss v o lta g e seem s m o r e d a n g e ro u s. M o r e d e ta ils o n b re a k d o w n a n d lo sse s in th is ty p e o f c ir c u it c a n b e fo u n d in a p a p e r b y C h u d o b ia k a n d P a g e .f
9.6 BRO A D B A N D C LA SS B A M P L IF IE R S
T o su p p ly th e b a s e b a n d p o w e r n e c e s s a ry to d riv e a m o d u la te d C la s s B o r C la s s C s ta g e o r to d riv e th e lo u d s p e a k e r s o f a p u b lic a d d re ss sy ste m o r to d riv e th e lo u d s p e a k e r o f a ra d io o r te le v isio n set, o n e w o u ld lik e a b ro a d b a n d , h ig h -g a in , d is t o r tio n less a m p lifie r b u ilt o f th e le a st e x p e n siv e p o s s ib le d ev ices. In S e c tio n 9.1 we in v e stig a te d C la s s A a m p lifie rs a n d fo u n d th a t, th o u g h th e ir d is to r tio n c o u ld b e lo w , th e ir o v e r a ll a v e ra g e e ffic ie n cy w as v ery lo w a n d , in g e n e ra l, th e ir re q u ire d d e v ice d is s ip a tio n w as m o r e th a n tw ice th e ir p e a k a c lo a d p ow er. In S e c tio n 9 .2 we c o m b in e d a d e v ice h a v in g h a lf-sin e -w a v e o u tp u t p u lses o f c u rr e n t w ith a filte r to o b t a in a l in e a r a m p lifie r fo r th e e n v e lo p e o f n a r ro w b a n d sig n als. W ith b r o a d b a n d s ig n a ls w e c a n n o t u se a f i l t e r ; h o w e v e r, w e c a n c o m b in e tw o d ev ice s s o th a t th e y a lte r n a te ly fo rc e h a lf-sin e -w a v e p u lses th ro u g h th e lo a d in o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n s . S u c h a s c h e m e w ill giv e us th e a d v a n ta g e s o f C la s s B o v e r w idefre q u e n cy ran g e s. F ig u r e 9 .6 -1 illu s tra te s o n e o f th e b a s ic fo rm s o f a C la s s B b r o a d b a n d am p lifie r.
-f
d .
Fig. 9 .6 -1
Class B am plifier configuration.
I f th e c u rr e n t w a v e sh a p e s o f g e n e r a to r s 1 a n d 2 a re a s sh o w n in F ig . 9 .6 - 2 , w h ere
is th e m a x im u m v a lu e fo r Ipl a n d I p2, th e n fo r th is m a x im u m d riv e
P ac
( Vcc
K a tK m a x
(9 .6 1)
t W. J. C hudobiak and D. F. Page, Frequency and Pow er Lim itations of Class D T ransistor Amplifiers, IEEE Journal o f Solid State Circuits, SC-4, pp. 25-37 (Feb. 1969).
422
9.6
A A A.
\
an d n V rr ~ V
r A
j
( 9 .6 - 2 )
Fig. 9 .6 -2 C u rren t waveshapes for Class B am plifier with sinusoidal drive.
T h e m a x im u m d riv e e ffic ie n c y in th is c a s e is 5 0 % h ig h e r th a n it w as in th e c a s e o f C la s s A s in u s o id a l d riv e. A s w as tru e fo r n a r ro w b a n d o p e r a tio n , s u c h a c o m p a r is o n is n o t s u fficie n t to g iv e a g o o d in d ic a tio n o f th e re la tiv e d e v ic e d is s ip a tio n p o s s ib ilitie s in th e tw o c a se s . A s b e fo re , th e p e a k d e v ice d is s ip a tio n d o e s n o t o c c u r a t p e a k d riv e b u t, fo r a s in u s o id a l s ig n a l, o c c u r s w hen
rcc
*
^CC^max
V cc -
K.
per devicemax
2n2
( 9 .6 - 3 )
A g a in w e fin d th a t fo r C la s s B th e d e v ic e (th e re a r e tw o d e v ice s n o w ) m u st d is sip a te o n ly a b o u t y a s m u c h p o w e r in th e w o rs t c a s e a s d o e s a C la s s A s ta g e t h a t p ro v id e s th e s a m e u sefu l p e a k p o w e r t o th e lo a d . W ith v a r ia b le s ig n a ls s u c h a s s p e e c h o r m u sic , th e r a tio o f n e c e s s a ry d e v ic e d is s ip a tio n is m o r e n e a rly 20/1 b e tw e e n C la s s B a n d C la s s A stag es. B e c a u s e o f th is e n o r m o u s d iffe re n tia l in d e v ice d is s ip a tio n , a lm o s t n o C la s s A sta g e s a r e u sed a s p o w e r a m p lifie rs. E v e n in s m a ll t r a n s is to r r a d io s w h e re th e p e a k o u tp u t p o w e r m a y b e o n ly o f th e o r d e r o f 5 0 m W , th e lo w a v e ra g e d is s ip a tio n a n d lo w a v e ra g e p o w e r su p p ly c u r r e n t d ic ta te th e u se o f C la s s B stag es. O n e b a s ic d iffic u lty w ith th e c u r r e n t-s o u r c e C la s s B s ta g e s is s o u rc e m a tc h in g . F o r e x a m p le , w e m a y lo o k o n th e lo a d c u r r e n t a s b e in g m a d e u p o f tw o tr a in s o f h a lf sin e w av es a s sh o w n in F ig . 9 . 3 - 2 E a c h o f th e s e tr a in s h a s a d c a n d a n in fin ity o f e v en I f /pi = I p 2 , th e n th e d c h a r m o n ic v a lu e s, a s w ell a s a fu n d a m e n ta l v a lu e o f I J 2.
a n d a ll th e h a r m o n ic s e x c e p t th e fu n d a m e n ta l c a n c e l e a c h o th e r a n d w e o b t a in a p u re s in e -w a v e o u tp u t. I f /pl / 1 p2, th e n th is c a n c e lla tio n fa ils a n d d is to r tio n re su lts. F r o m E q . ( 4 .2 - 1 ) th e re s u lta n t s e c o n d - a n d fo u r th -h a r m o n ic d is to r tio n s a r e see n to bes e c o n d h a r m o n ic fu n d a m e n ta l 4 /p. ~ K a fo u r th h a r m o n ic fu n d a m e n ta l
3 * /pi + I p i'
15ti
I pl
lpl
Ip2
(9.6-4)
9.6
423
T h u s if th e c u rr e n t s o u rc e s a re tr a n s is to r s w ith a 2/1 m is m a tc h o f /Ts (n o t a t all u n lik e ly w ith u n se le cte d u n its), o n e w ill h a v e 1 4 % s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic d is to r tio n a n d 2 .9 % fo u r th -h a r m o n ic d is to r tio n fro m th is c a u s e a lo n e . T o k e e p th e s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic d is to r tio n te rm fro m m is m a tc h to b e lo w 1 % , th e s o u rc e s sh o u ld b e m a tc h e d to w ith in 2 .5 % . M a n y s m a lle r (less th a n 1 W ) tr a n s is to r s fro m th e sa m e b a tc h (c e r ta in ly fro m th e sa m e c h ip ) w ill m e e t th is m a tc h in g c r ite r io n w ith o u t u n d u e s e le c tio n . F ig u r e 9 . 6 - 3 sh o w s fo u r p o s s ib le b r o a d b a n d C la s s B sta g e s. T h e tw o e m itte rfo llo w e r s ta g e s a v o id th e ^ -m a tc h in g p ro b le m a t th e e x p e n se o f p ro v id in g o n ly u n ity v o lta g e g ain . (W e a s su m e th a t th e s ta g e d riv in g th e s ta g e s sh o w n h a s a n o u tp u t im p e d a n c e th a t is s m a ll in c o m p a r is o n to P R L. A n o th e r e m itte r fo llo w e r c a n u su ally p ro v id e su ch a d riv e n s ta g e .) I f re a s o n a b ly s y m m e tr ic a l P N P a n d N P N tr a n s is to r s c a n b e f o u n d ,f th e n , a t th e e x p e n se o f tw o s e p a ra te p o w e r su p p lie s, th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 9 .6 - 3 ( a ) a v o id s a ll tr a n s fo r m e r s a n d c o u p lin g c a p a c ito rs .
Figure 9 .6 -3
t The problem here is th a t high-pow er N P N transistors tend to be silicon, while high-power P N P units tend to be germ anium . Even with different tu rn-on biases it is norm ally difficult to m ake such units track in o u tp u t current over a wide range. The em itter-follow er configuration eases these difficulties by m inim izing the effect of the transistor.
424
Figure 9.6 -3
9 .6
425
T----
V #
<d) Fig. 9 .6 3 (a) C om plem entary sym m etry C lass B em itter follower, (b) T ransform er-coupled Class B em itter follower, (c) T ransform erless current-driven Class B stage, (d) C lassic Class B
current-driven stage. Except for the biasing arrangem ents and impedance levels, vacuum tubes
could be substituted directly in this circuit.

T h e o th e r th re e c ir c u its o f F ig . 9 . 6 - 3 su ffer fro m p o o r b ia s s ta b ility u n le ss so m e e m itte r re s is ta n c e is in clu d e d . [In F ig . 9 .6 -3 ( b ) th e w in d in g re s is ta n c e o f th e tr a n s fo rm e r m ay serv e th is p u rp o se .] T h e p r o b le m is th a t, u n less R E is sm a ll w ith re s p e ct to th e lo a d (o r th e re fle cte d lo a d ), it b o th c o n s u m e s p o w e r a n d re d u c e s th e a v a ila b le o u tp u t v o lta g e sw in gs. W ith a 5 A p e a k c u rr e n t, a 0 .2 i ) re s is to r c o n s u m e s 1 V o f th e a v a ila b le sw in g a s w ell a s 1.25 W o f th e o u tp u t p o w er. A ll fo u r c ir c u its in d ic a te a tu r n - o n b ia s fo r th e tra n s is to rs . T h is b ia s is n e c e s sa ry to a v o id a d e a d z o n e o r c r o s s -o v e r z o n e w h e re w ith sm a ll in p u t s ig n a ls b o th u n its w o u ld b e o ff o r so n e a rly o ff th a t th e g a in w o u ld be re d u ce d . T h e tric k h e re is to ju s t m in im iz e th is d is to r tio n w ith o u t c a u s in g e x c e ssiv e s ta n d b y p o w er d is sip a tio n . T h e c irc u it o f F ig . 9 .6 -3 ( c ) a v o id s a n o u tp u t tra n s fo rm e r b y u sin g a la rg e c o u p lin g c a p a c ito r . (T h e lo w e r 3 d B p o in t is a t l / R C ; h e n c e i f R = 4 Q a n d if /low 2 0 H z is d e sire d , th e n C = 2 0 0 0 p F .) T h e c a p a c it o r c h a rg e s up to Vc c (w e a s su m e m a tc h e d tra n s is to rs ), a n d th e c ir c u it is s im ila r to th e b a s ic m o d e l o f F ig . 9 .6 - 1 . E v e n th o u g h th e to p tr a n s is to r h a s its e m itte r c o n n e c te d to th e lo a d , it is th e c o lle c to r c u rr e n t th a t flow s th ro u g h th e lo a d ; h e n c e /^-m atching is v ita l fo r th is c irc u it. o p e ra te s as a c u rr e n t s o u rc e , n o t a s a n e m itte r fo llo w e r.) T h e c ir c u it o f F ig . 9 .6 -3 ( d ) sh o w s a c la s s ic tr a n s fo r m e r -c o u p le d C la s s B stage. Its lo w -fre q u e n c y re s p o n s e is g o v e rn e d by th e tr a n s fo r m e r -lo a d c o m b in a tio n , w h ile its h ig h -fre q u e n c y lim its m a y b e set by tr a n s is to r p h a s e -sh ift m is m a tc h o r by tr a n s fo rm e r r e a c ta n c e s . (T h e tr a n s is to r
426
9.7
9.7
B RO A DBAN D C LA SS D P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
T h o u g h m o s t p re s e n t-d a y p o w e r a m p lifie r s a re C la s s B d o u b le -e n d e d u n its, it is te m p tin g to e x a m in e th e p o s s ib ilitie s o f e x te n d in g th e s w itc h in g m o d e o f o p e r a tio n to th e b r o a d b a n d c a se . I n th e n a r r o w b a n d C la s s D c a s e , th e o u tp u t c ir c u it w as tu n e d to th e fu n d a m e n ta l o f th e sw itc h in g fre q u e n cy . F o r b r o a d b a n d o p e r a tio n we m u st sw itch a t a fre q u e n cy m u c h h ig h e r th a n th e to p o f o u r d esire d fre q u e n c y b a n d . T h e s w itc h in g m u st b e d o n e in su ch a fa s h io n t h a t th e lo w -fre q u e n c y a v e ra g e v a lu e is th e d esire d o u tp u t sig n al. A n o u tp u t w id e b a n d b a n d p a s s filte r w ill th e n re m o v e th e u n w a n te d h ig h -fre q u e n c y c a r r ie r te rm s (an d th e ir s id e b a n d s) a n d th e d c c o m p o n e n t.
Fig. 9.7 -1 G eneratio n o f n aturally sam pled pulse-w idth m odulation (trailing edge m o d u la tion). Tim e origin a t zero crossing o f the saw to o th s dow ngoing ram p.
F o r tu n a te ly , a sw itc h in g s ig n a l o f th e p ro p e r ty p e d o e s e x ist. n a tu ra lly s a m p le d p u ls e -w id th -m o d u la te d sig n a l. fo llo w in g fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t s : V Wpwm = ! p + % n 21 21 Esin " o f ------~ sin w 0 [t + t s ( f )]. 71 ( 9 .7 - 1 ) It is k n o w n a s a 1(d) h a s th e
A s d e v e lo p e d in F ig . 4 - 1 2
(p. 2 6 0 ) a n d E q . 2 2 0 (p. 2 8 4 ) o f R o w e ,f th e s ig n a l illu s tra te d in F ig . 9 .7
It a ls o h a s h ig h e r h a r m o n ic s o f a>0 a n d s id e b a n d s a ro u n d th e m w h e re 2 k, (o o = y i < 1, |s(t)| ^ and V^ r = -y ^T -.
T h u s i f s(r) is b a n d -lim ite d a n d i f u>0 is s u fficie n tly la rg e r th a n th e h ig h e st fre q u e n c y in
+ H arrison E. Rowe, Signals and Noise in Communications Systems. Van N ostran d , New York
(1965).
9.7
B R O A D B A N D C L A SS D P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
427
s(t ), th e n it w ill b e p o s s ib le to s e p a ra te o u t a n a m p lifie d sig n a l p r o p o r tio n a l to s(t) w ith a filte r th a t r e je c ts b o th d c a n d th e c a r r i e r a n d its h a rm o n ic s . I f s(f) = c o s fit, th e n th e s in a>0 [f + r s (i)] te rm w ill e x p a n d in to a c a r r ie r a t w 0 and s id e b a n d s w ith a m p litu d e s p r o p o r tio n a l to J n{a>0 z) sp a ce d
Vm < Vs
at
npi a ro u n d
w 0[ J (c o 0 t )]
is a n o r d in a r y B e s s e l fu n c tio n .
S in c e
h a s b e e n im p o se d a s a
r e s tr ic tio n , it fo llo w s th a t (u0i < n a n d h e n c e th e v a lu e s o f J (n ) w ill give a n in d ic a tio n o f th e m a x im u m a m p litu d e to b e e x p e c te d fro m th e e x tre m e s id e b a n d s t : Ji( 7 t) * 0 .2 8 5 , J 2(n ) x 0 .4 8 5 , J 3(jt) * 0 .3 4 , J 4(ji) % 0 .0 1 6 ,
J 5( n ) x 0 .0 5 6 ,
J 6( n ) x 0 .0 1 6 ,
J-,(n) w
0 .0 0 3 8 .
T h u s if fi is a t th e to p o f th e a llo w a b le m o d u la tio n b a n d a n d to0 is e q u a l to o r g r e a te r th a n 8/i, th e n th e se v e n th s id e b a n d w ill in te rfe re d ir e c tly w ith th e lo w -p a ss sig n a l b u t th e re la tiv e d is to r tio n w ill b e o n ly
-J-,( o> 0t) = J 7 (71) = 0.0024,

n n o r o n e -q u a r te r o f o n e p e rc e n t. A c tu a lly , if th e c ir c u it s lo w -p a ss filte r d o e s n o t fall o ff ra p id ly e n o u g h , th e lo w e r -o rd e r h a r m o n ic s m a y b e th e lim itin g fa c to r . F o r e x a m p le , ~ 1 0 0 J 7(7t); h e n c e w ith /0 = 8 f m th e lo w -p a s s filte r m u st p ro v id e a n a tte n u a tio n o f 1/100 o r 4 0 d B o n ly tw o d e c a d e s a b o v e th e m a x im u m m o d u la tio n fre q u e n cy . T o d o th is an d s im u lta n e o u s ly a v o id a tte n u a tin g th e d e sire d sig n a l w ill re q u ire a v ery s o p h is tic a te d lo w -p a ss filte r. T h e p r o b le m is e a se d b y ra is in g th e c a r r ie r fre q u en cy . T h e lim its o n su c h in c re a s e s a re d e v ice fre q u e n c y lim ita tio n s th a t p re v e n t s q u a re -c o rn e re d o p e r a tio n a n d h e n c e in c r e a s e d e v ice d is s ip a tio n a n d th e d ifficu lty o f c o n ta in in g th e R F in te rfe re n c e c a u s e d b y th e h a r m o n ic -r ic h m o d u la te d c a rrie r. ( F o r e x a m p le , o n e s h o u ld a v o id s u b m u ltip le s o f th e c o m m o n I F fre q u e n cy o f 4 5 5 k H z .) n o r m a lly b e lo w 6 k H z . A c o m p le te C la s s D a u d io a m p lifie r is illu s tra te d in F ig . 9 .7 2. A s in th e n a r r o w b a n d c a s e w e m a y c o n s id e r c o n s tr u c tin g a s w itc h in g c irc u it to sw itch a c o n s ta n t c u rr e n t b e tw e e n tw o e n d s o f o u r filte r, o r we m a y c o n s id e r a s w itc h in g c ir c u it to e ffe ctiv ely sw itc h th e in p u t o f th e filte r b e tw e e n tw o d iffe re n t v o lta g es. F ig u r e 9 .7 - 3 in d ic a te s th e b a s ic v o lta g e -s w itc h in g case. A t first g la n c e th is c ir c u it a p p e a rs to b e id e n tic a l to th e n a r r o w b a n d c ir c u it o f F ig . 9 .5 - l ( a ) . T h is is a c a s e w h ere lo o k s a re d e c e iv in g ; sin ce th is filte r m u st fu n c tio n a s a b r o a d b a n d b a n d p a s s filte r, n o t a s a n a r r o w b a n d filte r, th e sw itc h is n o lo n g e r d riv e n in a sq u a re -w a v e fa s h io n , a n d , a s we sh a ll see, th e tu r n -o n re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e sw itch in th e b r o a d b a n d c a s e a re m u c h m o r e s trin g e n t th a n th e y a re in th e n a r ro w b a n d case . W hen R /L 9 .7 -4 . 1/ R C , th e p o le s in th e in p u t a d m itta n c e o f th e filte r a re w id ely se p a ra te d a n d its a s y m p to tic m a g n itu d e -v s .-fr e q u e n c y p lo t is a s sh o w n in F ig . A 120 k H z c a r r ie r s h o u ld b e s a tis fa c to r y fo r o r d in a r y n o n -h ig h -fid e lity a m p lific a tio n w ith s(r)
t F o r sm aller values o f <a0i the higher-order Bessel functions decay much m ore rapidly than lin early ; hence the m axim um percentage distortion will occur at m axim um m odulation. See
Chapter 11 for details.
Fig. 9.7 -2 Class D P W M b ro ad b an d pow er amplifier.
Fig. 9 .7 -3
Basic voltage-switching broadband Class D power amplifier.
Fig. 9 .7 -4 Magnitude of the admittance of the filter of Fig. 9.7-3 (R/L l/RC).
9.7
B R O A D B A N D C L A SS D P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
429
I f th e sw itch is d riv e n b a c k a n d fo rth b e tw e e n th e tw o te rm in a ls by a s ig n a l o f th e fo rm sh o w n in E q . ( 9 .7 - 1 ) , th e n we m a y w rite l\ ( 0 = I f s(i) is re s tric te d V 2V 2V J'c c + Vc c ~ s ( t ) ------- s in w 0 f --- - s i n a > 0 [i K 71 n to lie b e tw e e n l / R C a n d R / L a n d if (oQ + x.s(f)]. ( 9 .7 - 2 )
R / L , th e n th e c a p a c ito r
w ill c h a r g e to Vc c an d th e n e tw o rk c u rr e n t w ill b e
<7-3,
w h e re Vm < Vs is a n a d d itio n a l re s tric tio n . F o r e x a m p le , i f Vm = Vs a n d s(t) = c o s pit, th e n . Vcc
h = cos/rt.
A s sh o w n in F ig . 9 .7 - 3 , th e sw itch h a s n o d is s ip a t io n ; h e n c e a ll th e in p u t p o w er is c o n v e r te d in to a c o u tp u t p o w er. I f th e d e v ice (sw itc h ) h a s a p e a k c u r r e n t lim ita tio n /max, th e n R 5: Vc c / I max. If R = Vcc/1 max, th e n P ac = Vc c I mJ 2 a n d P dc = 2Kr r /dc; h e n c e
^dc = /max/4I f th e sw itch lo ss e s c a n b e m o d e le d c o m p le te ly a s re s is to rs R s , th e n th e efficien cy b eco m es
In th is c a s e th e p re v io u s R is n o w R s + R L , w h e re R L is th e a c tu a l lo a d re s is to r. F ig u r e 9 .7 5 in d ic a te s th e filte r in p u t v o lta g e a n d th e c u r r e n t th ro u g h Vc c fo r th e c a s e w h ere s(t) is a sin e w av e th a t lie s b e tw e e n \ /R C a n d R /L . A s th e fig u re c le a rly in d ic a te s , th e sw itch m u st c a r r y c u r r e n t in b o th d ir e c t io n s ; h e n c e fo r e ffic ie n t o p e r a tio n w ith o u t e x c e ss iv e ly la rg e d riv in g s ig n a ls, th e sw itc h e s sh o u ld b e sy m m e tric a l d e v ice s (n o t v a cu u m tu b e s ) c a p a b le o f c a r r y in g c u rr e n t in th e re v e rse d ir e c tio n . I f th e sig n a l is s in u s o id a l a n d d riv e n so th a t th e p eak c u r r e n t th ro u g h th e sw itch is /max, th e n fo r th e c a s e w h e re th e sw itch is re p la ce d by a b a tte r y , Ksat. t
P
* ac
^ cc
K alK m ax
dc
I/
d c
* pe r s wi l ch
_ [ /
'sat'dc-
IQ1-A)
' ^7
S in c e P j c
P ac "f" 2 i5per SW jtC h /dc = 4 and n = vc c (9.7 5)
t A battery is not really as good an approxim ation to the switch as a resistor is, since the switch current is not constant but varies over the cycle.
430
m ) J 7
v,(0
9 .7
U^ '
2 Vcc
0 t
Fig. 9 .7 -5 (Vm * K i
Battery and upper switch current and filter input voltage when 5(f) is a sine wave
T h is e ffic ie n cy is, o f c o u rs e , e x a c tly th e v a lu e we a c h ie v e d p re v io u s ly fo r a m a x im u m a m p litu d e s q u a re -w a v e d riv e. T h e d iffe re n c e is th a t n o w we h a v e a s in u s o id a l o u tp u t. E v e n th o u g h o u r b a s e b a n d m a y o n ly e x te n d to 5 k H z , w e sh a ll w a n t a s w itc h in g fre q u e n c y o f 1 0 0 k H z o r m o r e , a n d h e n c e th e p ro b le m o f t r a n s itio n - tim e d is s ip a tio n a s d iscu sse d in S e c tio n 9 .5 is s till p re se n t. A c tu a lly th e s itu a tio n is c o n s id e r a b ly w o rse in th is c a s e , s in c e n o w th e sw itch m u st b e tu rn e d o n a n d o f f w h ile th e c u r r e n t is a t n e a rly its m a x im u m v alu e, w h ile in th e n a r ro w b a n d c a s e t h e o r e tic a lly th e c u r r e n t w as g o in g th ro u g h z e ro a t e v ery v o lta g e -s w itc h in g in te rv a l. F ig u r e 9 . 7 - 6 sh o w s a p o s s ib le m e c h a n iz a tio n o f F ig . 9 .7 - 3 . W h e n Q t is s a tu ra te d , th e n Q 2 is o n a n d Q 4 is off. W ith Q 2 s a tu ra te d , Q 3 is tu rn e d o n w ith (fo r th e re s is tiv e v a lu e s sh o w n ) ^ 2 (VC C - V SJ ~ V BE
B ~
66 Q
o r w ith Vc c = 10 V a n d Ksa, = 0 .5 V fo r e a c h o f ( ? , a n d Q 2, 17.2
6i n =
I f ocR > 0 .8 , th e n th e tr a n s is to r @ 3 c a n b e k e p t o n fo r re v e rs e c u r r e n ts o f 1.3 A , s in c e l B > (1 otR)I CR m a r k s th e ed g e o f re v e rse s a tu ra tio n . W h e n Q i g o e s off, Q 2 a n d Q 3 g o o f f a n d Q 4 is d riv e n o n w ith e s s e n tia lly th e sa m e b a s e c u r r e n t a s Q } h a d o n th e o th e r p o r tio n o f th e c y c le . W ith th e v a lu e s sh o w n in F ig . 9 . 7 - 6 th e lo a d r e s is to r s h o u ld b e 10/1.3 = 7 .7 1. F o r a s m a lle r lo a d th e tu r n -o n d riv e o r th e s w itc h in g t r a n s is to r re v e rs e a lp h a s w o u ld n e e d to b e in c re a se d . S in c e th e c ir c u it a lw a y s r e q u ire s 2 6 0 m A o f b a s e c u r r e n t, it re a lly w o u ld see m fa ir to c h a rg e it w ith 2V CC1B ~ 5 W o f a d d itio n a l p o w e r d ra in . It is tru e t h a t th e C la s s
9.7
B R O A D B A N D C LA SS D P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
431
Fig. 9.7 6 Practical Class D pulse-w idth-m odulated pow er amplifier.
B s ta g e a ls o d ra w s b a s e c u r r e n t ; h o w e v e r, in th a t c a s e th e b a s e c u rr e n t is s m a lle r an d tr a c k s th e sig n a l in a m p litu d e in s te a d o f b e in g c o n s ta n t. C u rre n t-S w itc h in g C irc u its It w o u ld a p p e a r th a t o n e c o u ld c o n s tr u c t a b r o a d b a n d c u rr e n t-s w itc h in g c irc u it a s th e d u a l o f th e v o lta g e c a s e ju s t d iscu sse d . T h e p a ra lle l R L C filte r in th is c a s e w ou ld h a v e c j 1ow = R / L a n d <ohigh = 1/ R C . F o r a s in u s o id a l o u tp u t fro m a c o n fig u r a tio n s im ila r to F ig . 9 . 5 - 4 o r 9 .5 1(b), th e in d iv id u a l " s w i t c h c u rr e n ts w o u ld h av e th e sh a p e o f r, in F ig . 9 . 7 - 5 a n d a p e a k v a lu e o f I p (a s su m in g a c u rr e n t s o u rc e o f 2 I p). T h e s w itc h v o lta g e s w o u ld h a v e a s in u s o id a l e n v e lo p e , b u t w o u ld b e z e r o w h e n ev e r the s w itc h w as c lo s e d a n d l p w as flo w in g . T h is c ir c u it w o u ld see m to h a v e th e a d v a n ta g e o v e r th e v o lta g e sw itc h o f h a v in g to c a r r y c u r r e n t in o n ly o n e d ir e c tio n . It h a s the d is a d v a n ta g e o f h a v in g to h o ld th e tr a n s is to r o f f fo r a re v e rse c o lle c t o r v o lta g e e q u a l to th e p e a k o u tp u t v o lta g e . T h e p r a c tic a l d ifficu lty w ith s u c h a c ir c u it is t h a t th e tru e d u a l o f th e b a tte r y h as n o t y et b e e n in v e n te d . T h u s o n e is fo rc e d to u se a b a tte ry Vc c in se rie s w ith a n in d u c to r L c c a s a n a p p r o x im a tio n fo r a c u r r e n t so u rc e .
432
P O W E R Â M P L IF IE R S
9.8
O n e n o w h a s d ifficu lty p ro p e r ly r e la tin g L c c , c a r r ie r fre q u e n c ie s (sw itc h in g ra te s), a n d a llo w a b le m o d u la tio n fre q u e n c ie s. N o w , in a d d itio n t o h a v in g th e p ro b le m o f s e p a ra tin g th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y rip p le fro m th e m o d u la tio n fre q u e n c y in th e o u tp u t p a ra lle l R L C filte r, o n e m u st s e p a ra te th e s e fre q u e n c ie s so th a t L c c c a n b e c h o s e n to b e a n o p e n c ir c u it a t th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y a n d a s h o rt c ir c u it a t th e h ig h e st m o d u la tio n fre q u e n cy . T h is a d d itio n a l r e s tr ic tio n te n d s t o d e m a n d t h a t th e s w itc h in g fre q u e n c y b e ra ise d to b e a t le a st 1 0 0 tim e s th e h ig h e st m o d u la tio n fre q u e n c y , th u s in c re a s in g th e d ifficu lty o f o b ta in in g a r e a s o n a b le a p p r o x im a tio n to a n id e a l sw itc h in g d ev ice. E x c e p t in s p e c ia l c a s e s in w h ic h o n e w a n ts a c o n s ta n t-a m p litu d e , h ig h -e ffic ie n c y , v a r ia b le -fr e q u e n c y p o w e r a m p lifie r , th e c u rr e n t-s w itc h in g b r o a d b a n d o r C la s s D ty p e o f c ir c u it w o u ld see m to b e p r im a r ily o f a c a d e m ic in te re st.
9.8 PR A C T IC A L P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
A n u m b e r o f p r a c tic a l p ro b le m s a rise w hen o n e a tte m p ts to c o n s tr u c t a p o w er am p lifie r. T h e s e p ro b le m s in c lu d e th e p r o v is io n o f d riv in g s ig n a ls, th e p ro v is io n o f p ro p e r 'b ia s , th e d esig n o f c ir c u its th a t p r o te c t th e m se lv e s a g a in s t a c c id e n ta l d e s tr u c tio n , a n d th e m a tc h in g o f th e a c tu a l lo a d s to th e o p tim u m im p e d a n c e re q u ire d by th e d ev ice fo r e ffic ie n t o p e ra tio n . L e t us c o n s id e r first a fix e d -a m p litu d e C la s s C v a c u u m -tu b e p o w e r a m p lifie r o f th e ty p e c o n sid e r e d in S e c tio n 9 .4 a n d illu s tra te d g e n e ra lly in F ig . 9 .4 - 1 . In th is c a s e w e a s su m e a b ia s a n d a d riv e a n d c a lc u la te th e d esire d h ig h -fre q u e n c y re s is tiv e -lo a d im p e d a n c e . In th e p ro c e ss o f th e s e c a lc u la tio n s we a ls o c a lc u la te th e w a v e sh a p e o f th e grid c irc u it c u r r e n t w a v e sh a p e . F r o m th e s e w a v e sh a p e s w e c a n c a lc u la te th e fu n d a m e n ta l a n d d c v a lu e s o f c u rre n t. N o w w ith th e a ssu m e d v a lu e o f d riv in g v o lta g e we c a n c a lc u la te th e e ffe ctiv e in p u t im p e d a n c e o f th e c ir c u it as w ell a s a b ia s re s is to r th a t in c o n ju n c t io n w ith /G0 will su p p ly th e d esire d b ia s. I f th e b ia s is su p p lie d c o m p le te ly by a n /C0- K C c o m b in a t io n , th e n w hen th e d riv e c ir c u it is tu rn e d o ff th e b ia s is lo st. F o r th e c a se o f F ig . 9 . 4 - 3 th e tu b e d is s ip a tio n a t VBB = 12 k V a n d Vc c = 0 is 6 6 k W , o r m o r e th a n six tim e s th e n o r m a l o p e r a tin g d is sip a tio n . S u c h a d is s ip a tio n w ill u n d o u b te d ly lead to d a m a g e o r d e s tru c tio n . O n e m ig h t c h o o s e to o b t a in e n o u g h o f th e b ia s fro m a fix e d su p p ly to p re v e n t d e v ic e d e s tr u c tio n a n d th e re st fro m a g rid le a k c o m b in a tio n . T h is s e lf-b ia s in g a r r a n g e m e n t h a s th e a d v a n ta g e th a t th e b ia s a d ju s ts its e lf to th e d riv in g sig n a l in s u c h a fa s h io n a s to te n d to k e e p th e o u tp u t c o n s ta n t. T h a t is, if th e d riv e sig n a l d e c re a s e s, th e n so d o e s th e b ia s , o r v ice v e r s a ; h e n c e th e o u tp u t c u rr e n t p u lse sh a p e c h a n g e s m u c h less th a n it w o u ld h a v e if th e b ia s w ere fixed a n d th e s a m e c h a n g e in in p u t level o c c u r re d . F ig u r e 9 .8 -1 illu s tr a te s tw o p o s s ib le b ia s a rr a n g e m e n ts . In e ith e r c a s e C G s h o u ld h a v e a n im p e d a n c e a t th e o p e r a tin g fre q u e n c y th a t is s m a ll e n o u g h s o th a t flo w in g th ro u g h it w ill c a u s e a v o lta g e d r o p o f 1 % o r less o f th e d esire d d riv in g v o lta g e . A ls o , in e ith e r c a s e , Fpartia, + I( ; 0 R G sh o u ld e q u a l th e d esire d b ia s v o lta g e . N o r m a lly th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 9 . 8 - 1(a) is to b e p re fe rre d , s in c e th e o th e r a rr a n g e m e n t
9.8
P R A C T IC A L P O W E R A M P L IF IE R S
433
Fig. 9 .8 -1
Class C bias arrangem ents.
h a s a n a c p o w e r lo s s in R 0 th a t is n o t n e g lig ib le a n d w h ich m u st b e su p p lied by th e d riv e r stage. A s a n e x a m p le , fo r th e s in u s o id a l d riv e p u lses illu s tra te d in F ig . 9 .4 -4 (a ), if ^partial = 1 2 0 0 V , th e n R g = 2 2 0 0 / 0 .4 5 = 4 .9 kQ . T h e d c p o w e r lo s s in th is re s is to r is 2 2 0 0 x 0 .4 5 = 1 0 0 0 W . In th e c ir c u it a rr a n g e m e n t o f F ig . 9 .8 1(b) th e re w o u ld be an a d d itio n a l a c lo ss o f 3 0 0 0 W in R G. T h e p o w e ; th a t m u st b e su p p lie d by th e d riv e r fo r F ig . 9 . 8 - l ( a ) is (5 4 0 0 x 0.85)/2 = 2 3 0 0 W , o f w h ich 5 4 0 W g o e s to c h a r g in g ^partial a n d 2 3 0 0 5 4 0 1 0 0 0 = 7 6 0 W p o w e r am p lifie r. D riv e S ig n a ls S in c e iG flow s in p u lses, it w ill c o n ta in a th ir d -h a r m o n ic c o m p o n e n t ; h e n c e o n e co u ld g e n e r a te the re q u ire d n o n s in u s o id a l d riv in g w a v e sh a p e to su p p ly th e p ro p o s e d c u rr e n t w a v e sh a p e s o f F ig . 9 . 4 - 4 by in c lu d in g a s e c o n d ta n k c ir c u it in se rie s w ith th o s e sh o w n in th e grid c ir c u its o f F ig . 9 .8 - 1 . I f th is s e c o n d ta n k c ir c u it is tu n e d to th e th ird h a r m o n ic o f
oj0
is d is sip a te d in h e a t at th e g rid c irc u it.
S in c e th e d riv e r m u st su p p ly 2.3 k W in to a 5 4 00/ 0.85 = 6 3 5 0 Q lo a d , it m u st a ls o b e a
a n d is lo a d e d so th a t l Gi c a u s e s a 5 4 0 V d ro p a c r o s s it, th en th e d esired I f o n e a s su m e s th a t th e c u rr e n t fro m th e d riv e r is
g rid w a v e sh a p e w ill re s u lt ( /C3 flo w s in th e o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n to th e in p u t fu n d a m e n ta l c u rr e n t fro m th e d riv in g stag e). p u rely fu n d a m e n ta l b y th e tim e it re a c h e s th e s e c o n d a ry , th en a ll th e p o w e r su p p lied b y th e d riv in g s ta g e is a t th e fu n d a m e n ta l fre q u en cy . A C la s s C tr a n s is to r sta g e is u su a lly ru n w ith z e ro b ia s o r w ith a t m o s t a sm a ll e m itte r r e s is t o r ; h e n c e th e in p u t c ir c u it c a lc u la tio n s a r e m u ch s im p le r th a n th o s e o f th e v a cu u m tu b e c a se . In g e n e ra l, w ith tr a n s is to r c ir c u its th e fu n d a m e n ta l in p u t im p e d a n c e o f a p o w e r a m p lifie r w ill b e v ery s m a ll, p e rh a p s o n ly a few o h m s ; th u s an im p e d a n c e ste p -d o w n c ir c u it o r tr a n s fo r m e r w ill b e n e c e ss a ry b e tw e e n th e d riv e r a n d th e p o w e r a m p lifie r. C o u p lin g N e tw o rk s It is re la tiv e ly sim p le to say w h a t th e c o u p lin g n e tw o rk sh o u ld d o , b u t so m e w h a t m o r e c u m b e r s o m e to e x p la in h o w to m a k e it d o w h a t is re q u ire d . Id e a lly , th e c o u p lin g
434
9.8
n e tw o rk s h o u ld tr a n s fo r m th e a c tu a l lo a d to th e d e sire d re s is tiv e v a lu e at th e o p e r a tin g fre q u e n c y w h ile p re s e n tin g z e ro in p u t im p e d a n c e a t all h a r m o n ic fre q u e n c ie s. A t th e s a m e tim e th e n e tw o rk sh o u ld h a v e a tra n s fe r fu n c tio n th a t p a sse s th e d esire d m o d u la tio n p a s s b a n d w ith o u t c a u s in g a m p litu d e o r p h a s e d is to r tio n w h ile o ffe rin g in fin ite a tte n u a tio n to a ll h a r m o n ic fre q u e n cie s. T o s o m e e x te n t th e s e r e q u ire m e n ts m a y b e c o n tr a d ic to r y . C e r ta in ly th e y m u st a ll b e c h e c k e d in d iv id u a lly , sin ce sa tisfy in g o n e o f th e m d o e s n o t g u a r a n te e th e s a tis fa c tio n o f th e o th e rs. h (p ) r2 C2
M n ,
L i
R2 - R l + r2, L} (b)
L ,L 2 - M2 Lj
(a)
Fig. 9 .8 -2 O u tp u t coupling circuit, (a) C oupling circuit, (b) Possible circuit model.
T h e c la s s ic c o u p lin g n e tw o rk fo r v a c u u m -tu b e p o w e r a m p lifie rs p ro v id e s an e x a m p le o f a n a lm o s t id e a l c o u p lin g s itu a tio n . T h e c ir c u it a n d a u sefu l m o d e l fo r it a re sh o w n in F ig . 9 .8 - 2 . im p e d a n c e . I f th e a d m itta n c e to th e left o f th e tr a n s fo r m e r in F ig . 9 .8 - 2 ( b ) is c a lle d ^ (/ j) w h ile th e a d m itta n c e to th e rig h t is c a lle d Y2(p), th e n it is a p p a r e n t th a t T h is p a r tic u la r m o d e l is c h o s e n fro m th e m u ltitu d e o f p o s s ib le m o d e ls b e c a u s e it le a d s to a sim p le p re s e n ta tio n o f b o th Z in a n d th e tra n s fe r
I \ mP
Y i (p ) + n 2 Y2{p)
an
Fz(p) _ I t (p)
n Y 2( p ) R 2 Yt (p) + n 2 Y2{p)
T h e tra n s fe r im
B o th th e in p u t a n d th e tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e h a v e id e n tic a l p o le s. p e d a n c e h a s tw o z e r o s a t th e o rig in a n d a s c a le fa c to r o f z e ro a t th e o rig in . T h e s c a le f a c to r fo r th is c a s e is 1/C ,.

ojqM
R 2/ L 3, w h ile th e in p u t
im p e d a n c e h a s c o m p le x z e r o s a t th e r o o t s o f p 2 + p (R 2/ L 3) + 1/ L 3C 2 a n d a sin g le T h e p o le s fo r e ith e r fu n c tio n m a y b e fo u n d b y th e r o o t lo c u s te c h n iq u e . F r o m E q . ( 9 .8 - 1 ) th e p o le s o f e ith e r fu n c tio n a re a t th e r o o t s o f
9.8
435
In o r d e r to c o n c e n t r a te o n th e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c ts o f th e c ir c u it, w e m a k e th e fo llo w in g v e ry r e a s o n a b le a s s u m p tio n s o r a p p r o x i m a t io n s :

a) S in c e th e u n lo a d e d Q o f th e p rim a r y a lo n e sh o u ld be e q u a l to 1 0 0 o r m o re , we a ssu m e , fo r th e p u rp o se o f lo c a tin g th e first p o le p a ir in th e d e n o m in a to r o f E q . (9 .8 - 2 ) , th a t R , a p p r o a c h e s in fin ity . (T o c a lc u la te th e n e tw o rk lo ss a n d the n e tw o rk tra n s fe r e ffic ie n cy , we m u st re in s ta te th e a c tu a l R ,.) b) W ith re s p e ct to th e u p p er c o m p le x p o le p a ir we n e g le c t th e a n g le s fro m th e lo w e r p o le s a n d ze ro s. I f R 2/ 2 L 3 > co0/ 4 , th a t is, if th e lo a d e d Q o f th e m y th ic a l s e c o n d a ry e x c e e d s
2
, a n d if we a re in te re ste d in th e lo c i fro m a n d a fte r th e p o le s
c o a le s c e , th e n th e m a x im u m a n g u la r e r r o r is 14 o r 7 fro m e a c h u p p e r po le. C e rta in ly in an in itia l c o n s id e r a tio n th is n e g le c t is ju s tifie d in te rm s o f o b ta in in g a sim p le r e x p la n a tio n . W ith th e s e a s s u m p tio n s , if th e u p p e r c o m p le x p o le s a re in itia lly lin ed up h o r i z o n ta lly , th at' is, if (9 .8 - 3 )
L 1C or
\ 2 L 31
L 3C 2
(9 .8 - 4 ) w h ere co^ = 1/L, C at K 2 /4 L

3
th e n a s n in c re a s e s th e y w ill m o v e to w a rd e a c h o th e r a n d c o a le s c e
fro m th e j - a x i s ; th e y w ill th e n m o v e a p a r t a lo n g a lin e p a ra lle l to th e j- a x is .
F ig u re 9 .8 - 3 illu s tra te s th e s im p lifie d lo cu s.
j- axis
*
R 2I2 L 3
Fig. 9.8 -3 Simplified locus o f upper pole pair.

I f w e re s tric t o u rse lv e s to v a lu e s o f n th a t c a u s e c o a le s c e n c e o r v e rtic a l sp littin g , th e n fro m the r o o t lo c u s m a g n itu d e c o n d itio n a n d fro m E q . ( 9 .8 - 2 ) n 2JV~ L 3 3C 1 td w h ere d is th e d is ta n c e fro m th e o rig in a l rig h t-h a n d p o le (a c tu a lly fro m e ith e r o rig in a l p o le ) to th e d esire d c o u p le d p o le p o s itio n s . (9 .8 - 5 )
436
9.8
In o n e , th e p o le s h av e
T w o p o s itio n s w ou ld a p p e a r to b e o f p rim a ry in te re st.
ju s t c o a le s c e d . In th e s e c o n d s ig n ific a n t p o s itio n , th e p o le s h a v e m o v e d a p a rt v e rti c a lly b y 4 5 s o a s t o y ield a m a x im a lly fla t tra n s fe r fu n c tio n . T h e re s u lts fo r th e s e tw o c a se s a re s u m m a riz e d in T a b le 9 .8 - 1 , w h ere R in is th e d esire d in p u t im p e d a n c e at 0Table 9.8-1
Coalescence R 2/4 L 3 4 L 3/C ,

M /L , L, ^2 Cl (O qL 3 1 + Ri
Rl
+
M aximally flat R 2/ 2 ^ 2 L }
2 L JC , \/ Rl/Rm
1 /c,
l3
+ m 2/ l ,
l
R2
Rin
ni
Z 2 (jvJo)
/R^Ry
T a b le 9 . 8 - 2 in d ic a te s th e re la tiv e m a g n itu d e s o f Z in a n d Z 2 j a s a fu n c tio n o f 6u>, w h e re Sco is m e a s u re d fro m a>0 = 1/X/ L 1C 1. N o te th a t b y th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic we a r e a s su m in g th a t th e re s p o n s e s fo r th e tw o c a s e s a re id e n tic a l. T h is is n o t a n e x a c t re s u lt, b u t is a v e ry g o o d in itia l a p p r o x im a tio n . I t is a p p a r e n t th a t th e m a x im a lly fla t c a s e is to b e p re fe rre d w h e n e v e r it is p o s s ib le , sin ce it g iv es a b e tte r in -b a n d c h a r a c te r is t ic w ith o u t c a u s in g a n y a p p r e c ia b le d iffe re n c e in its re s p o n s e to h a r m o n ic s . T o p la c e th e s e re s u lts in p e rs p e ctiv e , let us c o n s id e r a n u m e ric a l e x a m p le . A ssu m e th a t R m = 2 000 fi, R 2 = 50 Q, (o0 = 1 0 7, and Q , = Q 2 = 100.
N o w to k e e p th e p rim a r y c ir c u it lo ss e s d o w n to 5 % o f th e p o w e r p a s sin g th ro u g h it, R J ~r = 0 .9 5 K l + K in or R 1 = 2 0 R in = 4 0 k i l t
t Actually R m should include /? ,. So long as R , R in, the separation show n is reasonable.
9.8
Table 9.8-2 Coalescence 4Sw L }/ R 2 \ Z J / R in 0.0 + 0.5 1 .0 + 1.5 + 2.0 + nth harm onic 1.00 0.83 0.56 0.38 0.28 n 1 n2 - 1 oj0C t R, / * |Z 21|/Z 21(0) 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.31 0.20 I*
437
M aximally flat I Z J /R in 1.00 1.02 1.00 0.83 0.63 n 1 /

k
|Z 21|/Z 21(0) 1.00 0.99 0.89 0.67 0.44 y
I " 2 - l) 1 2 V | o C t R in)
n 2 - 1 u>0C i R tn
) )
-i 2 P o C l^ jn )
I f Q , = 100 an d R , > 4 0 i l , L , > 4 0 fiH I f we c h o o s e L , = 4 0 /iH, th e n fo r u)0 = 1 0 7.
C i = 1/ ojqL i = 2 5 0 p F
an d
M = LX S J R 2/ R X = y / 4 0 / i H = 6.35 iH.
F r o m T a b le 9 .8 - 1 (th e s e c o n d lin e) we see th a t th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o p o le p o s itio n s re s ts in L 3 (a n d a ls o , th e re fo re , in L 2 a n d C 2). T h e re s u lts fo r th e tw o c a se s a re sh o w n in T a b le 9 .8 -3 . T h e m a x im a lly fla t c a s e h a s a s lig h tly lo w e r c ir c u it e ffic ie n cy (^circuit = thtl2), h o w e v e r, it a ls o h a s a lo w e r c o e ffic ie n t o f c o u p lin g , k, an d a s m a lle r v a lu e fo r C 2 A p r a c tic a l p ro b le m re m a in s a s to w h e th e r th e d esire d c o il c o m b in a tio n is p h y sic a lly p o ssib le . In th is c a s e , i f L 2 is p la ce d o v e r th e en d o f L , , th e n th e re q u ire d a m o u n t o f c o u p lin g s h o u ld b e p o ssib le . Table 9 .8 -3
Coalescence
L, 2 c 2 k
l
M aximally flat 12.5 /iH 13.5 /iH 770 pF 0.275 0.973 0.925
1z
'/circuit
6.25 /j H 7.25 /H 1380 pF 0.374 0.985 0.935
438
9.8
W e m a y n o w e x a m in e th e re la tiv e in p u t a n d tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e a t th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic to see h o w e ffe ctiv e th e n e tw o rk is in su p p re ssin g h a r m o n i c s : | Z J2 M Rm _ 2 1 _ 3 5 2 15 \Z2 l {2jo))\ \Z2 l ( M 4 4 _ 16
9 25 2 2 5 '
T h e s e re s u lts in d ic a te th a t in a c a s s im ila r to th e o n e sh o w n in F ig . 9 .4 -4 ( a ) , w h ere /2//, = 0 .7 2 , th e s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic v o lta g e a c r o s s th e in p u t o f th e ta n k c ir c u it will 10% o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l v o lta g e , w h ile th e s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic b e a p p r o x im a te ly
o u tp u t v o lta g e w ill b e 5 % o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l v o lta g e. S in c e th e in p u t h a r m o n ic v o lta g e is sh ifte d in p h a se b y n e a rly 9 0 w ith re s p e ct to th e fu n d a m e n ta l, o n e c a n a p p r o x im a te th e in p u t ta n k v o lta g e (th is v o lta g e ad d s to Vc c to m a k e th e d ev ice v o lta g e ) b y F i c o s co0 t + 0.1 Vi sin 2 a>0t. T h e e ffe ct o f su ch a ta n k v o lta g e o n th e o p e r a tin g p a th , w ith a p u re s in u s o id a l d riv in g w a v e sh a p e , is sh o w n in F ig . 9 .8^ 1.
S e v e ra l th in g s a re a p p a r e n t fro m th is new p a th . O n e is th a t th e o u tp u t c u rr e n t p u lse s h a p e is d iffe re n t fro m th a t fo u n d p re v io u s ly a n d is n o n s y m m e tric a l. B e c a u s e th e p u lse s h a p e is d iffe re n t, th e p re v io u s c a lc u la tio n s w ill b e s o m e w h a t in e rr o r . B e c a u s e th e c u r r e n t p u lse is n o t s y m m e tric a l, th e re w ill b e a p h a s e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e a ssu m e d ta n k v o lta g e a n d th e re s u lta n t fu n d a m e n ta l fro m th e c u r r e n t pulse. N o r m a lly o n e d o e s n o t w a n t t o p u rsu e th is c a lc u la tio n a n y fu rth e r a ro u n d th e lo o p . W h a t o n e d o e s w a n t to d o is r e s tr ic t th e p rin c ip a l in p u t h a r m o n ic v o lta g e to th e o rd e r o f 1 0 % o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l.
9.8
439
I f o n e w a n ts to re d u c e th e h a r m o n ic s , o n e sh o u ld in c re a s e C , ; h o w e v e r, fo r a fixed u)0 , in c re a s in g C , w ill re d u c e L x a n d c a u s e th e p rim a ry c ir c u it e ffic ie n cy to suffer. F o r th e c a s e s h o w n , we h a v e p re se n te d a re a s o n a b le c o m p r o m is e b e tw e e n w h ich is th e lo a d e d Q o f the th e tw o p o s itio n s . T h e key te rm in h a r m o n ic re d u c tio n is p rim a ry c irc u it. W e h a v e used a v a lu e o f 5. A v a lu e o f 10 w o u ld re d u c e th e o u tp u t h a r m o n ic v o lta g e by a fa c to r o f 4 , b u t w o u ld d o so a t th e e x p e n se o f n e tw o rk e fficien cy . F o r lo w -p o w e r c ir c u its o n e o fte n d o e s s a c rific e th e o u tp u t p o w e r fo r th e s a k e o f im p ro v e d filte rin g . I f a p u sh -p u ll o u tp u t s ta g e is e m p lo y e d , th e s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic te rm s sh o u ld id e a lly c a n c e l. U n d e r th e se c ir c u m s ta n c e s o n e m ig h t h alv e w ith o u t m a k in g th e h a r m o n ic s p re a d in g o f th e o p e r a tio n p a th m u ch w o rse. T h is w o u ld a llo w o n e to
d o u b le L ; a n d , if Q x c a n b e m a in ta in e d , to h a lv e th e p rim a ry lo sses. (In a m e g a w a tt tr a n s m itte r 5 % is 5 0 k W ; h e n c e re d u c in g th e p rim a r y lo sse s fro m 5 % to 2 .5 % is a w o rth w h ile e n d e a v o r .) In c lo s in g th e d is c u s s io n o f th is n e tw o rk , it s h o u ld b e p o in te d o u t th a t th e v alu es fo r th e m id b a n d Z in a n d tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e c a n b e o b ta in e d a lm o s t b y in s p e c tio n if b o th sid es o f th e tr a n s fo r m e r a r e a ssu m e d to b e tu n e d to re s o n a n c e . T h is a p p r o a c h , c o m b in e d w ith th e id e a th a t th e h a r m o n ic c o n te n t o f b o th th e in p u t v o lta g e an d th e o u tp u t v o lta g e d ep en d s e ss e n tia lly o n th e lo a d e d Q o f the p rim a ry c ir c u it, i.e., o n c j0 C i R in, h a s b e e n in use fo r p e rh a p s fifty y ears. W h a t h a s n o t b e e n w id ely a p p r e c i a te d is th a t a te c h n iq u e lik e th e r o o t lo c u s m e th o d le ts o n e s h a p e th e in - b a n d re s p o n s e in a re la tiv e ly sim p le fa sh io n . P i N e tw o rk A n o th e r n e tw o rk th a t is w id ely used in th e o u tp u t o f p o w er a m p lifie r sta g e s is th e pi n e tw o rk o f F ig . 9 .8 - 5 . In th is fig u re R c j , R C2, a n d r a re a ll lo ss e le m e n ts th a t m u st be c o n sid e r e d in c a lc u la tin g n e tw o rk e ffic ie n c y b u t th a t m ay , o n e h o p e s , b e n e g le cted in e s tim a tin g th e n e tw o rk fre q u e n c y re sp o n se. U n fo r tu n a te ly , th e pi n e tw o rk is n o t a s a m e n a b le to a g e n e ra l tr e a tm e n t a s is th e
coupled coil circuit just considered. The basic conceptual problem is that the input
im p e d a n c e o f th e pi n e tw o rk h a s a p a ir o f c o m p le x z e ro s an d a p a ir o f c o m p le x p o le s r a th e r th a n th e tw o sets o f c o m p le x p o le s fo u n d in th e c o u p le d c o il c a se . A s w e sh a ll
AAA
-o
o-
Fig. 9.8-5 Pi coupling network.
440
9.8
see, th e u p p e r p o le a n d z e ro a re u s u a lly c lo s e e n o u g h to g e th e r a n d lo w e n o u g h in th e ir v a lu e s o f Q th a t th e s im p le -m in d e d a p p r o x im a tio n s n o r m a lly used fo r d e a lin g w ith su ch c ir c u its te n d to b r e a k d o w n . In a d d itio n th e p re s e n c e o f b o th a c o m p le x p o le a n d a c o m p le x z e ro n e a r th e o p e r a tin g fre q u e n c y m a k e s th e p a s s b a n d n o n s y m m e tric a l an d fo rc e s o n e to re e x a m in e su ch c o n c e p ts a s b a n d w id th . W e sh a ll see th a t th e tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e h a s th e s a m e p o le s a s th e in p u t im p e d a n c e , b u t is la c k in g th e c o m p le x z e ro s . H o w e v e r, sin ce th e c e n te r o f th e p a s sb a n d is ra re ly s itu a te d d ir e c tly u n d e r th e p o le , th e tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e , Z 21(p), is a lso n o n s y m m e tric a l a b o u t th e c e n te r fre q u e n cy . B e fo r e w e c o n s id e r th e g e n e r a l c a s e , le t us e x a m in e a n a p p r o a c h to c a lc u la tin g th e in p u t im p e d a n c e o f th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 9 . 8 - 5 in w h ich w e a s su m e t h a t a ll th e c o m p o n e n ts h a v e k n o w n v alu e s. T h e m e th o d c o n s is ts o f c o m b in in g im p e d a n c e s in an a lte r n a tin g p a ra lle l a n d se rie s fa s h io n a s o n e s ta r ts w ith th e lo a d a n d w o rk s b a c k to w a rd th e in p u t o f th e n e tw o rk . T h a t is, o n e c o m b in e s R C2 a n d R L to fo rm R 2 a n d th e n , a t th e o p e r a tin g fre q u e n cy , c o n v e r ts th e p a ra lle l C 2- R 2 c o m b in a tio n s in to a n e q u iv a le n t serie s R SC S fo r m : Qi + 1 CS = ~ ^ C R2
2,
Q 2 = u)0 C 2R 2 .
( 9 .8 - 6 )
F o r e x a m p le , if to0 C 2R 2 = 3, th e n C , = (10/ 9)C 2 and R s = R 2/ 10.
O n e th e n c o m b in e s R s a n d r a n d jco L a n d l /jw C s . I f th e in p u t im p e d a n c e is to be re sistiv e , th e n a>L > 1/ ujC s is n e c e s s a ry so th a t th e re su lt o f th e c o m b in a t io n is an e q u iv a le n t se rie s L -R c o m b in a tio n . c o m b in a tio n o f R CI a n d R p a s R in : T h is c o m b in a tio n is th e n c o n v e r te d b a c k in to p a ra lle l fo rm a n d th e in d u c tiv e p a r t is re s o n a te d o u t, w ith C t le a v in g th e p a ra lle l
R P= (1 + Q s)rs,
w h ere r , = R s + r, L
Lp=
Q s=
( 9 .8 - 7 )
= L -
F r o m th is a p p r o a c h w e see th a t th e n e tw o rk p o w er tra n s fe r e ffic ie n cy w ill be
= R cl + R p ^ T r H e n c e , fo r h ig h
R C2 + R l
(9 8 8) R CI > 1 0 0 R p a re a ll
e ffic ie n cy , R C2 > 1 0 0 f l L , R s > lOOr, a n d
d e s ira b le re la tio n sh ip s . N o w th a t th e lo ss te rm s h av e b e e n c o n sid e r e d , let us n e g le c t th e m in o r d e r to sim p lify th e a lg e b r a w h ile w e e x a m in e th e n e tw o rk fre q u e n cy re sp o n se. C o n s id e r
9.8
441
tw o n u m e ric a l e x a m p le s (in b o th c a s e s C , = C 2):
(O q C 2 R2 = 3,
22 = 3 ,
Rs = i ? 2/10
o )q C 2R 2 3, Q 2=3,
R s = i ? 2/10,
c o 0 L/R 2=
6/10 3,
R2>
m 0 L/R 2= 1/3,
Q s=
Rp =
Q s= 1/3.
R P = R 2! 9,
(OoCji?in = 3,
= 1/3.
In o n e c a s e we h a v e n o im p e d a n c e c h a n g e , w h ile in th e o th e r w e h a v e a 9/1 im p e d a n c e ste p -d o w n . I f w e s ta rte d w ith a 5 0 Q lo a d , th e n th e step -d o w n c a s e w o u ld be useful fo r a t r a n s is to r p o w e r am p lifie r. A s w e sh a ll see s h o rtly , b y c h o o s in g a la rg e r v alu e fo r io0L / R 2 in th e first c a s e , an d by c h a n g in g C , in a n a p p r o p r ia te fa s h io n , w e c o u ld h a v e o b ta in e d a la rg e im p e d a n c e ste p -u p r a tio r a th e r th a n th e 1/1 c a s e o b ta in e d . In o rd e r to see h o w s u c h a w id e ra n g e o f in p u t im p e d a n c e s is p o s sib le , a s w ell as to b e g in to u n d e rs ta n d th e fre q u e n c y re s p o n s e o f th e n e tw o rk , let us w rite th e e x p r e s sio n s fo r Z in a n d Z 2 1 , a s su m in g lo ss le s s e le m e n ts in b o th c a s e s : P
2
P + iT T r +
ZiB (p )=
------- ;----R f
2,
;L C ----------r ,
+ -^2^2 i-C 1 I
<9.8-9)
Z 2 ,(p ) = -------------- , 1 z 7 T v sa m e p o le s a s Z in(p)
( 9 .8 - 1 0 )
I f we d efin e u>j = 1 / ( L C 2), C 2 = N C l , a n d Q 2 = a>0C 2R 2 th e n Z in(p) m a y be re w ritte n a s z , v = ________________ p 2 + PM p/Q i + o il ______________________ (9 8 - 1 1 ) C i ( p 3 + P2 o) 0/Q 2 + p [l + N ]a )l + lN c 0/ Q 2)' w h ere j0 is th e d esire d o p e r a tin g fre q u e n c y t h a t is, th e fre q u e n cy a t w h ich Z in(j ) is re a l a n d h a s th e d e sire d m a g n itu d e . I f o n e k n o w s th e c ir c u it e le m e n ts, th e n th e c a lc u la tio n o f Z jn( joy) is s tr a ig h t fo rw a rd , a lth o u g h te d io u s if d o n e b y h a n d r a th e r th a n b y a s to r e d p ro g ra m in a m in ic o m p u te r .
The problem is that r a th e r th a n k n o w in g th e c ir c u it e le m e n ts
o n e k n o w s th e fre q u e n c y a n d th e im p e d a n c e tr a n s fo r m a tio n r a tio , a n d w ish es to c h o o s e th e e le m e n ts so a s to p e rfo rm th e tr a n s fo r m a tio n in s o m e o p tim u m m a n n e r. T o g e t s o m e fu r th e r fe e lin g fo r th e p ro b le m , w e m ig h t let Q 2 a p p r o a c h in fin ity (th a t is, le t th e e ffe ctiv e lo a d re s is ta n c e R 2 a p p r o a c h in fin ity ) in E q . ( 9 .8 -1 1 ). The
442
9.8
ja > 2 a n d c o m p le x p o le s at
re s u lta n t e q u a tio n w o u ld h a v e c o m p le x z e ro s a t
/v/1 + N c j 2 , a s w ell a s a p o le a t th e o rig in . N o w fro m r o o t- lo c u s c o n s id e r a tio n , it m a y b e sh o w n th a t a s R 2 d e c re a s e s fro m in fin ity th e a c tu a l p o le s a n d z e ro s w ill m o v e in to th e le ft-h a n d p la n e , in itia lly a lo n g p a th s th a t a re p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e j- a x i s . T h e Q o f th e c o m p le x z e ro s is ju s t Q 2 , w h ile a g a in fro m r o o t -lo c u s c o n s id e r a tio n s th e Q o f th e c o m p le x p o le s m a y b e sh o w n to b e o n th e o r d e r o f 1.5 to 2 .5 tim e s Q 2 . I f o n e is try in g to o b ta in a n im p e d a n c e ste p -u p , th e n h e w o u ld e x p e c t to o p e ra te in th e v ic in ity o f th e u p p e r c o m p le x p o le , w h ile if h e w ish es a n im p e d a n c e ste p -d o w n , h e w o u ld e x p e c t to o p e r a te m o r e n e a rly u n d e r th e z e r o o f Z in. A s w e sh a ll see, fo r th e v a lu e s o f Q 2 in th e ra n g e fro m 1 th ro u g h 5, n e ith e r th e step u p n o r th e ste p -d o w n c a s e s w ill b e p a r tic u la r ly s y m m e tric a l w ith re s p e c t to fre q u en cy . In th e im p e d a n c e ste p -d o w n c a se , o n e h a s a n a d d itio n a l c o m p lic a tio n in th a t u n less th e v alu e o f N = C 2/ C l is c h o s e n c a re fu lly o n e w ill fin d t h a t th e c o m p le x p o le in th e im p e d a n c e fu n c tio n s w ill e n d u p n e a r o n e o f th e h a r m o n ic s o f th e d esire d o p e r a tin g fre q u e n cy . S in c e , in p o w e r-a m p lifie r u sa g e , th e n e tw o rk in p u t c u r r e n t is n o rm a lly v ery r ic h in h a r m o n ic c o m p o n e n ts , th e re s u lt w ill b e a la rg e v o lta g e c o m p o n e n t a t th e u n d e sire d h a r m o n ic fre q u e n cy . F o r e x a m p le , if N = 3 ( C 2 = 3 C ,) , th e n th e c o m p le x p o le o c c u r s n e a r 2 a>0 a n d b o th th e in p u t im p e d a n c e a n d th e tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e m a y h a v e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic te rm s th a t g r e a tly e x c e e d th e fu n d a m e n ta l m a g n itu d e s. As we saw in c o n n e c tio n w ith F ig . 9 .8 - 4 , s u c h a s itu a tio n le a d s to u n d e s ir a b le o p e ra tin g c o n d itio n s fo r th e o u tp u t d ev ice. I t a ls o le a d s to u n d e sire d in te rfe re n c e te rm s in th e n e tw o r k s o u tp u t v o lta g e . T h is p ro b le m o f th e la rg e h a r m o n ic c o m p o n e n t is re d u c e d by g e ttin g th e c o m p le x p o le a w a y frp m th e h a r m o n ic fre q u e n cy . T h is en d is a c c o m p lis h e d b y re d u c in g th e v alu e o f N (th a t is, b y in c re a s in g C , w ith re s p e c t to C 2). F o r a n y g iv en Q 2 th e re is a lim it to th e a m o u n t th a t C , c a n b e in c re a s e d a n d still a llo w o n e to o b t a in a re a l in p u t im p e d a n c e a t th e d e sire d o p e r a tin g fre q u e n cy . lim it m a y b e e x p re ss e d a s Qi + 1 Z , 20, I f Q 1 = co0 C l R 2 , th e n th is
Q1 <
Qj + 1' Ql +
W h ile fo r m o s t c o m b in a tio n s o f Q 2 a n d N th e re a re tw o o p e r a tin g fre q u e n c ie s a t w h ic h Z in is re s is tiv e th e s te p -u p a n d th e s te p -d o w n c a s e s in th e lim itin g c a s e th e s e fre q u e n c ie s c o a le s c e in t o a sin g le p o in t. T a b le 9 .8 ^ 4 re la te s s e v e ra l o f th e c ir c u it p a ra m e te r s , a t th is lim itin g v a lu e o f N , to v a rio u s v a lu e s o f Q 2 . T h e v a lu e o f th e in p u t im p e d a n c e a t th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic is fo u n d by e v a lu a tin g th e in p u t im p e d a n c e w ith th e v a lu e s o f c o m p o n e n ts a n d fre q u e n c ie s s p e cifie d b y th e e a r lie r v a lu e s in th e ta b le . W h ile th e e x a c t im p e d a n c e e x p r e ss io n is s o m e w h a t c u m b e r s o m e , fo r a ll v a lu e s o f Q 2 > 1 it m a y b e c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te d b y
(98~12)
9.8
Tabl 9 .8 -4
Q 2
oj0
443
Pi netw ork param eter when N C J C 2 has its m inim um allowable value
J
oj0
C 2R 2
L /R 2
Q l
w 0^1^2
R J R 2
I Z i J 2 j ( 0) l / I Z J j c o
1 2 3 4 5 6
1.0 0 .6 0 0 .4 0 0 .2 9 0 .2 3 0 .1 9
1.0 2.5 5 .0 8.5 13.0 18.5
1/1 1/2.5 1/5 1/8.5 1/13 1/18.5
1.0 1.10 1.10 1.085 1.075 1.062
0 .7 2 4 0 .6 3 5 0 .5 9 0 0 .5 7 5 0 .5 6 0 0 .5 5 0
F o r Q 2 = 1 th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e e x a c t a n d th e a p p r o x im a te e x p re ss io n s is less th a n 5 d eg re e s in a n g le a n d le ss th a n 3 .5 % in m a g n itu d e . F r o m E q . ( 9 .8 - 1 2 ) a n d T a b le 9 .8 - 4 , w e see th a t ev en if Q 2 a p p r o a c h e s in fin ity , th e m a g n itu d e o f th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic te rm w ill still b e o n e -h a lf o f th e m a g n itu d e o f th e te rm a t th e o p e r a tin g fre q u e n cy . F r o m o u r p re v io u s c a lc u la tio n s w e a re a w a re t h a t th is m a y w ell le ad to a d e v ice o u tp u t v o lta g e c o m p o n e n t a t th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic e q u a l to 2 0 - 3 0 % o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t. E v e n if th e d ev ice o u tp u t v o lta g e h a s n o c o n tr o llin g e ffe ct o n th e o u tp u t c u rr e n t p u lse (an id e al tr a n s is to r , fo r e x a m p le ), th is la rg e h a r m o n ic c o m p o n e n t w ill s h ift th e d ev ice o p e r a tin g p a th in to a h ig h e r d issi p a tio n re g io n , a s in d ic a te d b y F ig . 9 .8 - 4 . H e n c e it is n o t d e s ira b le . A r a tio n a l w ay to re m o v e th e s e c o n d h a r m o n ic te rm fro m b o th th e in p u t an d th e tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e s is to p a ra lle l Q im p e d a n c e a t
2
b y a s e rie s -tu n e d , h ig h -Q , lo w -lo s s L r C
c ir c u it th a t is r e s o n a n t a t 2 co0 . T o b e e ffe ctiv e, th is c ir c u it m u st h a v e a re s o n a n t co0 th a t is s m a ll w ith re s p e c t to th e d esire d o u tp u t im p e d a n c e a t co0 . In m a n y h ig h -p o w e re d tr a n s is to r c irc u its , th is d esire d im p e d a n c e is o n ly a few o h m s ; h e n c e th e se rie s tr a p m u st h a v e a n im p e d a n c e le ss th a n a few te n th s o f a n o h m . In c lu s io n o f su c h a se rie s c ir c u it w ill m o v e th e p o le s o f Z in a s w ell a s in tro d u c in g a n ew s e t o f p o le s a b o v e 2co0 . I f th e Q o f th e tr a p is h ig h e n o u g h (Q > 1 0 0 is d e s ira b le ), th e n th e s e n ew p o le s w ill b e c lo s e e n o u g h to th e 2o>0 so th a t th e y w ill n o t c a u se p ro b le m s a t th e th ird h a r m o n ic , w h ile th e ir e ffe ct a t th e o p e r a tin g fre q u e n c y w ill be o n ly s e c o n d o rd e r. T h e p r o b le m re m a in s o f o b ta in in g e n o u g h o f a h a n d le o n th e b a n d w id th o f th e c ir c u it to b e a b le to sp e cify it in a n in te llig e n t m a n n e r. T o see th e e ffe ct o f v a r ia tio n s in fre q u e n c y , we p lo tte d th e m a g n itu d e a n d p h a s e o f Yjn(ja>) vs. cu/w 0 fo r th e c a s e in w h ich Q 2 = 3, N = 0 .6 0 , a n d h e n c e ( u>0 L / R 2) = 0.4. T h a t is fo r th e lim itin g 5/1 ste p -d o w n c a s e o f T a b le 9 .8 - 4 . W ith th e s e v a lu e s, a 5 0 -o h m lo a d is tra n s fo rm e d in to a 1 0 -Q lo a d w h e n w = co0 , in to 7 .4 5 QZ_ 0.95co o , a n d in to 13.8 6
w h en
oj
2 .5 w h en to = 1.05co0 - T h u s a 5 % sh ift in fre q u en cy
c a u s e s ro u g h ly a 3 0 % s h ift in th e m a g n itu d e o f th e in p u t im p e d a n c e , a n d o n ly a re la tiv e ly s m a ll s h ift in th e p h a s e a n g le . H ig h e r v a lu e s o f Q 2 w ill m o v e th e c o m p le x z e ro s c lo s e r to th e 7 -a x is , a n d h e n c e w ill a llo w la rg e r ste p -d o w n r a tio s , w h ile k e e p in g th e im p e d a n c e a t 2co0 fro m b e c o m in g
444
9.8
e x c e ssiv e . F o r a g iv e n v a lu e o f Q 2 , re d u c in g a)0L / R 2 fro m th e v a lu e s in T a b le 9 . 8 - 4 w ill in c r e a s e th e s te p -d o w n r a t io a t th e e x p e n se o f a n in c re a s e in th e re la tiv e se c o n d h a r m o n ic c o m p o n e n t. I f a v e ry la rg e ste p -d o w n is re q u ire d , th e n a c o n flic t m a y a rise b e tw e e n b a n d w id th a n d s te p -d o w n r a tio . T w o c a s c a d e d p i s e c tio n s m a y p ro v id e a s o lu tio n to th is p ro b le m . H o w e v e r, th e e x t r a r e a c ta n c e s in th e c ir c u it w ill a ls o p ro v id e e x tr a p o le s t h a t m u st b e ste e re d c le a r o f th e h a r m o n ic s o f th e o p e r a tin g fre q u e n cy . S m ith C h a r t A p r a c tic a l d e v ice th a t y ie ld s s o m e in s ig h t in to th is m a tc h in g p ro b le m is a m o d i fied v e rsio n o f th e tra n s m is s io n lin e c h a r t k n o w n a s th e S m ith c h a r t. I f o n e n o rm a liz e s all re a c ta n c e s (o r c o n d u c ta n c e s ) w ith re s p e c t to th e lo a d , w h ic h in o u r c a se is R 2 , th e n th e c h a r t, illu s tra te d in F ig . 9 . 8 - 6 , a llo w s o n e to see b y in s p e c tio n w h a t c o m p o n e n t r a tio s a re a llo w a b le . It a ls o a llo w s th e sim p le in c lu s io n o f lo sse s fro m th e n e tw o r k s in d u c ta n c e s a n d c a p a c ita n c e s , a s w ell a s a llo w in g o n e to c a lc u la te the e ffe cts o f v a r ia tio n s in fre q u e n c y o n th e im p e d a n c e .. T h e m e c h a n is m o f th e c h a r t th a t is u sefu l is th a t a r e fle c tio n o f a n o rm a liz e d p o in t th ro u g h th e c e n te r o f th e c h a r t p e rfo rm s th e p a ra lle l-s e fie s a n d s e r ie s -p a ra lle l c o n v e r s io n s o f E q s . ( 9 .8 - 6 ) a n d (9 .8 - 7 ) . T h e u su al V e rs io n o f th e S m ith c h a r t h a s re s is tiv e (o r c o n d u c tiv e ) c irc le s c e n te re d o n a v e rtic a l b is e c to r o f th e c h a r t a n d r e a c tiv e c ir c le s c e n te re d o ff to th e sid e s o f th e c h a r t. T o b e u sefu l fo r o u r p u rp o se s th e c h a r t n e e d s sev e ra l r e fle c tio n c ir c le s a d d ed , a s sh o w n in F ig . 9 .8 - 6 . T h e c ir c le la b e le d 1 is a re fle c tio n in to th e u p p e r h a lf o f th e c h a r t o f th e ( R / Z 0) = 1 c ir c le fro m th e lo w e r h a lf o f th e c h a r t. S in c e w e h a v e n o r m a l ized co0 C 2 w ith re s p e c t to G 2 th e first p o in t o n th e c h a r t a lw a y s lies in th e lo w e r rig h th a n d q u a d r a n t a t th e in te r s e c tio n o f th e 1.0 re s is tiv e c ir c le a n d th e re a c tiv e c ir c le e q u a l in n u m e r ic a l v a lu e to Q 2 = (co0 C 2/ G 2). T h e le ft-h a n d h a lf o f th e re fle cte d ( R / Z 0) = 1 c ir c le a lw a y s c o n ta in s th e s e c o n d p o in t as th e r e fle c tio n o f th e first p o in t th ro u g h th e c e n te r o f th e c h a r t. N o w fo r th e s te p -d o w n c a s e w e p lo t in th e u p p e r le ft q u a d r a n t th e re fle c tio n h a lf-c irc le (s ) c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e d esire d s te p -d o w n ra tio (s). T h a t is, fo r a 5/1 im p e d a n c e s te p -d o w n th e 5 c irc le ta n g e n t to th e b o tt o m o f th e c h a r t is re fle c te d to th e to p o f th e c h a r t. N o w u n le ss w e c a n tra v e l a r o u n d (to th e rig h t) o n th e re s is tiv e c ir c le fro m th e first r e fle c tio n p o in t in th e u p p e r le ft-h a n d q u a d r a n t a n d in te r s e c t th e re fle cte d step d o w n c ir c le , th e n th is c o m b in a t io n o f Q 2 a n d s te p -d o w n a re n o t a llo w a b le . m u st b e o b ta in e d a s a tw o -s ta g e p ro c e ss . A n u m e ric a l e x a m p le m a y h e lp to c la rify th e use o f th e m o d ifie d c h a r t. F ir s t we n o rm a liz e th e c o m p o n e n ts o f F ig . 9 . 8 - 5 to R 2 o r G 2 . o)C'2 = a )C 2R 2 , Gin = G J G 2 ,
coL
I f th e
s te p -d o w n v a lu e c a n n o t b e re d u c e d , th e n e ith e r Q 2 m u st b e in c re a se d o r th e step -d o w n
= a> L /R 2 ,
co C l R 2 = a)C \ ,
and
G\ = G 2/ G 2 = 1.
A s a n u m e ric a l e x a m p le re la te d to o u r p re v io u s c a lc u la tio n s , c o n s id e r th e c a se in w h ich Q 2 = to0 R 2C 2 = a>C'2 = 3 a n d fo r th e c a s e o f lo ss le s s c o m p o n e n ts find th e v alu e s (n o rm a liz e d ) o f L a n d C , th a t w ill p ro v id e a 4/1 im p e d a n c e ste p -d o w n .
9.8
445
Fig. 9 .8 -6 M odified Sm ith chart. A dded reflection circles aid in the easy design o f pi m atching
netw orks.
T h e n o rm a liz e d a > 0 C 2 G 2 c o n d u c ta n c e is 1 + ) 3 , w h ich is sh o w n a s p o in t a in F ig . 9 .8 - 6 . T h e p a r a lle l-to -s e r ie s c o n v e r s io n is p e rfo rm e d b y r e fle c tio n th ro u g h th e c e n te r o f th e c h a r t to p o in t b , w h ic h h a s th e n o rm a liz e d series im p e d a n c e o f 0.1 y'0.3. N o w we p ro c e e d to th e rig h t a lo n g th e 0.1 re s is tiv e c ir c le u n til w e s trik e th e 4/1 step d o w n c ir c le a t p o in t c. W e th e n re fle c t th ro u g h th e c e n te r to p o in t d (4 -J4 .9 ). N o w , by a d d in g a n o rm a liz e d v a lu e o f a>C\ = 4 .9 , w e a rr iv e b a c k a t a p u re ly re s is tiv e c a s e a n d a 4/1 im p e d a n c e ste p -d o w n . T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e r e a c ta n c e a t p o in t b a n d at
point
cis 0.423, which is, of course, the normalized value of a>L2AR2
I.f in s te a d o f a 4 / l im p e d a n c e s te p -d o w n w e h a d w a n te d a 20/1 im p e d a n c e s tep -u p , we w o u ld h a v e c o n tin u e d fro m p o in t c to th e in te r s e c tio n o f th e 0.1 re s is tiv e lin e an d th e 0 .0 5 c o n d u c tiv e lo a d c ir c le . T h is in te r s e c tio n o c c u r s a t 0.1 + j 1.41 (p o in t / ),
446
9.8
= 0 .7 0 5 G 2 w ill yield
w h ich re fle cts in to 0 .0 5 j0 .7 0 5 (p o in t g ) ; h e n c e a d d in g th e d esire d 20/1 im p e d a n c e s te p -u p (p o in t h).
S e v e ra l th in g s a re a p p a r e n t a t th is p o in t. O n e is th a t c o m p o n e n t lo ss e s m a y be e a sily h a n d le d sin ce , o n c e n o rm a liz e d , th e y m e re ly ad d in to th e a p p r o p r ia te s e c tio n o f th e o p e r a tio n . A n o th e r fa c t is th a t o n e is a b le to w o rk in e ith e r d ir e c tio n o n th e c h a r t ; th u s, fo r e x a m p le , o n e c a n a s su m e b o th C j a n d C 2 a n d re a d o ff th e re q u ire d n o r m a l ized v alu e o f L to tie th e m to g e th e r. T o r e la te T a b le 9 .8 4 to th e c h a r t, it is h e lp fu l to n o te th a t th e v alu e s o f th e ta b le c o r re s p o n d to th e c a s e in w h ic h th e p a th fro m th e e q u iv a le n t o f p o in t frju st b is e c ts a s te p d o w n re fle c tio n c ir c le in th e u p p e r r ig h t-h a n d q u a d ra n t. R e fle c tin g th is b is e c tio n p o in t b a c k in to th e lo w e r le ft-h a n d q u a d r a n t in d ic a te s th a t e ith e r a la rg e r o r a sm a ll step d o w n r a tio w ill le a d to a s m a lle r v a lu e o f C x a n d h e n c e to a la rg e r v a lu e o f N = C 2/ C , . T h e c h a r t a ls o m a k e s it c le a r t h a t a s Q 2 is in c re a s e d th e v a r ia tio n in th e in p u t im p e d a n c e w ith fre q u e n c y o r w ith te m p e ra tu re -in d u c e d v a r ia tio n s in L and / or th e C s will, in c re a se . In A d d ition, th e m o d ifie d c h a r t m a y b e u sed to fin d th e e ffe ct o f v a r ia tio n s o f fre q u e n c y o n Yjn. O n c e a s o lu tio n is o b ta in e d , a 1 0 % in c r e a s e in th e th re e re a c tiv e te rm s c o r r e s p o n d s to a 1 0 % in c re a s e in f r e q u e n c y ; h e n c e th e n o rm a liz e d re s u lt is th e in p u t a d m itta n c e a t th e n ew fre q u e n cy . N o rm a lly s e v e ra l p o in ts su ffice t o sh o w th e p a tte rn o f b o th th e re a l a n d th e im a g in a r y p a rt o f Yjn n e a r re s o n a n c e . O n c e r e a s o n a b le v a lu e s fo r L , C x , a n d C 2 h av e b e e n lo c a te d , th e n o n e c a n re tu rn to E q . ( 9 .3 - 9 ) o r E q . ( 9 .3 - 1 0 ) a n d a n a ly z e th e b e h a v io r o f th e pi n e tw o rk in m o r e d eta il. T h e m o d ifie d S m ith c h a r t is w ell a d a p te d to d e a lin g w ith a d d e d c o m p o n e n ts su ch a s a c a p a c ito r in se rie s w ith L . (T h is c a p a c it o r m ig h t p ro v id e d c b lo c k in g and/or m ig h t a llo w L t o b e c o n s tr u c te d in a m o r e c o n v e n ie n t size. B o th o f th e s e u ses a re im p o r ta n t a t h ig h fre q u e n cie s.) I t is a ls o p e rfe c tly c a p a b le o f h a n d lin g a tw o -s e c tio n filter. S u c h a filte r w ill h a v e fiv e p o le s in its tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e a n d , in a d d itio n to th e p o le s, w ill h a v e fo u r c o m p le x z e ro s in its in p u t im p e d a n c e . I n th is c a s e it is e v en m o r e im p o r ta n t t h a t o n e o p e r a te c lo s e to th e h ig h e s t-fre q u e n c y p o le o r z e ro s o a s to a v o id p o le s a t th e h a r m o n ic fre q u e n cie s. B e c a u s e th e c h a r t is a re la tiv e ly fa s t w ay o f o b ta in in g d a ta , o n e c a n u se it to c h e c k th e v a r ia tio n s in Z in vs. a> to m a k e su re th a t th e c ir c u it is o p e r a tin g n e a r th e u p p e rm o s t p o le o r z e r o .f P o le - Z e r o P lo ts A n o th e r w ay to g a in s o m e in s ig h t in to th e p a s sb a n d p ro p e r tie s o f th e p i n e tw o rk is to p lo t th e p o le -z e r o p a tte rn s o f Z in (a n d th u s th e p o le p a tte r n s o f Z 21) fo r sev e ral d iffe re n t c a se s . I t m u st b e p o in te d o u t th a t th is m e th o d is n o t a s a tis fa c to r y w ay to m a k e a n in itia l d esig n , sin ce to m a k e th e p lo ts o n e m u st first c h o o s e th e c o m p o n e n t v a lu e s r a th e r th a n b e in g a b le to w o rk b a c k w a rd fro m a d e s ira b le p a tte rn to c o m p o n e n t v alu es.
t W ith the m iddle C equal to twice the outside ones a n d with equal inductances, such a twosection filter has unloaded poles in its Z in a t the origin, a t j u t 0 , and a t j ^ / 2 o j 0 , unloaded zeros in its Z in at 0.54oj0 and at /1.31w 0, and u>l = l/L C outside.
9.9
H IG H -L E V E L A M P L IT U D E M O D U L A T IO N
447
A s a n e x a m p le c o n s id e r th e tw o c a s e s in w h ic h N = 1 ( C t = C 2) a n d in w h ich Q 2 = 3. A s we saw in th e p re v io u s n u m e r ic a l e x a m p le , th e re a re tw o d iffe re n t v alu e s o f (o0 a t w h ic h Z in(ja>0) is p u re ly re sistiv e . A t o n e fre q u e n cy <w 0 = a>2 , w h ile a t th e o th e r L L > 0 = 1.342o2 . T h e first c a s e c o r r e s p o n d s to th e 9/1 im p e d a n c e s te p -d o w n c a se , w h ile th e s e c o n d c o r r e s p o n d s to th e 1/1 im p e d a n c e tr a n s fo r m a tio n . In th e first c a s e th e z e ro s o f Z in(p) o c c u r a t ( 0 .1 6 6 7 + 7'0.986)co0 , w h ile in th e s e c o n d c a se th e y o c c u r at ( - 0 . 1 6 6 7 + ;0 .7 2 6 ) a > 0 . In b o th c a s e s th e n e g a tiv e re a l p o le o c c u r s q u ite c lo s e to 0.17co o , w h ile in th e co0 = co2 c a s e th e c o m p le x p o le s lie n e a r ( 0 .0 8 2 j/1.402)a)o a n d in th e s e c o n d c a se th e y lie n e a r ( 0 .0 8 1 5 + j\ .042)a> 0 . S in c e in b o th c a se s th e c e n te r fre q u e n c y is a>0 , a s k e tc h o f th e p o le -z e r o p a tte rn w ill in d ic a te th a t n e ith e r Z in(p) n o r Z 2 l (p) is t o o s y m m e tric a l a ro u n d th e 9/1 s te p -d o w n o r fo r th e 1/1 c a se . A s N is re d u c e d (fo r a g iv en v a lu e o f Q 2), th e u p p er c o m p le x p o le a n d ze ro a p p r o a c h e a c h o th e r u n til a t th e v a lu e o f T a b le 9 . 8 - 4 th e re is o n ly a sin g le fre q u e n cy a t w h ic h Z in c a n b e re a l. F o r Q 2 = 3 th e m in im u m v a lu e o f N is 0.6. F o r th is v a lu e th e c o m p le x z e ro s lie a t ( 0 .1 6 6 7 + 7'0.8975)g)o , w h ile th e re a l p o le is n e a r 0 .1 2 7 5 c o o a n d th e c o m p le x p o le s a re n e a r ( 0 . 1 0 2 5 7'1.1375)a>0 . In th is c a s e th e p a s sb a n d is ev en m o r e n o n s y m m e tr ic a l th a n in th e N = 1 c a se . 9.9 H IG H -L E V E L A M P L IT U D E M O D U L A T IO N S in g le -sid e b a n d a n d su p p ressed c a r r ie r o p e r a tio n s a re n o rm a lly d o n e a t lo w s ig n a l lev els a n d th e n a m p lifie d u p t o th e d e sire d fin a l p o w e r le v e ls in C la s s B l in e a r R F a m p lifie rs. W h ile n o rm a l a m p litu d e m o d u la tio n c a n b e d o n e a t lo w e r p o w e r lev els, it is u su a lly a c c o m p lis h e d a s c lo s e to th e fin a l s ta g e as p o ssib le . W h a t w e sh a ll try t o d o in th is s e c tio n is e x p la in th e id e a l g o a l o f a ll h ig h -le v e l m o d u la tin g c ir c u its a n d h o w o n e g o e s a b o u t a c h ie v in g th is g o a l. W e sh a ll n o t b e a b le to p ro v id e s p e cific d e ta ils a b o u t p a r tic u la r d esig n s. I t is h o p e d th a t, if th e re a d e r k n o w s w h a t h e is try in g to d o , it w ill b e e a s ie r fo r h im to d o it p ro p e rly . ' B e fo r e o n e tr ie s to m o d u la te th e s ig n a l, it is w ise to c o m p a r e th e o v e r a ll e ffic ie n cie s o f C la s s A a n d C la s s B R F s ta g e s w h en e a c h is a m p lify in g a 1 0 0 % s in u s o id a lly m o d u la te d sig n al. T h e re s u lts a r e a s fo llo w s : 3 1 Vc c VSM 8 2 Vc c Fsa, fo r C la s s A ,
o j0
fo r e ith e r
3 n Vc c 4 4 Vc c
(9.9-1)
fo r C la s s B.
W ith th e sa m e c a r r ie r b u t n o m o d u la tio n , th e e ffic ie n cie s d ro p to
448
9 .9
T h u s fo r n o rm a l v a r ia b le a m p litu d e m o d u la tio n th e e ffic ie n cy o f th e C la s s B a m p lifie r lies b e tw e e n 5 0 % a n d 7 5 % o f its p e a k e ffic ie n cy , w h ile th e C la s s A s ta g e a c h ie v e s o n ly 2 5 % t o 3 7 .5 % o f its p e a k e ffic ie n cy . F o r e ith e r n o m o d u la tio n o r fu ll m o d u la tio n , th e C la s s B e ffic ie n c y is n tim e s th e C la s s A efficien cy . A lo g ic a l first s te p to w a rd a n id e a l h ig h -le v e l m o d u la to r w o u ld b e to try to ra ise th e a v e ra g e e ffic ie n c y o f th e C la s s B a m p lifie r fro m th e 3 5 - 5 5 % ra n g e fo u n d h e re b a c k to th e 7 5 % p o s s ib le fo r u n m o d u la te d sig n als. F ig u r e 9 .9 - 1 illu s tr a te s a c ir c u it t h a t a llo w s u s to h a v e lin e a r e n v e lo p e a m p lifi c a tio n a t a c o n s ta n t th e o r e tic a l e ffic ie n c y o f n e a rly tc/4. I n th is c ir c u it C BP is p re su m e d t o b e a s h o r t c ir c u it w ith re s p e c t to R F fre q u e n c ie s a n d a n o p e n c ir c u it w ith re sp e ct t o th e m o d u la tin g sig n a l / (f).
(z[ 1+ /(0]
-ft
cos to *+
g(t)=m[vcc~
Fig. 9 .9 -1
& ,]
O utp u t-m o d u lated Class B am plifier for a m odulated signal.
F ig u r e 9 . 9 - 2 sh o w s th e o p e r a tin g p a th s fo r v a lu e s o f / (f) o f - 0 . 9 , 0 . 0 , a n d + 0 . 9 fo r a d ev ice w ith a lin e a r s a tu r a tio n c h a r a c t e r is t ic th a t p a sse s th ro u g h th e o rig in . F o r th is d e v ice c h a r a c t e r is t ic (w h ich is a g o o d a p p r o x im a tio n fo r m a n y tra n s is to rs ), th e c ir c u it is a lw a y s o p e r a tin g a s a fu lly d riv e n C la s s B a m p lif ie r ; h e n c e its e ffic ie n cy is a lw ay s
9.9
H IG H -L E V E L A M P L IT U D E M O D U L A T IO N
449
w h ere R sal is th e slo p e o f th e d e v ice s a tu r a tio n c h a r a c te r is tic a n d I p is th e p e a k c u rr e n t a t 1 0 0 % m o d u la tio n . S in c e p e a k a c p o w e r o u tp u t fo r th is c a s e is (2V CC W hen I pR sat)(Ip / 4 ), th e r a t io o f p e a k a c p o w e r o u tp u t to p e a k d ev ice d is s ip a tio n b e c o m e s ev en la rg e r th a n th e C la s s B re s u lt o f E q . (9 .2 3) fo r u n m o d u la te d c a rrie rs . IpRs = Kat = (0 .0 5 )2 Vc c , th e n 7t r, = 0 . 9 5 - , 4 V rr I P ac = 0 . 9 5 - ^ p , 2 and
'd e v ic e
P dc =
2 V rr l n ( 9 .9 - 4 )
F device = 0 .1 6 2 K c c /p,
= 295.
H e n c e fo r a 1 0 0 W o u tp u t o n a m o d u la tio n p e a k o r a 2 5 W u n m o d u la te d o u tp u t all o n e n e e d s is a d e v ic e c a p a b le o f d is s ip a tin g a p e a k p o w e r o f 100/ 2.95 = 3 4 W . I f th e p e rio d o f th e lo w e s t-fre q u e n c y m o d u la tin g sig n a l is su fficie n tly s h o r te r th a n th e th e rm a l tim e c o n s ta n t o f th e d e v ice s o th a t o n e c a n a s su m e a v e ra g in g o v e r a m o d u la tio n c y c le , th e n fo r a 1 0 0 % s in u s o id a lly m o d u la te d sig n a l a 1 2.8 W d e v ice d is sip a tio n c a p a b ility s h o u ld b e su fficie n t. (T h is is in fa c t th e n o r m a l s itu a tio n .) T h u s , b y m o d u la t in g th e p o w e r su p p ly o f a n a m p lifie r d riv e n b y a m o d u la te d sig n a l, we h av e in c re a s e d th e lo n g -te r m a v e ra g e e ffic ie n c y b y a fa c to r o f a b o u t 2/1 a n d re d u c e d th e d e v ic e s p o w e r-h a n d lin g re q u ire m e n ts b y m o r e th a n 3/1.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 9 .9 -2 Operating paths for a modulated Class B amplifier, variable supply. N o te th a t, fo r a n u n m o d u la te d in p u t t o th e c h a r a c te r is tic o f F ig . 9 .9 2(b), in c r e a s in g Vc c [ l + / (f)] u p w ard fro m Vc c w o u ld n o t le ad to a n y v a r ia tio n in th e o u tp u t w h a tso e v e r. R e d u c tio n o f Kc c [ l + / (f)] d o w n w a rd fro m Vcc w o u ld lead to th e c o m b in a tio n o f e ffe cts d is cu ss e d in S e c tio n 8.6. A s w as e x p la in e d in C h a p te r 8, w ith th e d riv e p ro p e rly in c re a se d , th e c o lle c to r m o d u la tio n a n d its a c c o m p a n y in g r e fle c t io n in to th e b a s e c ir c u it c a n lead to a lin e a r m o d u la to r. A ll in a ll, th e d e s ir a b le o p e r a tio n o f a tr a n s is to riz e d A M tr a n s m itte r w o u ld see m to re q u ire th a t th e o u tp u t s ta g e b e o f th e ty p e illu s tra te d in F ig s . 9 .9 1 a n d 9 .9 -2 . F o r h ig h -p o w e r o u tp u ts o n e w o u ld e x te n d th is re a s o n in g b a c k to in c lu d e th e d riv e r stag e. A t s o m e p o in t w h e re th e d riv e r p o w e r lev el is r e a s o n a b ly lo w , o n e m u st g e n e ra te th e A M e ith e r b y a c o lle c t o r s a tu r a tio n te c h n iq u e o r p o s sib ly b y o n e o f th e o th e r m e th o d s o u tlin e d in C h a p te r 8. O n e fu rth e r m e th o d th a t c a n b e u sed to im p ro v e th e q u a lity o f a m o d u la tio n s y ste m is to e m p lo y o n e o f th e A M d e te c to r s fro m C h a p te r 10 to d e te c t th e fin al
450
9.9
m o d u la tio n a n d to ap p ly it v ia a n e g a tiv e fe e d b a c k c ir c u it to c o r r e c t th e m in o r d is to r tio n s o f th e w h o le m o d u la tio n c h a in . M o d u la te d V a c u u m -T u b e A m p lifie rs I f a m o d u la tio n tr a n s fo r m e r w ere in c lu d e d in se rie s w ith VBB in F ig . 9 .4 -1 (a n d if it w as a d e q u a te ly b y p a ss e d fo r R F sig n a ls), th e n th e e ffe ct o f a p p ly in g slo w m o d u la tio n w o u ld b e the s a m e a s th e e ffe ct o f v a ry in g Vb b - A c tu a lly , i f w e w ish ed to m o d u la te th is a m p lifie r, we w o u ld first c o n v e r t it to th e fo rm o f F ig . 9 .8 -1 . F u r th e r m o r e , we w o u ld c h o o s e th e tim e c o n s ta n t o f R G a n d C G s o th a t th e b ia s c ir c u it w o u ld b e a b le to tr a c k th e h ig h e st m o d u la tio n fre q u en cy . W ith th e se c h a n g e s , a s w ell a s a re d u c tio n in th e d riv e sig n a l a n d a slig h t re d u c tio n in th e lo a d im p e d a n c e , we w o u ld h a v e a m o d u la te d C la s s C a m p lifie r. I t is n o t a t a ll o b v io u s in tu itiv e ly w hy su ch a m o d u la to r s h o u ld b e lin ea r. I t is a fa c t t h a t r e a s o n a b le lin e a r ity c a n b e o b ta in e d th ro u g h th e ju d ic io u s c o m b in a tio n o f th re e e f f e c t s : a) b) c) T h e fin ite rP o f th e tu b e m a k e s iB a fu n c tio n o f vPK. T h e g rid c u r r e n t is a ls o a fu n c tio n o f vPK; h e n c e th e grid c ir c u it lo a d in g , an d th e re fo re th e d riv e v o lta g e , is a fu n c tio n o f th e p la te -c a th o d e v o lta g e. T h e g rid c ir c u it b ia s is a fu n c tio n o f I G0 a n d h e n c e o f vPK. C a lc u la tio n o f th e s e e ffe cts is c o m p lic a te d by th e fa ct th a t n o w th e ta n k lo a d im p e d a n c e m u st b e fix e d , it c a n n o lo n g e r b e left free to b e d efin ed a s V J l , . T h u s o n e is fo rc e d to a s su m e a ta n k v o lta g e , a d riv e v o lta g e , a n d a b ia s fo r a g iv e n c o m b in a tio n o f VBB a n d m o d u la tio n a n d to d eriv e a n o p e r a tin g p a th a n d set o f c u rr e n t p u lses. T h e s e c u r r e n t p u lse s m u st n o w y ield v alu e s fo r l Gx , / ,, a n d /G0 th a t a re c o n s is te n t w ith th e a ssu m e d v alu es. O b v io u s ly w ith so m a n y v a ria b le s th is is n o t a s im p le p ro c e d u re . In tu itiv e ly w h a t o n e w a n ts to h a p p e n is t h i s : A s th e m o d u la tio n d ro p s in to a v a lle y , th e b ia s sh o u ld in c re a s e , a n d th e lo a d in g sh o u ld re d u c e th e d riv e so th a t th e o u tp u t sw in g fa lls b u t th e e ffic ie n c y h o ld s c o n s ta n t. T h e n a s th e m o d u la tio n sw in gs to w a rd a p e a k , th e d riv e s h o u ld in c re a s e , a n d th e b ia s sh o u ld fall so th a t a g a in th e e ffic ie n c y re m a in s re a s o n a b ly c o n s ta n t. In e ffe ct, w e a r e try in g to re fle ct th e m o d u la tio n in to th e g rid c irc u it. T h e fa c t th a t th is r e f le c t io n c o m b in e s w ith th e n o n lin e a r ity in th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e c u rr e n t p u lse siz e a n d s h a p e a n d its fu n d a m e n ta l v alu e to y ie ld a n o v e r a ll lin e a r re s u lt is ju s t a fo r tu ito u s c ir c u m s ta n c e th a t w e e x p lo it. M a n y c o m m e r c ia l h ig h -p o w e r m o d u la tio n s a re c la im e d to h a v e p la te e ffic ie n cie s u p to 8 0 % . S in c e th is is o n ly 5 % b e tte r th a n is p o s sib le w ith th e v a r ia b le c o lle c to r v o lta g e C la s s B m o d u la te d a m p lifie r , th e v a c u u m tu b e h a s v e ry little th e o r e tic a l a d v a n ta g e a s a h ig h -le v e l m o d u la to r. A c tu a l o v e r a ll tu b e e ffic ie n c ie s a re a lw a y s lo w er th a n tr a n s is to r e ffic ie n c ie s, s in c e th e v a c u u m tu b e r e q u ire s a n a d d itio n a l p o w er s o u rc e o f 1 0 % to 2 0 % o f its a v a ila b le o u tp u t p o w e r ju s t to h e a t its fila m e n ts. M o s t h ig h e r-le v e l tr a n s m itte r s c u r r e n tly a v a ila b le e m p lo y v a c u u m tu b e s b e c a u s e o f th e tu b e s h ig h v o lta g e ra tin g s a n d h e n c e th e ir a b ility to p ro d u c e h ig h p o w e r at r e a s o n a b le c u r r e n t lev els r a th e r th a n b e c a u s e o f a n y th e o r e tic a l s u p e rio rity in c o n v e rsio n e fficien cy .
PR O B LEM S
451
PROBLEMS
9.1 In the circuit o f Fig. 9 .P -1 . i,(r) = (0.1 + 0.09 cos aie) A a n d the tran sisto r is constant at 20 for 4 A > ic > 100 mA (this is unlikely in practice). Find the pow er delivered by the battery , the pow er consum ed in the 3 f l resistor, and-the pow er dissipated in the transistor.
Figure 9 .P t 9.2 Assuming th a t the tran sisto r in Problem 9.1 has a therm al resistance o f 4 C /W from its junction to its case, find the tem perature rise of the ju n ctio n over the case b o th for the signal o f Problem 9.1 and for the case where the ac portio n of the drive signal is removed. 9.3 Assume th at the 3 Cl resistor of Problem 9.P-1 is replaced by the prim ary of a lossless tra n s form er th a t reflects a 3 Si load a t the o perating frequency co. R epeat P roblem s 9.1 and 9.2 for this case. M ake the additional assum ption th at the 12 V supply is reduced to 6 V. 9.4 Repeat P roblem 9.3 assum ing th at the 0.09 peak am plitude sine-wave drive is replaced by a 0.09 A peak am plitude square wave. 9.5 C om pare the conversion efficiencies of the cases o f Problem s 9.1, 9.3, and 9.4. Explain physically the great difference in these values. 9.6 Repeat P roblem 9.4 assum ing th at the b ro ad b an d transform er-coupled load is replaced by a n arrow band tuned circuit th at presents the sam e im pedance at the fundam ental frequency. 9.7 In Problem 9.4 assum e th at the square-w ave drive is not constant at 90 mA but that its am plitude varies so th at the percentage of time at each am plitude is as listed in T able 9. P 1. Find the long-term average values o f collector dissipation, load power, and pow er supplied by the battery. Table 9 .P -1 Percent of time 10 20 30 20 10 10 Peak am plitude, mA 90 80 70 50 30 10
452
POWER AMPLIFIERS
9.8 Find the long-term average" pow er supplied to a 50 f t load by each o f the following signals. ( Long-term average m eans averaged over a com plete cycle o f the longest period in the m odulation.) a) A trian g u lar m odulated 10 k H z sine wave as show n in Fig. 9.P-2(a). b) A repetitive wave as show n in Fig. 9.P-2(b). c) A 50 V rms, 5 M H z carrier th a t is frequency-m odulated to an rm s deviation o f 50 kH z by G aussian noise. d) A square-w ave-and-generator co m bination as show n in Fig. 9.P-2(c). e) A tone burst controlled trian g u lar signal as show n in Fig. 9.P-2(d).
1 2 0
50 V 2 m sec
50
ft
(d) Figure 9 .P -2
9.9
A certain device produces an o u tp u t current th a t flows in half-sine-wave pulses o f peak am plitude equal to 2 8 8 A an d peak spacing o f 1 /sec. T he m inim um allow able o u tp u t voltage o f the device w ithout excessive disto rtio n is 1 V. C hoose values for , C 2, an d L (assume L is lossless) th a t will yield m axim um pow er to the 72 ft load while preventing excessive disto rtio n across C , o f Fig. 9 .P -3 w 0C 2 = 0.07 m ho. C alculate the size of the second harm onic com ponent o f the voltage across b o th C , an d across the 72-ft load. Sketch the passband for 1 0 % aro u n d the center frequency for transm ission from the device current pulses to the 72-ft load.
9.10 C onsider the circuit show n in Fig. 9.3-1 w ith a 120 wide pulse train w herein Ip = 2 A. If th e reso n an t im pedance of th e tuned circuit is 3 k ft an d th e allow able m inim um device voltage is 200 V, w hat value m ust Vcc have? F in d the fundam ental o u tp u t pow er for this case. If the tuned-circuit Q is 10, calculate the m agnitude an d phase o f the o u tp u t secondharm onic voltage. W hat is the conversion efficiency of this device under these conditions? W hat is the device dissipation?
PROBLEMS
453
Current
pulses
72 Q
9.11 The circuits of Fig. 9.5- 3(a) and 9.6 3(c) are b o th driven by a 10 kH z, 1 V peak square wave. The positive supply in each case is 20 V, while the load resistor is 10 i2 {RE = 0.25 fl and the coupling capacitor is 100 in Fig. 9.6-3c). D raw the transistor collector cu rren t wave shapes for b o th cases and calculate the pow er delivered to the lO il load. [The series L C in Fig. 9.5 3(a) is resonant at 10 kHz.] Define or specify any o th er param eters as necessary to com plete the problem. 9.12 In the circuit o f Fig. 9.6-3(a), V c c = 20 V, p ^ 50, R L = 100 ii, R t = 25 k ii, R 2 = 1 kO, and the input voltage is successively a train o f 13.5 V peak sine, square, and triangular waves, each with zero average value. C alculate the load pow er and the tran sisto r dissipation for each case. M ake, and state, any assum ptions th at are necessary in w orking the problem. 9.13 F o r the circuit o f P roblem 9.12, find the am plitude of each driving waveshape th at results in m axim um transistor dissipation. Assum e a zero signal em itter current o f 2 mA per transistor.
PULSE T R A IN EXPANSIONS
I n g e n e ra l it is p o s s ib le to a p p r o x im a te th e p la te , g rid , c o lle c to r , o r b a s e c u r r e n t w a v e sh a p e s t h a t a r e p ro d u c e d in C la s s C a m p lifie r s b y o n e o f s e v e ra l ta b u la te d w a v e sh a p e s (o r b y s o m e c o m b in a tio n o f th e s e w av esh ap es). T o a id in su ch c a lc u la tio n s , th is a p p e n d ix ta b u la te s th e g e n e r a l re s u lts o f I J l p vs.
t/ T fo r six w a v e sh a p e s. I n a d d itio n , it p re s e n ts g r a p h s o f I dJ I p , I J I P, a n d I 2/ I p a ll v e rsu s t/ T o r th e to ta l c o n d u c tio n a n g le , 6.

F ig u r e s 4 . 2 - 3 a n d 4 . 2 - 4 p re s e n t s im ila r d a ta fo r s in e -w a v e tip cu rv e s. I n p r a c tic e , th e s in e -w a v e tip a n d th e c o s in e p u ls e d a t a a r e a lm o s t in te r c h a n g e a b le in th e re g io n w ftere t/ T < j. Table 9.A -1
Pulse shape
Idc 21. . rmx s in nn T
Rectangular
V T V 2T 3 y 4T 2 p t n T V 4T
T riangular
IpT sin (nnz/lT)1 T nnx/2T 3px sin(nnx/4T) s in (innx/4T) 2T nnx/AT 3rmx/4T 4 r x cos (nnx/T) n " T 1 - (2 nx/T)2 / p sin (nnx/2T) nn 1 (nx/2T)2
Symm etrical trapezoidal
Cosine pulse
C osine-squared pulse
T h e c o s in e p u ls e is n o t a s in e -w a v e tip (e x c e p t w hen t/ T = j ) , a lth o u g h it c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te s o n e ; i = l p c o s (n t/z ) i f | i| < t , i = 0 o th e rw ise. T h e c o s in e -s q u a re d p u ls e is e q u a l to I p c o s 2 (n t/z ) w h e n | t| < t/2 a n d z e r o o th e rw is e . A t t =
t/ 4 , th is
F ig u re s
p u lse h a s a v a lu e o f J p/2 w h ile th e c o s in e p u lse h a s a v a lu e o f I J ^ J 2 . T a b l e 9 .A -1 a n d F ig . 9 .A - 1 s h o w th e w a v e sh a p e s a n d th e e x p r e s s io n s fo r 7dc a n d /. c o m p o n e n ts vs. th e c o n d u c tio n an g le . 454 9 . A - 2 , 9 .A - 3 , a n d 9 .A - 4 s h o w th e n o rm a liz e d fu n d a m e n ta l, d c , a n d s e c o n d -h a r m o n ic
P U L S E T R A IN E X P A N S IO N S
Square
Trapezoid Cosine
Triangle
Cosine squared
30"
60"
90 0.25
120
150
180 Degrees 0.50 i/ T
Fig. '.'.A 2 / , / / p vs. t/ T or total conduction angle for repetitive pulse trains.
_ n _ Square
Trapezoid -Cosine T riangle " Cosine squared 0 30 60 90 0.25 120 150 180" Degrees 0.50 x/T
Fig. 9.A 3 I j J I vs. x / T or total conduction angle for repetitive pulse trains.
0.25
0.50
i/T
Fig. 9.A 4 / 2/ / p vs. i / T o r total conduction angle in degrees for repetitive pulse trains.
C H A P T E R 10
A M P L IT U D E D E M O D U L A T O R S
In th is c h a p te r w e c o n s id e r th e th e o r e tic a l lim ita tio n s o n th e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la tio n o f sig n a ls, a s w ell a s th e d e ta ils o f a n u m b e r o f p r a c tic a l c ir c u its to a c c o m p lis h th is d e m o d u la tio n . T h e m o s t w id ely u sed p r a c t ic a l c ir c u it is th e n a r ro w b a n d e n v e lo p e d e te c to r o f S e c tio n s 10.3 a n d 10.4. T h o u g h sim p le to c o n s tr u c t, th is c ir c u it h a s d e fin ite lim ita tio n s th a t m a y b e c irc u m v e n te d b y th e u se o f s y n c h r o n o u s o r a v e ra g e d e te c to rs . In o th e r s e c tio n s o f th e c h a p te r w e e x a m in e th e s e c ir c u its in s o m e d etail. 10.1 A M P L IT U D E D E M O D U L A T IO N T E C H N IQ U E S
In th is s e c tio n w e c o n s id e r th e b a s ic th e o r e tic a l p rin c ip le s in v o lv e d in th e d e m o d u la tio n o f A M a n d S S B sig n a ls. I n th e s u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s o f th is c h a p te r we sh a ll c o n s id e r th e p r a c tic a l c ir c u its b y w h ich th e s e p rin c ip le s a r e im p le m e n te d . In g e n e ra l, th e re a re o n ly th re e b a s ic m e th o d s o f a m p litu d e d e m o d u la tio n o r d e te c tio n : (a) s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c tio n , (b ) a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c tio n , a n d (c) p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c tio n . T h e b a s ic id e a b e h in d a ll o f th e s e m e th o d s is to r e c la im th e m o d u la tio n in fo r m a tio n g(r) fro m th e m o d u la te d c a r r ie r w h ic h h a s th e fo rm
U;(f) = - y - c o s 0t + - y sin 0t,
(S S B )
( 10. 1- 1)
w h e re g (t) is th e H ilb e r t tr a n s fo r m o f g (i) (see C h a p te r 8). A s w e sh a ll see , s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c tio n m u st a lw a y s b e e m p lo y e d to d e m o d u la te S S B o r su p p re sse d c a r r ie r A M , w h ile a n y o f th e th r e e d e m o d u la tio n m e th o d s m a y b e e m p lo y e d to d e m o d u la te a n o rm a l A M sig n a l w h o se m o d u la tio n in d e x d o e s n o t e x c e e d u n ity . S y n ch ro n o u s D e te c tio n T h e b lo c k d ia g ra m o f th e s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -1 . F o r th is
d e te c to r , if t(t) h a s th e fo rm g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 0 .1 - 1 ) , th e n w ith th e a id o f th e id e n titie s c o s x c o s y = j [ c o s ( x + y ) + c o s (x y)]
and
sin x c o s y = K sin ( * + y) + sin (x ~ y)]
4 5 7
458
10.1
M ultiplier constant : K
MO
vjt)
vU)
B cos aiqf (Reference signal)
\ L \
| HM
Fig. 10.1-1
Block diagram o f synchronous detector,
th e m u ltip lie r o u tp u t vm c a n b e w ritte n as g ( 0 , g (0 2 + ^ c o s 2 w 0i
v jt) = K B
(n o r m a l o r su p p re sse d c a r r ie r A M )
vm(t) = K B
I c o s 2 a)r,t 4 4 4
g (0 , g ( 0
, , g (t)
sin 2a)0t
(S S B )
( 1 0 .1 - 2 )
I f th e lo w -p a ss filte r re m o v e s th e c o m p o n e n ts o f vm(t ) w h ic h a re c o n c e n tr a te d a b o u t th e ra d ia n fre q u e n c y 2to0 , th e n th e d e te c to r o u tp u t ta k e s th e fo rm (1 0 .1 - 3 ) w h ere I = 2 fo r n o r m a l A M , X = 4 fo r S S B , a n d h L(t) is th e im p u lse re s p o n s e o f th e lo w -p a ss filte r. I f th e filte r h a s a w id e e n o u g h b a n d w id th t o p a s s g(t) u n d is to r te d , th e n E q . ( 1 0 .1 - 3 ) sim p lifie s to th e d e sire d fo rm vM = (1 0 .1 - 4 )
w h ere H L(ju>) is th e F o u r ie r tr a n s fo r m o f h L(t). N o te th a t i f th e re fe re n c e sig n a l h a s th e fo rm B c o s (< x> 0t + 9), th e n v0(t ) is g iv e n b y (fo r n o rm a l A M ) K B g ( t ) H L(0) c o s 0 v0(t) = w h ich is a iv a tte n u a te d v e rsio n o f E q . (10.1^ 4). H e n c e fo r m a x im u m d e te c to r o u tp u t, 6 m u st b d esig n e d to e q u a l zero . F o r s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n to b e a c c o m p lis h e d it is a p p a r e n t th a t th e s p e c tra l c o m p o n e n ts o f vm(t) in th e v ic in ity o f 2a>0 m u st n o t o v e rla p th e s p e c tra l c o m p o n e n ts o f vm(t) in th e v ic in ity o f th e o rig in . F o r n o rm a l o r su p p ressed c a r r ie r A M th e F o u r ie r
10.1
tra n s fo r m Vm(a>) o f vm(t) is g iv e n b y
A M P L IT U D E D E M O D U L A T IO N T E C H N IQ U E S
459
K B G ico ) KB Vm(a>) = ------ + ~ [ G ( a > -
2co0) + G(co + 2co0 ) ] ,
( 1 0 .1 - 5 )
w h ere G(co) is th e F o u r ie r tr a n s fo r m o f g(t). A p lo t o f |Vm{w)\ vs. a> fo r th e c a s e w here g(t) is b a n d -lim ite d in fre q u e n c y to o)m is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -2 . In o rd e r to s e p a ra te th e d esire d o u tp u t s ig n a l fro m th e d o u b le fre q u e n c y te rm , th e in e q u a lity a im < c o 0 m u st b e s a tis fie d ; i.e., th e m a x im u m m o d u la tio n ra te m u st b e less th a n th e c a r r ie r fre q u en cy . I f a>0 is n o t g r e a te r th a n com, th e n s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c tio n (o r, fo r th at In a d d itio n , th e c lo s e r com is to m a tte r , a n y o th e r fo rm o f d e te c tio n ) is im p o s sib le . e x tr a c t th e d esire d o u tp u t sig n al.
a0 , th e m o r e c o m p le x th e lo w -p a ss filte r o f th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r m u st b e to
F o r an S S B s ig n a l w ith g(t) b a n d lim ite d to a>m, |Vm{o>i vs. co h a s th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -3 . H e r e w e see th a t fo r lo w e r -s id e b a n d S S B , s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n is p o s s ib le o n ly i f a>m < a>0 , w h e re a s fo r u p p e r-sid e b a n d S S B s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c tio n c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d o n ly i f com < 2co0 . T o im p le m e n t th e s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r , a m u ltip lie r a n d a re fe re n c e -sig n a l s o u rc e o f th e fo r m B c o s co0t a re re q u ire d . A n y o f th e m u ltip lie r c ir c u its d iscu sse d A fte r a ll, s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n is in C h a p te r 7 o r 8 is su fficie n t a s a m u ltip lie r.
e ss e n tia lly m ix in g d o w n t o d c. T h e r e fe re n c e -s ig n a l s o u rc e a t co0 m a y b e o b ta in e d b y p la c in g v,{t) th r o u g h a v e ry n a r r o w b a n d filte r w h ic h e x tr a c ts th e c a r r ie r c o m p o n e n t o f v,{t) (if it e x is ts ) a n d re m o v e s th e s id e b a n d in fo rm a tio n . S p e c ific a lly , if i \{t) = /4[1 + mf(t)\ c o s co0t , w h e re th e F o u r ie r tr a n s fo r m V^to) o f v jt ) a n d th e s p e ctru m F(a>) o f / ( ( ) a re a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 - 4 , th e n th e o u tp u t o f th e n a r r o w b a n d filte r c e n te re d a t a>0 w ith a b a n d w id th le ss th a n 2 u>L is g iv en b y A c o s m 0t, w h ic h is th e d e sire d re fe re n c e sig n al. S u c h a n e x tre m e ly n a r r o w b a n d filte r is u su a lly im p le m e n te d w ith a c r y s ta l o r a m e c h a n ic a l filte r o r w ith a p h a s e -lo c k e d lo o p (P L L ). I f a c ry s ta l filte r is e m p lo y e d , th e c e n te r fre q u e n cy co0 o f t!,(i) m u st a ls o b e c ry s ta l
460
10.1
U pper-sideband SSB
1 cu, (a)
1 2alp
|K ( )| Lower-sideband SSB
\
oJm
i------------2c l > o 2u>o

(b)
1
< J J ^
Fig. 1 0 .1 -3
P lo t o f | Vm (w)\ vs. a) for S S B modulation with g(t) band-limited to wm.
|F(w)|
|K(W)I
C a r rie r I 2 c jl
r ~ UJL
i
u ), Of
OlQ
r i
C 0 OJb + KJm UJ -
Fig. 1 0 .1 -4
P lot o f |F(a>)| and | Vôi)\ vs. w.
c o n tro lle d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f a P L L is e m p lo y e d , a>0 n e e d n o t b e (b u t u s u a lly is) c ry s ta l c o n tr o lle d , s in c e th e p h a s e -lo c k e d lo o p is c a p a b le o f t r a c k in g slo w v a r ia tio n s in co0 w h ile s till a c tin g a s a n a r r o w b a n d filte r a b o u t co0 . I n th e c a s e o f S S B a n d s u p p re sse d c a r r ie r A M , a c a r r ie r c o m p o n e n t d o e s n o t u su a lly e x is t in u/t)- F o r S S B s ig n a ls a lo w -le v e l o r p ilo t c a r r ie r is u s u a lly ad d e d to th e tr a n s m itte d s ig n a l a n d e x tr a c te d a s th e re fe re n c e s ig n a l a t th e re c e iv e r w ith a n a r r o w b a n d f i lt e r .t H o w e v e r, w h e n th e S S B m o d u la tio n is a n a u d io s ig n a l, th e T h is o s c illa t o r re fe re n c e s ig n a l m a y b e o b ta in e d fr o m a n in d e p e n d e n t o s c illa to r .
g e n e r a te s a s ig n a l o f th e fo rm B c o s [ajnt + 0 (f)], w h e re 0(f) is a s lo w ly v a ry in g r a n d o m
f In many voice com m unication systems a large number o f voice channels (B W < 3 kHz) are SSB-m odulated and frequency-division-multiplexed at 4 kH z intervals from dc to 4n kHz, where n is the total num ber o f channels. This com posite signal plus a 4 kH z reference signal then frequency-modulates a high-frequency carrier. At the receiver, after frequency demodulation the various S S B signals must be synchronously demodulated. The approxim ate reference signal for each S S B channel is generated by extracting the 4 kH z reference signal and then distorting it and extracting the desired harm onic by appropriate filtering.
10.1
AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION TECHNIQUES
461
p h a s e (o r fre q u e n c y ) e r r o r b e tw e e n th e o s c illa t o r a t th e tr a n s m itte r a n d th e o s c illa to r a t th e rece iv e r. W it h th e in d e p e n d e n t re fe re n c e s ig n a l, th e o u tp u t o f th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r is g iv en by v(t) - ~ [ g ( t )

COS
0(f) g (f) sin 0(f)].
( 1 0 .1 - 6 )
S in c e it h a s b e e n ' o b se rv e d th a t th e h u m a n e a r c a n n o t re a d ily d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n g(f) a n d g (f), th e o u tp u t s ig n a l o f th e d e te c to r is a p e rfe c tly a c c e p ta b le r e p r o d u c tio n o f g(f) e v en w h en 0(f) d rifts th ro u g h n /2 . I f 0 (f) = et + 0 , th a t is, i f th e re fe re n c e o s c il la t o r d iffers in fre q u e n c y fro m th e tr a n s m itte r o s c illa to r , th e e ffe ct o n th e e a r is to ra ise o r lo w e r th e p itc h o f th e d e m o d u la te d s ig n a l w h ile m a in ta in in g its in te llig ib ility . T h e e y e, h o w e v e r, is n o t a s fo rg iv in g a s th e e a r ; h e n c e an in d e p e n d e n t re fe re n c e o s c illa t o r c a n n o t b e u sed fo r d e m o d u la tin g S S B v id e o in fo rm a tio n . F o r su p p ressed c a r r ie r A M th e re fe re n c e s ig n a l c a n b e g e n e ra te d b y p a ssin g v,{t) th ro u g h a n e tw o rk o f th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -5 . T h e o u tp u t o f th e s q u a re law d ev ice , w h ic h m a y b e im p le m e n te d w ith a field e ffe ct tr a n s is to r , is g iv e n by v2(t) = k g 2(t) c o s 2 (o0 t k g 2{t) , k g 2(t) ,, , = ------------1 ------ c o s 2 a )0 f. (1 0 .1 - 7 )
2a
OJ0
(Reference signal) Fig. 10.1-5 N etw ork for extracting reference carrier from suppressed-carrier AM.
S in c e g 2(f) is a lw a y s g r e a te r th a n z e ro , its a v e ra g e v alu e, u n lik e th e a v e ra g e v a lu e o f g (f), is g r e a te r th a n z e ro a n d th u s v2(t) h a s a c a r r ie r fre q u e n cy c o m p o n e n t a t 2u>0 w h ic h is in tu r n e x tr a c te d b y th e n a r r o w b a n d filte r c e n te re d a t 2 a>0 . T h is filte r m a y a ls o b e im p le m e n te d a s a c ry s ta l filte r o r a s a p h a s e -lo c k e d lo o p . T h e filte r o u tp u t is th e n c o u n te d d o w n in fre q u e n c y b y 2 a n d filte re d to p ro v id e th e d e s ire d re fe re n c e s ig n a l B c o s co0t. T h e c o e ffic ie n t B is, o f c o u r s e , a fu n c tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l d ev ice a n d filte r s c a le fa c to r s w ith in th e n e tw o r k o f F ig . 1 0 .1 -5 . A v e ra g e E n v e lo p e D e te c tio n T h e b lo c k d ia g ra m o f th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -6 . I f i;,(t)
is a normal AM input of the form i(t) = g (i)c o sw 0i,
462
10.1
vAD
Half-wave rectifier
Lowpass filter
HL(jw)
l,l
j
L
h l{ o)
Fig. 1 0 .1 -6 B lock diagram o f average envelope detector. w h ere g (i) > 0 , a n d i f th e tr a n s fe r c h a r a c t e r is tic o f th e h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r is g iv e n b y Vi, 0, a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 - 6 , th e n v j t ) = g (f)(c o s (O0t)S(t), ( 1 0 .1 - 9 )
vt > 0 ,
Vj < 0 ,
( 10. 1- 8 )
w h e re S (t) is a s w itc h in g fu n c tio n w ith th e p ro p e r ty S(t) = 1 fo r c o s a>0t > 0 an d S (t ) = 0 fo r c o s co0 t < 0. A s k e tc h o f v,{t), va(t), a n d S (t) is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 . 1 - 7 . I t is in tu itiv e ly o b v io u s fro m th e s k e tc h t h a t b y e x tr a c tin g th e a v e ra g e v a lu e o f v j t ) w ith th e lo w -p a ss filte r, a n o u tp u t s ig n a l p r o p o r tio n a l to g(t) is o b ta in e d . series S (t ) = I c o s a>0t ---------- c o s 3cot + 2 n in an d s u b s titu te it in to E q . ( 1 0 .1 - 9 ) to o b ta in M
va (0 =
To
d e m o n s tr a te rig o ro u s ly th a t v j t ) is p r o p o r tio n a l to g(r), w e e x p a n d S (t) in its F o u r ie r
( 10. 1- 10)
, 2
, 2 g(r) n
COS
2 g (i)
w 0 1 -------- ^ -----
C O S W o 1 "I
in
c o s 3a>0t c o s w 0 t
+ ^ 71 2
c o s (o0t + h ig h e r h a r m o n ic A M sig n als.
( 10. 1- 11)
I f th e lo w -p a ss filte r (cf. F ig . 1 0 .1 -6 ) re m o v e s th e fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n ts o f va(t) ce n te re d a b o u t to0 , 2co0 , e tc ., th e n v j t ) is g iv e n by

p it)
v(t) = * M O ,
n
( 10. 1- 12)
w h e re h L(t) is th e im p u lse re s p o n s e o f th e lo w -p a s s filter. If, in a d d itio n , th e lo w -p a ss filte r h a s a w id e e n o u g h b a n d w id th to p a ss g(t) u n d is to rte d , th e n E q . ( 1 0 .1 - 1 2 )
10.1
V ,(0
g ( l ) C O SCJ0 t
463
\ 1
\ s
vAO
' Average value :g(t)/x
SU)
"i a n n n n
2n U)0
Fig. 10.1-7 Plot of iJ,(r), v jt ) and S(t) vs. t.

sim p lifie s to th e d esire d fo rm vB (t) = g(t) n ( 1 0 .1 - 1 3 )
w h ere a g a in H L(j(o ) is th e F o u r ie r tra n s fo r m o f h , (t). I f w e p lo t th e m a g n itu d e o f th e F o u r ie r tr a n s fo r m Va(<x>) o f va(t) fo r th e c a se w h ere g (i) is b a n d -lim ite d to a>m a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 - 8 , w e o b se rv e th a t th e in e q u a lity com <
wn
( 1 0 .1 - 1 4 )
m u st b e sa tisfie d if th e lo w -p a ss filte r is to b e c a p a b le o f e x tr a c tin g g(t) fro m v jt ) .
\VA<*>)\ |G(w IG(ut) | 1 / 4 t t 2(1*) cun)
W , C il0-tLl, 0%
\ r
1 1
\ / U o to i,
_
w
Fig. 10.1-8 Plot of | VJo))\ vs. to.
464
10.1
I f th e h a lf-w a v e r e c tifie r o f F i g . 1 0 .1 - 6 is re p la c e d b y a fu ll-w a v e re c tifie r, n o t o n ly d o e s th e o u tp u t o f th e lo w -p a s s filte r d o u b le , b u t n o te rm c e n te re d a b o u t co0 e x is ts in va(t). C o n s e q u e n tly g (i) m a y b e e x tr a c te d fro m v j t ) , p ro v id e d th a t <m < eo0 , w h ic h is th e s a m e fre q u e n c y c o n s t r a in t im p o s e d b y th e s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r. I t is a p p a r e n t fr o m F ig . 1 0 .1 - 7 t h a t th e o u tp u t sig n a l v j t ) m u st a lw a y s b e p o s itiv e ,f i.e., th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r e x t r a c t s th e p o s itiv e e n v e lo p e . I f g (i) c o s co0 t w ere re p la c e d b y g (i) c o s m 0t = g(r) c o s (co0t + n ), th e o u tp u t w o u ld b e u n ch a n g e d , s in c e th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is c le a r ly in s e n sitiv e to th e p h a s e o f th e c a r r i e r ; h e n c e th e o u tp u t o f th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is w ritte n m o r e p re c is e ly a s t;0(i) = H l (0). 7t ( 1 0 .1 - 1 5 )
T h u s i f a su p p ressed c a r r ie r w av e fo r w h ic h g(f) h a s b o th p o s itiv e a n d n e g a tiv e v a lu e s w ere d e m o d u la te d b y a n e n v e lo p e d e te c to r , g r o s s d is to r tio n w o u ld a p p e a r a t th e o u tp u t. S p e c ific a lly , th e o u tp u t w o u ld a p p e a r a s i f th e m o d u la tio n h a d b e e n p assed th ro u g h a fu ll-w a v e re c tifie r a s illu s tr a te d in F ig . 1 0 .1 -9 . S im ila r ly , i f th e m o d u la tio n in d e x o f a .n o r m a l A M s ig n a l e x c e e d s u n ity , th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r in tro d u c e s d is to r tio n a n d s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n m u st b e e m p lo y e d . B y w ritin g th e e x p r e s s io n fo r th e S S B sig n a l g iv en b y E q . ( 1 0 .1 - 1 ) in th e e q u iv a le n t fo rm
v ,{t) = is/g2 (t) + g2 (tj c o s

t a k e th e fo rm
u)0t + ta n
i| (i) g(f)
( 1 0 .1 - 1 6 )
we o b s e r v e th a t th e o u tp u t o f a n a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r w ith a n S S B in p u t w ou ld
v (t) = v V
g2 (t)H L (0 ),
( 1 0 .1 - 1 7 )
t If the half-wave rectifier characteristics are reversed, that is, if va = for V , > 0, then v jt ) must always be negative.
for v, < 0 f i d va = 0
10.1
465
w h ic h is a ls o a h ig h ly d is to rte d o u tp u t sig n al. d e te c tio n is re q u ire d .
H e re a g a in we see th a t s y n c h ro n o u s
H o w e v e r, i f a la rg e c a r r ie r c o m p o n e n t A c o s co0t is ad d ed to th e tra n s m itte d S S B sig n a l, th e re s u lta n t sig n a l m a y b e d e m o d u la te d by e n v e lo p e d e te c tio n . S p e c ific a lly , if = V/(t) + A c o s co0 t A +
g(i)
COS a ) n i
sin a>0 t
-L. g ( t )
-L. ^
4~ cos
co0t + ta n "
g(t) 2 A + g(t)_
(1 0 .1 - 1 8 )
is d e m o d u la te d b y a n e n v e lo p e d e te c to r , th e o u tp u t is p ro p o r tio n a l to g 2(t) ^ A + g(t) ' 4 % ' 2
A +
g(t)
p ro v id e d th a t A |g(f)/2| a n d A |g(t)/2|. S u c h a sig n a l is ra re ly tra n s m itte d , sin ce m o s t o f th e tr a n s m itte r p o w e r m u st b e e x p e n d e d in p ro v id in g a la rg e c a rrie r. T h e b a s ic c o n c e p t, h o w e v e r, p ro v id e s th e b a s is fo r v e stig ia l s id e b a n d tra n s m is sio n . M o s t v id eo sig n a ls h a v e th e p r o p e r ty th a t th e ir fre q u e n cy s p e c tra a re c o n c e n tr a te d at lo w fre q u e n cie s, a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -1 0 . C o n s e q u e n tly , w hen a c a r r ie r a t
oj0
is
a m p litu d e -m o d u la te d by a v id e o sig n a l, th e re s u lta n t sig n al v ,(t) h as a b a n d w id th o f 2 co2 . T h is b a n d w id th m a y b e re d u c e d c o n s id e r a b ly to W j + a>2 by p la c in g the A M sig n a l th r o u g h a filte r H (ja> ) o f th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -1 1 , w h ich re m o v e s th e lo w -le v e l p o r tio n o f th e lo w e r- (o r u p p e r-) s id e b a n d in fo r m a tio n a n d d o u b le s th e lo w -le v e l p o r tio n o f th e u p p e r- (o r lo w e r-) s id e b a n d in fo r m a tio n to p ro d u c e a v e stig ia l s id e b a n d sig n a l v2(t). T h e b a s ic p ro p e r ty o f th e re s u lta n t v e stig ia l s id e b a n d sig n al is th a t it re q u ire s less b a n d w id th fo r its tra n s m is s io n a n d still is c a p a b le o f b e in g d e m o d u la te d b y a n e n v e lo p e d e te c to r. |FM|
\
r
k . J, J, 1 ^ 1M l -w, w, IF2M I 1 w,
F x(ui) + F2(oj)
Olj
\ U > 2
(Jj
OJ
f OJ2
-w,
F(oj)
\ J2
Fig. 10.1-10 Frequency spectrum o f typical video signal f(t).
466
10.1
Ih M l
C a rrie r
% - w2 /
^0 \
tU 0 + w2
Fig. 10.1-11 C o nstruction o f a vestigial sideband signal.
T o d e m o n s tr a te th is fa c t, w e w rite th e v id e o s ig n a l / (f) in th e fo rm
m=m+Mt),
c o r re s p o n d s to th e lo w -le v e l, h ig h -fre q u e n c y p o r tio n o f / (f). sig n a l th e re fo re ta k e s th e fo rm v t(t) = A [ l -(- m fiit) + m f2{t)] c o s a>0f,
do.i-19)
w h e re / (f) c o r r e s p o n d s to th e h ig h -le v e l, lo w -fre q u e n c y p o r tio n o f / ( f ) a n d f 2(t) T h e re s u lta n t A M
( 1 0 .1 - 2 0 )
w h ere A is th e c a r r ie r a m p litu d e a n d m is th e m o d u la tio n in d ex . T h e v e stig ia l sid e b a n d sig n a l (w h ich c o n s is ts o f n o r m a lly m o d u la te d a n d f 2 s in g le -s id e b a n d m o d u la te d a n d in c re a s e d b y a fa c to r o f 2 re la tiv e to / ,) is g iv e n by f 2(f) = A [1 + m f j t ) + m f2(t)] c o s co0 t A m f2(t) sin co0 t. S in c e |/2(f)|2 ( 1 0 .1 - 2 1 )
1, t> 2(f) is e q u iv a le n t to a n S S B s ig n a l w ith a la rg e ad d e d c a r r ie r , a n d
th u s h a s a n e n v e lo p e o f th e fo rm + m f j t ) + m f2(t)] = A [ 1 + w /(f)], w h ich is id e n tic a l w ith th e e n v e lo p e o f th e n o r m a l A M sig n a l u^ t). In p ra c tic e , th e a m p litu d e o f th e u p p e r-sid e b a n d in fo r m a tio n is n o t d o u b le d a t th e t r a n s m itt e r ; r a th e r , th e h ig h -fre q u e n c y p o r tio n o f / ( f ) is e n h a n c e d b y a fa c to r o f 2 b y th e re c e iv e r a fte r th e s ig n a l h a s b e e n d e m o d u la te d . T h is n o t o n ly s im p lifie s th e b a n d p a s s filte r a t th e tr a n s m itte r , w h ic h re m o v e s th e lo w e r -s id e b a n d in fo r m a tio n , b u t a ls o p e rm its fa ith fu l e n v e lo p e d e m o d u la tio n o f th e v e stig ia l s id e b a n d s ig n a l w ith th e w e a k e r re q u ire m e n t t h a t |/2(i)/2|2 1. ( 1 0 .1 - 2 2 )
10.1 P e a k E n v elop e D e te c tio n
467
A n id e a l p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is a d e v ice w h ich s a m p le s th e p e a k o f e a c h p o sitiv e (o r n e g a tiv e ) c a r r ie r c y c le a n d h o ld s th e p e a k v a lu e u n til th e n e x t c a r r ie r c y c le o cc u rs. F ig u r e 1 0 . 1 - 1 2 illu s tr a te s a ty p ic a l set o f in p u t a n d o u tp u t w a v e fo rm s fo r a n id e al p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r . I t is a p p a r e n t fro m F ig . 1 0 . 1 - 1 2 th a t a c o n s id e r a b le a m o u n t o f rip p le a p p e a rs o n th e o u tp u t s ig n a l v0(t ) u n le ss th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y g r e a tly e x c e e d s th e m a x im u m fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t com o f g(f). C o n s e q u e n tly , u n le ss s u b s e q u e n t filte rin g is e m p lo y e d , th e u se o f th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is re s tric te d to s itu a tio n s w h ere a v ery w id e s e p a r a tio n e x is ts b e tw e e n a>m a n d co0 . H o w e v e r, w hen a w id e s e p a ra tio n b e tw e e n com a n d co0 e x is ts , it is a p p a r e n t th a t v0(t ) c lo s e ly a p p r o a c h e s g(i) fo r g(t) > 0.
Ideal peak envelope detector
v(0
o
Fig. 1 0 .1 -1 2
Ideal peak envelope detector.
M o s t p r a c t ic a l p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r s e m p lo y a d io d e to d riv e th e h o ld in g n e tw o rk (u su a lly a r e s is to r in p a ra lle l w ith a c a p a c it o r ) to th e p e a k v a lu e o f e a c h c a r r ie r c y c le , a s s h o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -1 3 . O n c e i> 0(t) h a s re a c h e d th e p e a k v a lu e o f u,(r), th e d io d e b e c o m e s re v e rs e b ia se d a n d v j t ) d e c a y s s lo w ly to w a rd z e r o w ith a tim e c o n s ta n t z = R C u n til, n e a r th e p e a k o f th e c y c le , vt = v0 , w h ich a g a in tu rn s th e d io d e o n a n d b rin g s v0(t) to th e p e a k v a lu e o f u^r). T h e r e s is to r R in th e h o ld in g n e tw o rk o b v io u s ly h a s th e e ffe ct o f in c re a s in g th e r ip p le ; h o w e v e r, it is re q u ire d in m o s t p r a c tic a l d e te c to r s to e n s u re t h a t v0{t) d e c a y s m o r e ra p id ly d u rin g e v ery h o ld in g p e rio d th a n th e e n v e lo p e o f U;(t). I f th e d e c a y in v0(t) is in s u ffic ie n t, th e d io d e d o e s n o t tu rn o n a t th e p e a k o f e v ery c y c le o f t>;(f), a n d fa ilu r e -to -fo llo w d is to r tio n re su lts. C le a r ly th e tim e c o n s t a n t
t
m u s t b e c h o s e n to m e e t a c o m p r o m is e b e tw e e n rip p le
and . fa ilu r e -to -fo llo w d is to r tio n . I t is a p p a r e n t th a t th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r , lik e th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r , p m d u c e s a n o u tp u t p r o p o r tio n a l to |g(t)| w h ic h re s u lts in d is to r tio n i f g(t) is n o t a lw a y s p o s itiv e ; h e n c e su p p ressed c a r r ie r A M d e m o d u la tio n a n d S S B d e m o d u la tio n a re
468
10.2
Fig. 1 0 .1 -1 3
P ractical peak en velope detector.
im p o s s ib le w ith th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r n ic e ly d e m o d u la te s n o r m a l A M sig n a ls, a s w ell a s v e stig ia l s id e b a n d sig n als. S in c e e x a c t e x p r e s s io n s fo r v j t ) w ill b e o b ta in e d in S e c tio n s 1 0.3 a n d 1 0.5 fo r sp e cific p r a c tic a l p e a k d e te c to r s , n o fu r th e r g e n e r a l a n a ly s is is a tte m p te d a t th is p o in t.
10.2 P R A C T IC A L A VERAG E E N V E L O P E D E T E C T O R S
In th is s e c tio n w e c o n s id e r s o m e o f th e p r o b le m s e n c o u n te r e d in im p le m e n tin g c ir c u its w h ic h a c h ie v e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c tio n . U n fo r tu n a te ly , th e id e a l d io d e d o e s n o t e x ist in n a t u r e ; th e re fo re , th e g r e a te s t p r o b le m in d e s ig n in g a n a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is th e s y n th e s is o f th e h a lf-w a v e r e c tifie r p o r tio n w ith p h y sic a l d io d e s. W e first sh o w th e e ffe cts o n th e d e te c to r o f e m p lo y in g a p h y sic a l d io d e in p la c e o f a n id e a l d io d e in th e h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r c i r c u i t ; th e n w e e x p lo re a m e th o d b y w h ic h a p h y sic a l d io d e c a n b e m a d e to fu n c tio n a s a n id e a l d io d e in th e d e te c to r c irc u it. T h is m e th o d u tiliz e s fe e d b a c k t o re m o v e th e n o n lin e a r itie s c re a te d b y th e n o n id e a l d io d e fro m th e h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r c h a r a c te r is tic . T o o b s e r v e th e b a s ic p r o b le m w h ic h a ris e s w h en p h y s ic a l d io d e s a re e m p lo y e d in p la c e o f id e a l d io d e s, w e c o n s id e r th e d e te c to r sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 -1 . I f th e d io d e D is id e a l, th e n
1D = ' r
f o r Vi >
10.2
P R A C T IC A L A V E R A G E E N V E L O P E D E T E C T O R S
469
Half-wave rectifier Fig. 10.2-1

an d iD = 0
Low-pass filter
Im plem entation o f average envelope detector.
fo r v , < 0 ;
h e n c e iD is a n e x a c t h a lf-w a v e re c tifie d v e rsio n o f v J R . T h is c u r r e n t, m u ltip lie d b y a, is th e n p la ce d th ro u g h a lo w -p a ss filte r (R 0 in p a ra lle l w ith C 0 ) to e x tr a c t its a v e ra g e valu e. C o n s e q u e n tly , i f t>,(r) = g(f) c o s wt, th e n v0(t) = nR w h ere z ,(t ) is th e re s p o n s e o f o0(f) w hen aiD(t ) = S(t) (a u n it im p u lse). w ide e n o u g h to p a s s g(t), th e n , o f c o u rs e , VU) = C C ~ g (0 nR to th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 0 .2 -1 . H o w e v e r, if th e d io d e is n o t id e a l, th e e x p r e ss io n s fo r iD a n d , in tu rn , v a re m o d ifie d . In p a r tic u la r , i f th e d io d e is m o d e le d b y th e r e la tio n s h ip iD = I s(e > v lkT 1) * I se qVDlkT, ( 1 0 .2 - 3 ) I f th e filte r is zL(t), ( 1 0 .2 - 1 )
( 1 0 .2 - 2 )
E q u a tio n s ( 1 0 .2 - 1 ) a n d ( 1 0 .2 - 2 ) a re ju s t th e re su lts o f th e p re v io u s s e c tio n a p p lied
w h ich is a r e a s o n a b le a p p r o x im a tio n fo r m o s t s e m ic o n d u c to r d io d e s, th e n iD m a y be e x p re sse d in te rm s o f v(t) b y th e e q u a tio n v = iDR H kT i In -p . q h ( 1 0 .2 - 4 )
E q u a tio n ( 1 0 .2 - 4 ) m a y b e a ls o w ritte n in th e n o rm a liz e d fo rm z = y + In y In W, (1 0 .2 5)
w h ere z = qv/k T , y = q iDR /k T , a n d W = q I s R /k T . A p lo t o f y vs. z w ith In VKas a p a r a m e te r is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 - 2 a lo n g w ith th e c o r r e s p o n d in g p lo t fo r a n id eal d io d e . A s In W in c re a se s , th e e n tire z-y c h a r a c te r is tic sh ifts lin e a rly to th e righ t. H e re w e see th a t th e p h y sic a l d io d e d o e s n o t tu rn o n at v = 0 (o r z = 0), b u t r a th e r re q u ire s a m o r e p o s itiv e v a lu e o f v b e fo re a n y s ig n ific a n t d io d e c u rr e n t flow s. T h e effe ct o f th is tu r n -o n re q u ire m e n t is to p re v e n t sm a ll in p u t sig n a ls fro m p ro d u c in g
470
10.2
a n o u tp u t.
T h u s su c h a d e te c to r c a n n o t p o s sib ly d e m o d u la te 1 0 0 % m o d u la te d
s ig n a ls w ith o u t d is to rtio n . T h e tu r n -o n re q u ire m e n t b e c o m e s m o r e o b v io u s if th e a c tu a l h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r c h a r a c te r is tic is m o d e le d b y th e tw o -se g m e n t p ie c e w ise -lin e a r c h a r a c te r is t ic sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 -2 a n d g iv e n by z + In W 5, z > - I n W + 5, z < In W + 5,
y =
( 10.2- 6 )
0,
In W = 5 In ^ = 2 0
z = y + l t \ y \n W
z=qV i/kT
y= q i R /k T W = q lsR /kT [ ] Values in volts if k T /q = 2 6 mV
( z - 5 + l n fV,
z> 5 -T n W z < 5 In W 200 [5.2] 220 240 260 z [v,]
20 [0.52]
40
60
80
100 [2.6]
120
140
160
180
Fig. 10.2-2 P lo t of y [i0/?] vs. z [u j with In W as a param eter, o r e q u iv a le n tly , b y

-
v0
Vi > V0 , Vi < Vn ,
(10.2-7)
w h e re
10.2
471
It sh o u ld be a p p a r e n t fro m E q . (1 0 .2 7) th a t c o n s tr u c tin g th e p ie ce w ise -lin e a r c h a r a c te r is tic is e q u iv a le n t to r e p la c in g th e p h y sic a l d io d e in th e c ir c u it sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 -1 by a n id e a l d io d e in se rie s w ith a b a tte r y o f v a lu e K0 , as sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 -3 . F r o m th e e q u iv a le n t c ir c u it it is o b v io u s th a t, u n less i ,(f) e x c e e d s V0 , n o o u tp u t exists.
W e s h o u ld n o te th a t th e tu r n -o n v o lta g e V0 is a fu n ctio n o f k T / q , R , an d l s . F o r e x a m p le , w ith a g e r m a n iu m d io d e fo r w h ich /s % 2 x 1 0 ~ 7 A , R = \ k f i, an d k T /q = 2 6 m V , - l n W = 4 .8 6 and V0 = 2 5 6 m V .
O n th e o th e r h a n d , w ith a s ilic o n d io d e fo r w h ich J s x 2 x 1 0 12 A , R = I kf2, a n d k T /q = 2 6 m V , - l n ( P y ) = 1 6.4 and V0 = 5 5 6 m V .
It is a p p a r e n t th a t th e la rg e r th e v alu e s o f R a n d I s , th e lo w er th e v alu e o f V0 a n d th e s m a lle r th e d e p a rtu r e o f th e p h y sic a l h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r c h a r a c te r is tic . to th e id e al h a lf-w a v e re ctifie r. T o o b se rv e th e e ffe ct o f th e tu r n -o n v o lta g e V0 o n th e o u tp u t o f th e c irc u it o f F ig . 1 0 .2 -3 , c o n s id e r i>,(i) to b e e q u a l to Vl c o s cot. T h e d io d e c u rr e n t th e re fo re h a s th e fo rm o f a p e rio d ic tr a in o f sin e -w a v e tip s o f p e a k v alu e I DP = (Vi c o n d u c tio n a n g le 2</> 2 c o s - 1 {V0/ V y). V0 )/R a n d C o n s e q u e n tly th e a v e ra g e v a lu e o f iD, C le a rly , th e n , a g e r m a n iu m d io d e w ith a la rg e v a lu e o f R p ro v id e s th e b e st a p p r o x im a tio n
w h ic h is e x tr a c te d b y th e o u tp u t filte r, ta k e s th e fo rm (cf. th e a p p e n d ix to C h a p te r 4)
472
w h e re *
1 0 .2
f \ ( k -
= * 1
n_r
A p lo t o f F ( VtIV 0) a p p e a rs in F ig . 1 0.2 4, fro m w h ic h it is o b s e r v e d th a t, fo r K, > 4K 0 , F ( V i / V 0) m a y b e a p p r o x im a te d b y its a s y m p to tic v a lu e ( 1 0 .2 - 9 ) I k, T h u s , fo r V, > 4 V 0 , l Ki izR ro 2R ( 10.2- 10)
a n d , if th e o u tp u t filte r o f th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 -3 re m o v e s sig n a l c o m p o n e n ts a t a> a n d its h a r m o n ic s w h ile b e in g w id e e n o u g h to p ass th e v a r ia tio n s in V t , th e n va is g iv e n b y v0 = ctiDR 0 = a J^ R o nR *V 0R 0 2R (1 0 .2 - 1 1 )
(ft)
y, Yo 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0 ^
g:
jl
V\
0 0.088 0.218 0.362 0.510 1.122 2.700
10.0
Fig. 10.2-4 Plot o f F( VJV0) vs. VJV0 .
10.2
I f V, = g(t), th e n
PRACTICAL AVERAGE ENVELOPE DETECTORS
473
(102_ 12)
nR 2R T h u s th e e ffe ct o f th e tu r n -o n v o lta g e is to s u b tr a c t a c o n s ta n t v alu e, <xV0 R 0/2 R in th is c a s e , fro m th e o u tp u t, p ro v id e d th a t g(r) > 4 V 0 . I f g(r) d ro p s b e lo w 4 V 0 . o u tp u t d is to r tio n o c c u r s , s in c e iD a n d v j t ) a r e n o n lin e a r ly re la te d to g(i), a s c a n b e seen fro m F ig . 1 0 .2 -4 . T h e r e s tr ic tio n g(t) > 4 V 0 fo r a ll t s ev e re ly lim its th e m a x im u m m o d u la tio n ind ex o f th e A M sig n a l th a t m a y b e lin e a rly d e m o d u la te d b y th e d e te c to r o f F ig . 10.2 3. C o n s id e r, fo r e x a m p le , g(t) = F , [ l + m f(t)}
w h e re | / ( f ) |max = 1 a n d th u s m is th e m o d u l a ti o n in d e x .
F o r th is c a se , g(r) > 4K0
is equivalent to the condition

4 V
V. > ------ 5 - , 1 m
( 1 0 .2 - 1 3 )
C o n s e q u e n tly , if K0 = 2 5 0 m V a n d m = 0 .8 , I/, m u st b e g re a te r th a n 5 V to a c h ie v e lin e a r d e m o d u la tio n . A s a p r a c tic a l m a tte r, fo r v o ic e d e m o d u la tio n , th e d is to r tio n w ou ld b e w ith in to le r a b le lim its w ith K, a s low a s 1.5 V. A c o m p le te c ir c u it w h ic h h a s a s its m o d e l th e c irc u it sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 -3 is illu s tra te d in F ig . 10.2 5. In th is c irc u it th e v o lta g e su p p ly Vc c s u p p lie s th e b ia s to k e e p th e c o lle c to r - b a s e ju n c t io n o f th e tr a n s is to r re v e rse b ia se d , w h ile C is a c o u p lin g c a p a c it o r w h ich is o la te s t,(f) fro m th e b ia s su p p ly. T h e e m itte r -b a s e ju n c t io n a c ts as th e h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r, w h ile th e d io d e D p ro v id e s a re tu rn p a th fo r th e c a p a c ito r c u rr e n t a n d th u s p re v e n ts c la m p in g ; i.e., i f th e a v e ra g e v alu e o f vt(t) is z e ro , vc m u st c h a rg e to Vc c to k e e p iD = iE, w h ich is n e c e ss a ry to k e e p th e a v e ra g e c a p a c ito r c u rr e n t e q u a l to z e ro . e x p r e ss io n W ith vc = Vc c , w ith th e e m itte r c u rr e n t d e s c rib e d b y th e
iE = I ESe ^ BlkT,
( 1 0 .2 - 1 4 )
474
10.2
an d w ith th e a s s u m p tio n th a t C is a s h o r t to vh th e e m itte r c u r r e n t m a y b e re la te d to r,(i) by th e e x p r e s s io n kT i v,{t) = R iE + l n - ^ , q I es ( 1 0 .2 - 1 5 )
w h ic h is th e s a m e r e la tio n s h ip a s th a t o b ta in e d fro m th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 0 . 2 - 1 ; th u s we see th a t th e e m itte r -b a s e ju n c t i o n fu n c tio n s e x a c tly a s th e d io d e in th e p re v io u s p ro b le m , w h ile th e c o lle c t o r c u r r e n t p ro v id e s th e c u rr e n t d riv e , a iE , fo r th e lo w -p a ss filter. C o n s e q u e n tly , E q s. ( 1 0 .2 - 1 1 ) a n d ( 1 0 .2 - 1 2 ) p ro v id e e x p r e s s io n s fo r th e o u tp u t o f th e c irc u it o f F ig . 1 0 .2 -4 . In c h o o s in g c o m p o n e n ts fo r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 0 .2 -5 w e u su a lly c h o o s e tw o id e n tic a l g e r m a n iu m tr a n s is to r s a n d c o n n e c t th e b a s e a n d c o lle c t o r o f o n e to g e th e r to o b ta in a d io d e . W e th e n s e le c t a v a lu e o f R so m e w h e re in th e v ic in ity o f 10 k i ) a n d d e te r m in e V0 . A s m a lle r v a lu e o f R in c r e a s e s V0 , w h ile a la r g e r v a lu e o f R re q u ire s i\{t) to b e t o o la rg e to a c h ie v e a r e a s o n a b le o u tp u t c u rre n t. F o r a n y g iv e n m o d u la tio n in d ex th e re q u ire d a m p litu d e Vx o f v,{t) = K ,[ l + m f(t)] c o s (at m a y b e d e te rm in e d to sa tisfy E q . (1 0 .2 -1 3 ). W ith th e a s s u m p tio n th a t Vc c is a ls o sp e cifie d , R 0 is c h o s e n to p ro d u c e a r e a s o n a b ly la rg e o u tp u t sw in g w ith o u t c a u s in g th e tr a n s is to r to s a tu ra te . T h e c a p a c it o r C 0 is c h o s e n su c h th a t 1//?0 Q> = w 3 w h e re m *s th e m a x im u m m o d u la tio n fre q u e n cy a n d a>3 is th e 3 d B b a n d w id th o f th e lo w -p a ss filte r. F in a lly a iC is c h o s e n to b e a t le a s t te n tim e s a s g r e a t a s 1/R . E x a m p le 1 0 .2 - 1 F o r th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 - 6 , d e te r m in e
v alu e s fo r a ll u n sp e cifie d p a r a m e te r s su ch th a t lin e a r d e m o d u la tio n is a ch iev e d . A ls o d e te r m in e a n e x p r e s s io n fo r t?0( f ). Solution. S in c e R = 10 k Q a n d Is = 2 x 1 0 ~ 7 A , th e tu r n -o n v o lta g e K0 h a s th e
v a lu e V0 = 197 m V ; h e n c e w ith a m o d u la tio n in d ex o f 0 .6 lin e a r d e m o d u la tio n re q u ire s Vx > 1.97 V (cf. E q . 1 0 .2 -1 3 ). W e sh a ll c h o o s e Vx = 2 .5 V . W ith th is c h o ic e ,
Figure 10.2-6
1 0 .2
475
va(t ) is g iv en by (cf. E q . 1 0 .2 -1 2 ) v0 = - ( 2 5 0 / x A ) ( l + 0 -6 c o s 10 3i ) ^
7t
+ ( 9 .9 f i A ) R 0
with the assumptions that the transistor does not saturate, that a = 1, and that th e
o u tp u t filte r p a sse s fre q u e n c ie s up to 1 0 3 rad/sec u n d is to rte d . T h e m in u s sign, o f c o u rs e , re su lts fro m e m p lo y in g a n N P N tr a n s is to r in ste a d o f a P N P tra n s is to r.
Since the minimum value of v0 must be greater than - 10.2 V to avoid saturating
th e g e r m a n iu m tr a n s is to r , we o b ta in
R0 >
1 0.2 V ,
o r e q u iv a le n tly , R 0 < 8 7 k i i
T o le a v e s o m e m a rg in fo r p a r a m e te r v a r ia tio n , we
c h o o s e R 0 = 6 8 k f i (a s ta n d a r d 5 % v a lu e ) a n d o b ta in fin ally v0 = B y c h o o s in g - ( 4 .7 V) (3 .2 V ) c o s 1 0 3i.
1//?0 C 0 = 1 0 4 rad /sec o r e q u iv a le n tly C 0 ss 1 5 0 0 p F , we e n su re At
th a t th e sig n a l in fo r m a tio n is tra n s m itte d a n d th a t fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n ts at th e fu n d a m e n ta l an d h a r m o n ic s o f th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n cy a re re m o v e d fro m th e o u tp u t.

id
= 1 0 8 rad/sec, l/ 1 0 8C o = 6 .8 0 , w h ic h is in d ee d a s h o rt c ir c u it c o m p a re d w ith I f th e im p e d a n c e o f th e o u tp u t filte r a t th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y is n o t sm a ll
6 8 k fi.
c o m p a re d w ith R 0 , rip p le a p p e a rs in th e o u tp u t. A lth o u g h th is rip p le m a y be r e m o v e d by s u b s e q u e n t filte rin g , c a r e m u st b e ta k e n to e n su re th a t it d o e s n o t s a tu ra te th e tr a n s is to r w h e n ad d e d t o vB. F in a lly , to e n s u re th a t th e c o u p lin g c a p a c ito r is a n a c s h o rt c irc u it, w e n eed C > 10/co/? = 10 p F . A g a in , to a llo w fo r a m a rg in o f safety , we c h o o s e C = 1 0 0 p F . T h e n o n id e a l e ffe ct o f th e p h y sic a l d io d e m a y be g re a tly re d u ce d by c o n s tr u c tin g a h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r th a t in c o r p o r a te s th e d io d e in th e fe e d b a c k lo o p o f a n o p e r a tio n a l R2
Fig. 1 0 .2 -7 amplifier.
Half-wave rectifier employing a diode in the feedback loop o f an operational
476
10.2
a m p lifie r , a s s h o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 - 7 . T h e h a lf-w a v e r e c tific a tio n is a c h ie v e d w ith d io d e D j , w h ic h c o n d u c ts fo r n e g a tiv e v a lu e s o f t;, a n d o p e n s fo r p o s itiv e v a lu e s o f i\. D io d e D 2 is in c o r p o r a te d in th e c ir c u it to p re v e n t o p e n -lo o p o p e r a tio n a n d th e p o s s ib ility o f d e v ic e s a tu r a tio n fo r p o s itiv e v a lu e s o f u, fo r w h ic h D x o p e n s . S in c e w ith D j a n d D 2 in th e c ir c u it th e m a x im u m v a lu e o f v' e x c e e d s th e m a x im u m v a lu e o f va b y o n ly th e s m a ll d io d e o n v o lta g e (a p p r o x im a te ly 2 2 0 m V fo r g e rm a n iu m an d 6 5 0 m V fo r s ilic o n cf. S e c tio n 5 .4 ), th e m a x im u m v a lu e o f i;| is c lo s e ly a p p r o x i m a te d b y vam m J A , w h e re A is th e v o lta g e a m p lific a tio n o f th e o p e r a tio n a l a m p lifie r. I n a d d itio n , i f th e p o s itiv e a n d n e g a tiv e p e a k v a lu e s o f vt a r e o f th e s a m e o r d e r o f m a g n itu d e , th e p re s e n c e o f D 2 e n s u re s th a t th e m in im u m v a lu e o f i > j is o f th e o rd e r o f vamJ A . C o n s e q u e n tly , fo r A > 1 0 0 (w h ich is tru e e v en fo r th e p o o r e s t-q u a lity a p p e a rs a s a v ir tu a l g ro u n d re la tiv e to va, a n d th u s va o p e r a tio n a m p lifie r),
m a y b e v ery c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te d b y ( 1 0 .2 - 1 6 ) N o tin g th a t D 2 is o p e n fo r i Di > 0 , w e m a y r e la te i Dl to v t b y th e e x p r e ss io n (1 0 .2 -.1 7 ) In d e riv in g E q . ( 1 0 .2 - 1 7 ) , w e a s su m e t h a t th e d io d e c u r r e n t a n d v o lta g e a r e a g a in re la te d b y th e a p p r o x im a tio n o f E q . ( 1 0 .2 - 3 ) , th a t th e o p e r a tio n a l a m p lifie r in p u t im p e d a n c e is s e v e ra l o rd e rs o f m a g n itu d e g r e a te r th a n R t o r R 2 a n d th u s m a y b e n e g le c te d , a n d t h a t th e o p e r a t io n a l a m p lifie r o u tp u t im p e d a n c e is s m a ll in c o m p a r is o n w ith R 2 . T h e s e a s s u m p tio n s a re u su a lly tru e fo r m o s t in te g ra te d o p e r a tio n a l a m p lifie r s ; a n d e v e n in th o s e c a s e s w h e re th e y a re n o t s tric tly tru e , it c a n b e re a d ily sh o w n th a t th e re s u lts w e d e riv e a r e s till v alid . m o r e c u m b e r so m e . E q u a tio n ( 1 0 .2 - 1 7 ) m a y b e w ritte n in th e n o rm a liz e d fo rm T h e e q u a tio n s , h o w e v e r, b e c o m e
z = y + { | ^ (ln y w h e re and
In W ),
( 1 0 .2 - 1 8 )
W = ^
I t is a p p a r e n t th a t, fo r A = 0 , E q . ( 1 0 .2 - 1 8 ) re d u c e s to E q . ( 1 0 .2 - 5 ) a n d n o im p ro v e m e n t o v e r th e p re v io u s h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r is o b ta in e d . A s A is in c re a s e d fro m z e ro , th e e ffe ct o f th e n o n lin e a r te r m in y is re d u c e d a n d th e z-y c h a r a c te r is tic a p p r o a c h e s t h a t o f a n id e a l d io d e . A p lo t o f y vs. z fo r In W = 2 0 is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 - 8 . T h e s c a le in th is fig u re is g r e a tly e x p a n d e d fr o m th e s c a le o f F ig . 1 0 .2 - 2 , a s c a n b e see n fr o m th e z-y c h a r a c te r is t ic fo r A = 0 . F r o m F ig . 1 0 .2 - 7 w e o b s e r v e t h a t fo r A > 9 9 th e z-y c h a r a c t e r is tic is w ith in 7 m V (u n n o rm a liz e d ) o f th e id e a l h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r c h a r a c t e r is tic ( A - oo). In a d d itio n , fo r
A > 9 9 9 th e c h a r a c t e r is tic is w ith in
0 .7 m V o f th e id e a l h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r c h a r a c t e r is t ic a n d fo r a ll p r a c tic a l p u rp o se s m a y
10.2
477
10 [260]
12
14
16
18
20 [520]
22
24
26
28
30 [780]
32 [v,]
Fig. 1 0 .2 -8
P lo t o f y vs. z w ith In
= 20 a n d w ith
a s a p a ram ete r.
be c o n sid e r e d to b e id e a l, th a t is, z > 0, 0, o r e q u iv a le n tly , - vf R , + R 2/( 1 + A ) (0 , C le a rly , th e n , va is re la te d to v, b y th e id e a l h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r c h a r a c t e r is tic giv en by ~ Vi^ 2 Rx 0, I f h o t- c a r r ie r d io d e s a re u sed fo r Vi ( 1 0 .2 - 2 1 ) R, z < 0, ( 1 0 .2 - 1 9 )
y, < 0, ( 1 0 .2 - 2 0 )
Vi > 0. a n d D 2 , E q . ( 1 0 .2 - 2 1 ) p ro v id e s a n a c c u r a te
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e tr a n s fe r c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f va vs. vt fo r c a r r ie r fre q u e n c ie s up to th e te n s o f m e g a h e rtz , p ro v id e d th a t a t th e s e fre q u e n c ie s th e o p e n -lo o p a m p lific a tio n o f th e o p e r a tio n a l a m p lifie r still e x c e e d s 100. A c o m p le te a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r e m p lo y in g tw o o p e r a tio n a l a m p lifie rs is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 -9 . I f R 3 R 2 , w h ic h s h o u ld b e th e c a s e t o e n s u re th a t th e
478
AMPLITUDE DEMODULATORS
10.3
R2
c u r r e n t fro m D x flo w s .p rim a rily th r o u g h R 2 , th e n th e firs t a m p lifie r p e rfo rm s a s a n id e a l h a lf-w a v e rectified , w h ile th e s e c o n d a m p lifie r p e rfo rm s a s a lo w -p a ss filte r w ith a tra n s fe r fu n c tio n H (p ) =
V0(P) Va(p)
r jr
1 + pR*C
( 10.2- 22)
E q u a t io n ( 1 0 .2 - 2 2 ) is th e tra n s fe r fu n c tio n o f a lo w -p a ss filte r w ith a tra n s m is s io n a t lo w fre q u e n c ie s o f R J R 3 a n d a 3 d B b a n d w id th o f co3 = 1/R4 C . T h e r e fo r e , i f

V/(t)
= g(f) c o s cot, th e n
v jt) =
w h e re h(t) =
7lK j
* hU),
(1 0 .2 - 2 3 )
lH(p). I f co3 is la rg e in c o m p a r is o n w ith th e m a x im u m fre q u e n c y

.. R 2R 4 . . VoU) = ^ g (0 -
c o m p o n e n t o f g(i), th e n ( 1 0 .2 - 2 4 )
B y c o r r e c tly a d ju s tin g R i , R 2 , R 3 , a n d R A, a n y d e sire d a m p lific a tio n m a y b e a c h ie v e d p ro v id e d t h a t th e o p e r a t io n a l a m p lifie r s a re n o t d riv e n in t o s a tu r a tio n . I n a d d itio n , b y c a s c a d in g s e v e ra l m o r e jo p e r a tio n a l a m p lifie r s , a h ig h e r -o r d e r , lo w -p a s s filte r c a n re a d ily b e sy n th e siz e d .
10.3 N A R R O W B A N D PEA K E N V E L O P E D E T E C T O R
O n e o f th e m o s t w id e ly u sed d e m o d u la to r s fo r n o r m a l A M s ig n a ls is th e n a r r o w b a n d p e a k e n v e lo p e d e t e c to r s h o w n in F ig . 1 0 .3 -1 . A lm o s t e v ery s u p e rh e te ro d y n e A M re c e iv e r h a s a d e t e c t o r o f th is fo rm , w h ic h is c o n s tr u c te d b y p la c in g th e s e rie s c o m b in a tio n o f a d io d e D a n d a p a r a lle l R 0- C 0 c ir c u it a c r o s s t h e o u tp u t-tu n e d c ir c u it o f th e la s t I F a m p lifie r in th e I F strip . T h e p a r a lle l R L C c ir c u it d riv e n b y th e c u r r e n t s o u rc e i,{t) p ro v id e s th e m o d e l fo r th e fin a l I F a m p lifie r. T h e n arro w b an d p eak
10.3
NARROWBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR
479
envelope d etecto r is alw ays designed so th a t the loaded Q T of the parallel R L C circuit is high and th e tim e co n stan t o f the parallel R 0-C 0 circuit is long in com parison w ith the period of a carrier cycle. T he high value of Q T ensures th a t the last IF stage is sufficiently selective an d also prevents the no n lin ear diode circuit from d istorting the w aveform of T he long R 0C 0 tim e co n stan t enables v0(t) to rem ain essentially co n stan t a t the peak value of over each carrier cycle. T hus o u tp u t ripple is minimized.
In analyzing the d etecto r of Fig. 10.3-1 we assum e th at the diode is ideal. This assum ption greatly simplifies the analysis and, in addition, as we shall dem onstrate, provides results th a t are directly applicable to the identical circuit em ploying a physical diode. W e begin the analysis by o b tain in g an expression for i >,(i) and va(t) for the case where i,(f) = / 1 cos a)0t. In particu lar, we show th a t is indeed directly p ro p o rtio n al to / , , as is required by a linear envelope detector. W e then generalize the analysis to the dynam ic case, where = b(t) cos oj0t = /( [ I + mf(t)] cos oj0t, an d show th a t a sim ple equivalent circuit exists for determ ining u0(t) as a function of b(t). Finally, we consider th e p roblem of failure-to-follow disto rtio n which results when the d etecto r is im properly designed.
Static Analysis
If the R 0C 0 tim e c o n stan t is long in com parison w ith the d u ra tio n T = 2n/a>0 o f a carrier cycle (or, equivalently, C 0 is an ac sh o rt circuit at co0), then with i;(f) = 1 1 cos a> 0t, the o u tp u t voltage va(t) stabilizes a t a dc value va = Vdc. W ith K dc developed across th e cap acito r C 0 , it is ap p a re n t from Exam ple 5.5-3 th a t, if the loaded Q T o f th e parallel R L C circuit is high, then the voltage across the tuned circuit i\{t) m ust have the form
v,{t) = Vic c o s u>0t.
( 1 0 .3 - 1 )
480
10.3
T o d eterm ine Klc we observe th a t the diode D is reverse biased except in the im m ediate vicinity o f th e peak o f r,(i); hence the diode cu rren t iD m ust flow in narrow pulses occurring a t the peak o f each cycle o f v,-(t), as show n in Fig. 10.3-2. C onse quently, iD m ay be expanded in a F o u rier series of the form iD{t) = / D0(l + 2 cos co0t + ) (10.3-2)
Fig. 1 0 .3 -2 Current and voltage waveforms occurring in the circuits of Fig. 10.3-1.
where I D0 isthe average value o f iD(t). [T he n arrow pulse w idth causes the am plitude of the fundam ental co m p o nent o f iD(t) to be twice the average value.] Since the average diode cu rren t m ust flow th ro u g h R 0 , V*c = I doR o (10-3-3)
In additio n , by applying K irch h o ffs cu rren t law to the fundam ental cu rren t com ponents flowing in to the parallel R L C circuit, we obtain / i = ^ T - 2 / D0; R + (10.3-4)
10.3
481
a n d b y c o m b in in g E q s. (1 0 .3 -3 ) a n d (1 0 .3 -4 ), w e fin a lly o b ta in th e d e s ire d e x p re s s io n

fo r Vdc : Vic = I l R T , w h e re R T = R[|(R0/2). ( 1 0 .3 - 5 )
W e a ls o o b s e r v e th a t th e e q u iv a le n t lin e a r lo a d in g o n the
tu n e d c irc u it p ro d u c e d by th e n o n lin e a r d io d e c irc u it is
Kic 21 r
a n d th a t Q T is g iv e n by
Ro
( 1 0 .3 - 6 )
Ry
u)0 L
= R t w 0C .
( 1 0 .3 - 7 )
It is q u ite a p p a r e n t fro m E q . (1 0 .3 -5 ) th a t K c is in d eed lin e a rly re la te d to I j a n d , th e re fo re , th a t th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 10 .3 -1 fu n c tio n s , a t least s ta tic a lly , a s a n e n v e lo p e d e te c to r. T o u n d e rs ta n d th e o p e r a tio n o f th e c irc u it still b e tte r, we d e te r m in e th e fo rm o f iD(t). I f w e a s su m e t h a t th e d io d e b e c o m e s fo rw a rd b ia se d at t , a n d b e c o m e s re v e rse b ia se d a t t 2 , w h e re th e tim e in te rv a l t0 = t2 ?i is s h o r t in c o m p a r is o n w ith T a n d o c c u r s in th e v ic in ity o f th e p e a k o f y,(f), a n d if in a d d itio n w e a s su m e th a t v0(t ) re m a in s e ss e n tia lly c o n s ta n t a t VAq d u rin g d io d e c o n d u c tio n , th e n fo r f j < t < t 2
ii ~ * i ,t
Id
_ K dc _ Id R
Il U
i
it =
(10.3 8)
S in c e a ll the n o n r e a c tiv e s h u n t b r a n c h e s o f th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 0 .3 -1 c o n ta in c o n s ta n t c u r r e n ts fo r f , < t < t2 , th e a c ra m p c o m p o n e n t o f iL m u st d iv id e b e tw e e n C a n d C 0 ; h o w e v e r, th e ra m p c o m p o n e n t th ro u g h C 0 a ls o flow s th ro u g h th e d io d e . T h u s th e d io d e c u rr e n t c o n s is ts o f a ra m p w ith slo p e VdcC 0/ L ( C 0 + C ), w h ich re a c h e s 0 fo r t = r2 (th e d io d e b e c o m e s re v e rse b ia se d w h en its c u r r e n t re a c h e s zero ). tra in o f n a rro w tr ia n g u la r pu lses. T h e p u lse w id th t0 is re a d ily d e te rm in e d b y n o tin g fro m F ig . 1 0 .3 -3 th a t th e a v e ra g e v alu e, I D0, o f i'D(f) m a y b e e x p re sse d as
V t2C
s k e tc h o f iD(t) is sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .3 -3 , w h ic h in d ic a te s th a t i0 (t) c o n s is ts o f a p e rio d ic
= ------------------ D0 2 L T (C 0 + C)
( 1 0 .3 - 9 )
t A sine wave rem ains essentially constant in the vicinity o f its peak.
482
1 0.3
w hile from Eq. (10.3-3) I D0 = VAJ R 0 ; hence elim inating l m from Eq. (10.3-12) yields tg _ T j 2L(C 0 + C) ^ T R 0C 0 C0 + C
V n R 0a)0 C 0 C
/oj0L(C 0 + C ) \ 7 i R qC 0
1 V nQ rs
(10.3-10)
w here Q TS = co0 C sR 0 an d C s = C C 0/(C + C 0) is the series com bination of C and C 0 . In alm ost all n arro w b an d detectors of interest, Q TS is slightly greater th an Q T ; hence a high value of Q T ensures a high value o f Q TS and, in tu rn , a n arro w pulse w idth. F o r exam ple, if C 0 = C, then Q ts = h if C 0 C, then < 2 rs= (2 + ^ W (10-3 12) ( 2R 1 0 . 3 -h )
If Q t s 200, then t J T = <t>/2n = 0.0399 and (j> = 14.4, w here (f> is the co n d u ctio n angle. If Q TS = 100, < j) = 20.3. F o r Q T as low as 50 the conduction angle is sufficiently sm all to justify the assum ptions th at the am plitude of the fundam ental com ponent of iD is twice th e average value and th a t m ay be approxim ated by its peak value d u rin g the interval t Q. In addition, with a conduction angle less than 30, the sm all flat o ccurring on the peak o f vt(t) due to the forw ard bias of the diode is h ardly perceptible. If the R 0C 0 tim e co n stan t is n o t infinite, t> 0 increases slightly during the tim e th at the diode is forw ard biased an d decreases d u rin g the time the diode is reverse biased, thus causing a sm all am o u n t o f ripple on the output. It is readily show n that, even w ith a sm all a m o u n t o f ripple, Fig. 10.3-3 and Eq. (10.3-10) still provide very good ap p ro x im atio n s for the diode cu rren t w aveform an d the cu rren t pulse duration. In p articular, if v0 increases d u ring diode conduction, then the cu rrent pulse d u ratio n
Fig. 10.3-3 Sketch o f i^ t) vs. t.
1 0.3
483
j slightly sh o rte r th a n th e d u ra tio n given by Eq. (10.3 10); this gives even m ore validity to th e previous assum ptions. T o get som e idea o f the size o f the increase A F in v0 during diode conduction, we observe th a t the net charge entering C 0 during a cycle m ust equal zero. W ith the assum ption th a t i 0 T, the charge entering the capacitor is Q+ = C 0AK while the charge leaving is Vdl.T/R0. (The app ro x im atio n becom es exact as t 0 -> 0.) C onsequently, th e fractional ripple A V /V dc appearing at the envelope detector ou tp u t is closely ap p ro x im ated by AV T T ^ T = 1T7^ = - ' (10.3-13)
dc J 'o '- 'O T0
w here r 0 = R 0C 0- F o r 1 % ripple, x = 1007] If the fractional ripple rem ains below 0.1, all the previous results o btained provide excellent approxim ations (within 5%) to the actual resu lts; how ever, w ith AF/Kdc = 0.1, som e additional low -pass filtering m ust follow the d etecto r to rem ove the excess ripple. Exam ple 10.3-1 F o r th e circuit show n in Fig. 10.3-4, (a) determ ine the value o f v0 and (b) determ ine the peak -to -p eak ripple on v0.
Ideal diode
------------------ , > ----------------- 1 ------------------ i----------------- -
-o
f
(2 m A ) cos 108/
1 0 nH ;
50 k f i < >
10 p F ^ -
lO O kni>
10 p F "
Figure 10.3-4
Solution. If we assum e Q T > 10, we can replace the diode and the circuitry to its right by an equivalent 50 kQ re s isto r; hence
vt{t) = (2 mA)(25 k ii) cos 108r = (50 V) cos 108r and, in turn, v0(t) = (50 V) + ripple. F rom Eq. (10.3-14) it is a p p aren t th a t the fractional ripple has the value AV Fdc 2n 1 = 0.0628;
108 (10 pF) x (100 kf)
or equivalently, the peak-to-peak ripple has the value A V = 3.14 V. It is also apparent th at Q t = (25 kQ)/co0L = 25, w hich justifies the initial assum ption.
484
10.3
Dynamic Analysis
W e now let i,(f) = / j [ l 4- m /(i)] cos <y0(i) = b(t) cos co0t,
( 1 0 .3 - 1 4 )
w here b(t) = /,[1 + mf(t)], an d assum e again th a t th e loaded Q T is sufficiently high so th a t vt(t) has frequency com ponents only in the vicinity o f a> 0 and m ay therefore be w ritten in the general form v M = g(t) cos a)0t,
( 1 0 .3 - 1 5 )
w here g(t) is som e low -frequency waveform. If we assum e, in addition, th a t the ripple on v0(t) is sm all a n d th a t th e diode D conducts every carrier cycle, then va{t) is given by v0(t) =
g (f). ( 1 0 .3 1 6 )
[N ote th a t v(t) can n o t be less th an g(i), since this w ould require a voltage across a forw ard-biased ideal diode at the peak o f vt { t) o r a large a m o u n t o f ripple. O n the o th er hand, t>(i) can n o t be g reater th a n g(f) o r the diode could n o t conduct every cy cle; hence, w ith th e above assum ptions, v0(t) = g(f) ] If the diode does n o t conduct every cycle, the result is failure-to-follow d istortion, which we investigate later in this section. Clearly, o u r objective is to evaluate g(t) in term s o f b(t). T o achieve this objective we first observe th a t a high value o f Q T ensures an even higher value of Q TS and thus ensures th a t th e diode cu rren t iD(t) flows in n arro w pulses. Therefore, in this case, as in the static analysis, iD m ay be expanded in a series of the form 'd (0 =
' d o ( )(1
+ 2 cos a> 0t + ),
( 1 0 .3 - 1 7 )
where iD O ( 0 ' s the slowly varying average value of iD(t). [The reader should convince him self th a t th e expansion o f Eq. ( 1 0 . 3 - 1 7 ) is a unique representation for iD(t) provided th a t iD(i) is band-lim ited to co0/2.] T he slowly varying diode cu rren t flowing through the parallel R 0-C 0 circuit gives rise to g(i); hence g(t) = !DoW *
( 1 0 .3 - 1 8 )
where z0(i) is th e response o f th e parallel R 0-C0 circuit when driven by a unit im pulse o f current. In additio n , th e in p u t cu rren t /(t), less the fundam ental com ponent o f the diode curren t, flowing th ro u g h the parallel R L C circuit gives rise to vt(t); th at is, viU) = g W cos co0t = [b(t) cos a>0t 2i'D0(i)co s co0i] * z(t),
( 1 0 .3 - 1 9 )
where z(i) is the im pulse response o f the parallel R L C circuit. By noting th a t z(t) is a sym m etric n arro w b an d filter w ith 0(coo) = 0 , and by em ploying Eq. ( 3 . 3 - 3 ) , we can simplify Eq. ( 1 0 . 3 - 1 9 ) to th e form
g(t) co s w 0t = {[(i) - 2 /D0(r)] * z,(t)} c o s w 0t,
(1 0 .3 -2 0 )
10.3
485
or equivalently, to the form g(f) =

2
1d
o
(0
* 2 z L(t),
(10.3-21)
w here : L(t) is the low -pass equivalent of z(f). The response zL(t) is the im pulse response of the circuit show n in Fig. 3.1-3. The response 2zL(t ) is the im pulse response of a circuit with d o u b le the im pedance level of the circuit show n in Fig. 3.1 3. E quations (10.3-18) and (10.3-21) com prise tw o sim ultaneous eq uations from which g(f) m ay be obtained. T he m ethod for obtaining g(t) from these equations becom es ap p aren t only when the two circuits described by these equations are draw n as in Fig. 10.3 5. C onnecting term inals a-a' to term inals b-b' yields an equivalent circuit from which g(t) may be o b tained directly in term s of b(t). 'ooO) a b 'ooiO
Fig. 10.3 5 T w o circ u its from w hich Eq. (10.3- 18) (right) a n d Eq. (10.3-21) (left) can be o b tain e d .
We note from the equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.3-5 that g(t) may be related to h(t) by the transfer function G(p) Rt Z T(p) = J ' ; = ' , B(p) 1 + p/(u3 where ,Ro R t ~ R1 12 (10.3-22)
" 3 2 R t (C0 4- C )
and G(p) and B(p ) are the L aplace transform s of g(f) and b(t) respectively. H ere we see th a t the 3 dB bandw idth, w hich m ust be chosen large enough to pass b(t), is a function of not only the parallel R 0-C 0 circuit b u t also the parallel R L C circuit. Hence in designing a n arro w b an d peak envelope detector one m ust consider the com plete equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.3-5. H ow ever, if a > 3 is wide enough to transm it the inform ation of b(t) undistorted, then
g(t) = b(t)RT = /j [1 + m f(t)]RT
(10.3-23)
486
1 0.3
an d the desired envelope inform ation is obtained. Clearly, Eq. (10.3-23) could have been o b tain ed directly from Eq. (10.3-5) w ith the assum ption o f slowly varying m o d u lation. F o r C 0 C, Eq. (10.3-22) can be obtained by reflecting R J 2 across the parallel R L C circuit (as was do n e in the static case) and th en determ ining the re latio n ship betw een g(f) an d b{t) for the resu ltan t parallel R L C circuit. If ad d itio n al circuitry is ad ded to the peak detector o u tp u t for the purpose of developing a n A G C voltage (Fig. 10.3-6a) o r for the purpose o f ac-coupling the de m o dulated signal to a subsequent stage (Fig. 10.3-6b), the previous analysis is still
',-(/) ~ b ( t ) c o s <*>ol
Volume control (b) Fig. 1 0 .3 -6 A dditional circuits placed on detector output to (a) develop an A G C voltage and to (b) ac-couple the detector output.
valid provided th a t Q T is high an d the o u tp u t ripple is sm a ll; i.e., the bandpass circuit to the left o f the d io d e m ay be replaced by the equivalent circuit show n in Fig. 10.3-5 (left). A com plete equivalent circuit for the envelope detector containing a coupling netw ork (Fig. 10.3 6b) is show n in Fig. 10.3-7. In this figure the polarity o f the cu rren t source has been reversed, since the diode in the original circuit is positioned to obtain the negative envelope. T w o exam ples now dem onstrate the usefulness of the equivalent circuits.
Example 10.3-2 F o r the n arro w b an d peak envelope detecto r show n in Fig. 10.3-8,
determ ine expressions for va(t) and vt(t). R epeat the problem for C 0 = 10/iF.
10.3

vU)
487
v,(t)
(Ideal)
-O h
b(i) cos 10
' 0
:1000pF
io ft jiH
R :io k ii
.Co
^ Ro
"1 0 0 0 p F < 2 0 k fi
v(0
b(t) = (2 mA)(l fc o s 5 x 10 i) Figure 10.3-8
Solution. F o r the circuit of Fig. 10.3-8, ( Q

1 7= = 1in 0? ALC
a , ra d /s e c
ana d
n 0
(R^ R = 50. T = -------------
In addition, the fractional ripple has the value
AK/Kdc = 2n/t0R 0C 0 = 0.0314; hence, with i' high value of Q T, a small am o u n t of ripple, and the assum ption of no "failure-to-follow disto rtio n , the detector of Fig. 10.3 8 m ay be replaced by the equivalent circuit show n in Fig. 10.3-9. F rom the equivalent circuit it is apparent that v0(t) = (10 V) 1 H cos I 5 x 104f n ) v /2 \ 4I In addition, since v(t) is equal to the envelope of i>,(r), m = d o v)
1 / . . 7 t\
cos 107f.
We observe that, even though the input cu rren t has a m odulation index of unity, the voltage developed across the tuned circuit has a m odulation index of l / v / 2.
488
10.3
Figure 10.3-9
If C 0 is replaced by a 10 fiF capacitor, the cap acito r in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 10.3-9 m ust be replaced by a 1 0 /iF + 1000 p F x 10 p F capacitor. Such a large cap acito r effectively sh o rts the signal com ponent of >(f)/2 to g round to yield v(t) = 10 V, an d in tu rn vt(t) = (10 V) cos 107t. C onsequently, since all the envelope inform ation has been stripped from u,(f), the circuit functions as an am plitude lim iter provided th at n o failure-to-follow d isto rtio n occurs. Exam ple 10.3-3 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 10.3-10, m ake an accurate sketch o f v0(t), v'0(t), and ^(t).
Figure 10.3-10
Solution. A ssum ing th a t Q r is high, th at the ripple is small, and th at there is no failureto-follow d isto rtio n , we replace the circuit of Fig. 10.3-10 by its equivalent circuit, show n in Fig. 10.3 -11. Since the 10 iF capacitor appears as a short circuit to the ac com ponent o f b(t)/2 and an open circuit to the dc com ponent of b(t)/2, we decom pose b(t)/2 into its ac an d dc co m ponents as show n in Fig. 10.3-12 and solve for v j t ) and v'a(t) by superposition. The dc com ponent of v0(t) is equal to ( j mA) x 40 k il = 20 V ;
10.3
489
*(i)
mA
400 |isec M
b(t)
Figure 10.3-12
the dc c o m p o n e n t o f v0(t) is eq u a l to zero. In ad d itio n , th e ac c o m p o n e n ts of va(t) a n d v0(t) are equal, since the 10 xF c a p a c ito r is a n effective ac short. A sketch of i''a(t), v(t), a n d r,-(f) = va{t) cos 107i is s h o w n in Fig. 10.3 13. T h e presence of th e c o u p lin g c a p a c ito r h as significantly reduced the m o d u la tio n index of r,(/| from unity. T h is effect is best u n d e r s to o d by obse rv in g that the im ped ance p resented to the m o d u l a t i o n in f o rm a tio n [the a c c o m p o n e n ts of hu)] is sig nific anth less th a n the im p e d a n c e prese n ted to the c a rrie r [the dc c o m p o n e n ts o f F o r the circuit of Fig. 10.3-11, if h(t) = / , . then
h it
i-oin = and, in turn,

r,(/| =
= (40 k c s)(/, 2)
( 2 0 k Q ) 7 , c o s 1 0 7 r.
490
1 0 .3
Figure 103-13
C onsequently, R T = 2 0 k Q and Q T = 200. In addition, the fractional ripple is W / V it. = 0.0157; hence tw o o f o u r original assum ptions are justified. The m ethod for justifying the th ird assum ption, th a t o f no failure-to-follow d istortion, is now considered.
Failure-to-Follow Distortion
In a n arro w b an d peak envelope detector of the form show n in Fig. 10.3-1 o r Fig. 10.3-6 a form of d isto rtio n know n as failure-to-follow distortion or diagonal clipping m ay result if the circuit is im properly designed. Physically, this form of d istortion results when the in p u t m o d u latio n on i,(i) causes the envelope of vt(t) to decrease a t a rate greater th a n th e n a tu ra l decay o f the parallel R 0-C0 c irc u it; hence the diode fails to con d u ct on each cycle an d v0(t ) decays to w ard a steady-state value which is inde pendent o f the in p u t m odulation. Typical waveform s of v,{t) and v(t) during failureto-follow d isto rtio n are show n in Fig. 10.3-14.
10.3
49 1
Intuitively we can m ake a num ber of observations concerning failure-to-follow d isto rtio n which are helpful in preventing its o c cu rre n ce: 1. Failure-to-follow d isto rtio n always occurs on the negatively sloping envelope o f the input current. 2. Failure-to-follow d isto rtio n is m ost likely with high m odulation indices and high m o d u latio n frequencies. Both of these conditions tend to increase the negative slope of the envelopes of i,(i) and in turn v\(t), and thus increase the chance th at v j t ) will not be able to follow the envelope of t ,(i). 3. F ailure-to-follow d isto rtio n cannot occur if the parallel R L C circuit contains no loss, th at is if R -> x . If no loss is present and diode D conducts on the peak of a particu lar cycle of i\(f), then it m ust also conduct on the peak of each subse quent cycle, thus elim inating the possibility of diagonal clipping. This statem ent follows from the fact th at the envelope of the lossless tuned circuit m ust increase or rem ain the sam e with D d isco n n ected ,t while with D open v j t ) decreases; hence conduction is ensured on the peak of every cycle. Thus, diagonal clipping results when the tuned circuit is sufficiently heavily loaded to perm it the envelope o f r,(f) to decrease m ore rapidly th an v0(t) during the interval when D is backbiased. (It is ap p aren t th a t diagonal clipping is im possible in the circuit of Exam ple 10.3-3, since no loss exists in the tuned circuit.) 4. F ailure-to-follow d isto rtio n cannot occur in the circuit of Fig. 10.3-1 if 2 R C > R 0C 0. A ssum e that for an a rb itrary / = i, the diode conducts and r,(i,) = vjt,-) = g(f;). If the diode now opens, v j t ) decays exponentially to zero w ith an initial slope equal to g (tJ /R 0C 0 . In addition, if it is equal to zero, the envelope of t',(i) decays exponentially to zero with an initial slope equal to g(i;)/2KC (cf. Section 3.3). If i, / 0, energy is supplied to the tuned circuit an d the initial slope of the envelope of i>,(f) is greater th an g(f,)/2R C ; hence, if g(f.) < g(tj) I R C - R 0C 0' or equivalent!v. 2 RC > R 0C 0, (10.3 24; the envelope of c,(f) decays less rapidly than v j t ) and the diode conducts at t t,- + 7. T he sam e argum ent may be applied to subsequent cycles; thus the diode conducts on the peak o f every cycle of v,-(t) and diagonal clipping is irupossible. It is ap p aren t at this point th at, when diagonal clipping occurs, the diode current and in tu rn its average value d ro p to zero for a large num ber of carrier cycles; conse quently, a sufficient condition to ensure that failure-to-follow d istortion cannot occur is that the average diode current iD0 exceed zero for all time, th at is, iD0 > 0 (10.3-25)
t So long as h{t) cos < unt supplies energy to the lossless tuned circuit, its voltage amplitude in creases ; if b(t) = 0, no additional energy is supplied and the voltage amplitude remains constant.
492
1 0.3
for all t. T hus by o btaining an expression for iD0 from the equivalent envelope d e tector circuits of Fig. 10.3-5 o r Fig. 10.3-7 and requiring th at it satisfy Eq. (10.3-25), we o b tain an inequality involving the param eters of the envelope detector which ensures th at diagonal clipping cannot occur. Therefore, in ad d itio n to solving for v0(t), we m ust solve for iD0{t) and check to see th at it exceeds zero. If it does, the m odel being used is valid. Tw o exam ples should clarify the use of this m ethod. E xam ple 10.3-4 F o r the n arro w b an d peak envelope detecto r show n in Fig. 10.3-15, determ ine the relationship between m, R, C, R 0, and C 0 which ensures no diagonal clipping for all values of com.
i, =b(t ) cosbjQ/
b{t)
/,(! + m cos uim t)
Figure 10.3-15
Solution. A ssum ing th at Q T is high and th at the ou tp u t ripple is small, we replace the envelope d etecto r by its equivalent circuit, show n in Fig. 10.3-16. F o r the equivalent circuit we obtain
'o o (f) =
IiR R 0 + 2R
^ ( ojJ m i )2 + 1 ^ 1 + m v7 f .= cos (wmt + < t> ) 2)2 + 1

j
where 1 l = R oC 0 1 (C0 + C )(2r? |j and - 101m - (<y, ^ = t a n ---------ta n ~ ftjj to
Clearly, fo ri :D0(t) to be g reater th an zero for all t, we require s/^m /iO l)2 + T < 1, (10.3-26)
since cos(a>mi + < /> ) reaches a value of 1. F o r to i > w 2 the coefficient o f m in Eq. (10.3 26) has its m axim um value o f unity for vjm = 0 ; hence for to, > w 2, o r equivalently for R 0C 0 < 2 RC, no diagonal clipping occurs for any value o f com provided th at m < 1 (a condition which is always satisfied). This, of course, is an expected result. O n the o ther hand,
10.3
493
for a), < co2 , the coefficient of m in Eq. (10.3 -26) has its m axim um value of a)2/<oi = C 0(R 0 + 2R)/2R(C0 + C) a t om - oo ; hence for c! < t o 2 no diagonal clipping occurs for any value o f com provided th at m < 2R(C 0 + C)
C o ( R 0
(10.3-27)
+ 2R
F o r exam ple, if 2 R = R 0 and C 0 = 3C, then the m axim um m odulation index w hich m ay be used w ithout failure-to-follow disto rtio n is m = . Also, for the case where the d etector is used as a lim iter and C 0 -> oo, m < 2R R 0 + 2R (10.3-28)
(N ote that diagonal clipping does occur in the second part o f Exam ple 10.3 2.) Exam ple 10.3-5 W ith the assum ption th a t Cc-is an ac short circuit at the frequency com, determ ine the m axim um value of m o d u latio n index m which does n o t cause diagonal clipping in the envelope detector of Fig. 10.3-17. Solution. Again assum ing a high Q T and a low o u tp u t ripple, we can replace the envelope d etector by its equivalent circuit, show n in Fig. 10.3-18. F o r this circuit, W O is 8iven by
, * li m li 'Do(f) = 6 + 4 COS (Umt
ii t )
b i t )
cosou('(
it { I )
/,( I
i m
cos cu,f)
Figure 10.3 17
494
1 0 .3
Cr
(we assum e th at C c is an ac short circuit). Hence, for iD O (0 to be greater th an zero for all i, m< f. If the size of the o u tp u t resistor or the resistor loading the tuned circuit is increased, the value of m th a t the circuit can accom m odate increases.
Summary and Design

In the previous analyses a nu m ber of co n strain ts on the interrelationship of p a ra m eters were required for the correct o p eratio n o f the peak envelope detecto r show n in Fig. 10.3-1. T hese co n straints are sum m arized as follows: I) 1 Q T = oj0R t C =
Q
Q toQ i
to +
(selectivity)
tu
2)
R 0C 0 1 , T 1 2 r t (c + c 0y
(low ripple)
3) 4)
)m <a>3 =
(bandw idth sufficient to pass m odulation inform ation) (no failure-to-follow disto rtio n for any m)
R 0C 0 < 2RC.
H ere QTfJ = co0R C is the unloaded Q r o f the tuned circuit, Q T0 = co0C R 0/ 2, and w m is the m axim um m o d u latio n frequency. F o r circuits of the type show n in Fig. 10.3-6, only co n d itio n 4 in the above list m ust be m odified slightly. T o observe how these constraints m ay be em ployed in the design o f an envelope detector, we first rew rite condition 4 in the form R 0C 0
t 0
T ~
2RCai0 ^ 2n
Q tu
(10.3-29)
T o satisfy condition 2 and m inim ize the ripple, we wish x J T to be as large as po ssib le;
10.3
495
however, Eq. (10.3-29) lim its its value to Q Tu/TC '>hence we choose ^ = 0 ,
T 7 1
(10.3-30)
which is equivalent to 2 = W ith the value of t 0 given by Eq. (10.3-30), condition 3 m ay be rearranged in the form
< ( 1 0 .3 - 3 1 )
R C R 0 C 0.
(o0
{tu
F o r p ro p er o p eratio n we desire a sm all a m o u n t o f ripple and thus a large value of Qt u ; how ever, from Eq. (10.3-31) we see th a t the m axim um size of Q TV is lim ited by the ratio of com /co0 (b ro ad b an d signals require low -(?r circuits). C onsequently the peak envelope d etecto r m ay be em ployed only when a> 0 exceeds com, usually by a factor o f 100 o r more. U n d er these con ditions we choose Q TUas large as possible w ithin the lim itations of Eq. (10.3-31). A large value of Q TV also ensures th at condition 1 will be satisfied. C ondition 1 also requires a high value o f Q T0 which we choose, once the required value o f Q t is specified, from the relationship
Q
to
sctv
n Q T Q lb n
Vr
(1 0 .3 -3 2 )
W ith the a rb itrary specification o f one desired param eter in the circuit of Fig. 10.3-1, the relationship a> 0 = X jy jL C and Eqs. (10.3-30), (10.3-31), and (10.3-32) provide a set of equatio n s for com pletely determ ining all o th er param eters in the envelope detector. T he follow ing exam ple d em onstrates this fact.
Example 10.3-6 The circuit o f Fig. 10.3-1 has an o u tp u t resistor R 0 = 10ki2.

C hoose the rem aining param eters in the circuit to ensure Q T = 25, m inim um ripple, no failure-to-follow d isto rtio n regardless o f the input m o d u latio n index, and a sufficient band w id th to accom m odate m o d u latio n frequencies up to u> m = 106 rad/sec. The carrier frequency is cj0 = 108 rad/sec. Solution. M inim um ripple, sufficient bandw idth, and no diagonal clipping are ensured by choosing lo _ Q tu _
T n
wo
2nw m
159
T hus t 0 = R 0Co = 1 /sec, Q TV = a> 0R C = 50, and R C = 0.5 /xsec. Since R 0 = lO k fi, C 0 = 100 pF. By solving for Q T0 from Eq. (10.3-32), we obtain
Q tQ tv
Q tu ~ Q t
(5 0 )(2 5 )
gn
25
496
1 0 .4
But Q to = (o0R 0C / 2 ; therefore, R 0C = 10 6sec ensures Q T = 25. Again, with R 0 = lO k fi we o b tain C = 100 p F , and with R C = 0.5 /sec we obtain R = 5 k i l Finally, 1/cuqC = 1 /iff = L.
10.4 PR A C T IC A L N A R R O W B A N D PEAK E N V E L O P E D E T E C T O R
If a physical diode is placed in the envelope detector circuit of Fig. 10.3-1, the detector n o longer functions properly for all levels of the input cu rrent (t). Specifically, unless the am p litu d e o f (,(t) is sufficiently large to develop a voltage t,(r) across the tuned circuit which exceeds the diode tu rn -o n bias, then the diode rem ains reverse biased an d v = 0. T o focus atten tio n on this problem we m odel the physical diode by an ideal diode in series w ith a battery of V0 as show n in Fig. 10.4-1. F o r silicon diodes V0 is closely app ro x im ated by 650 mV ; for germ anium diodes, V0 is closer to 220 mV. F ro m Fig. 10.4-1 it is a p p a re n t th a t the effect o f V0 is to keep the diode reverse biased for sm all values o f /(i) or, equivalently, to induce failure-to-follow d isto rtio n for input m o d u latio n indices close to unity.
Fig. 10.4-1 N arro w b an d peak envelope detecto r with physical diode replaced with its model.
H ow ever, if the in p u t drive level is sufficiently high and the in put m odulation index is sufficiently low so th a t failure-to-follow disto rtio n does n o t occur, if Q T is high, an d if the o u tp u t ripple is sm all, then v'0(t) follows the envelope of v,{t) and v(t) = v'0(t) - V0. T h a t is, if Ufa) g(t) cos co0t, then v j t ) = g(t) and v0(t) = g(t ) - V0. (10.4 1)
In addition, the diode cu rren t flows in sufficiently narrow pulses so th at the detector can be replaced by the equivalent circuit o f Fig. 10.4-2. W ith the aid o f this circuit v a(t) an d va(t) m ay be determ ined as functions of b(t) and, in addition, iD0(t) m ay be o b tain ed to check th a t F0 has n o t induced failure-to-follow distortion. F o r exam ple, if b(t ) = /,[ 1 + m cos comt ] cos w 0t, then m cos (a> mt + 0)| 2RV R R 1 ' 1 + j -- - 2 R + R q 2R + R 0 V 1 + K . M ) 2-!
v (t) =
(10. 4-2)
1 0.4
PRACTICAL NARROWBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR
497
V o
and
, fl
2 R + Rg where 0 = tan
R oR It 1 2R + R q
m cos (wmt + 0) V 1 + (wm /w 3)

-
(10.4-3)
1 { w j u i 3) and co3 = 1/(K0 ||2K)(C + C 0). In addition,
ivoi 11
/i R Vn , , s j( a > jw i) 2 + 1 , , , 1 + m ~ = = = cos (a>mt + 4> ) + 2R + R q 2 R + jRq
(10.4-4)
w here (j> = tan 1 (wm /w ,) tan 1 (a>m/a>3) and uj1 = l / R 0C 0. T o ensure th at no failure-to-follow d isto rtio n occurs, we require iD0(t) > 0 for all ?, or equivalently, y / ( < a > i )2 + i j )2 + 1 where n = V0/ I X R. If 2 R C > R 0C 0 (the case which ensures no failure-to-follow d isto rtio n for V0 = 0), then co3 > a, and the coefficient of m in Eq. (10.4-5) achieves its m axim um value of unity for com = 0. T hus to ensure no failure-to-follow distortion for all values of com, we require 1 n > m. (10.4 6 )
1 n > m
(10.4-5)
F ro m Eq. (10.4-6) we observe th at n ap proaches zero as V0 is decreased, / , is increased, or R is increased. C onsequently, for an envelope detector em ploying a physical diode to dem odulate AM signals with m odulation indices close to unity, we choose a germ anium diode to keep K 0 as sm all as possible and we m ake the im pedance o f the tuned circuit as high as possible. (In the last section we saw th at we could choose one param eter of the envelope detector arbitrarily.) In addition, as a practical m atter, we choose a diode with a stray capacity m uch less than C or C 0 . W ith this accom plished, the rem aining com ponents in the detector may be selected by the m ethod discussed in Section 10.3. H ere again, if the tuned circuit contains no loss, diagonal clipping is im possible regardless of the size of V0.
498
1 0.5
10.5 BROADBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR A n envelope d etecto r w hich linearly dem odulates AM signals over a b ro ad range of in p u t carrier frequencies is show n in Fig. 10.5-1. F o r this circuit the diode conducts at the peak o f each carrier cycle, thus increasing the capacitor voltage v0(t) to the peak value o f v,{t) less th e tu rn -o n voltage o f the diode. As u,(f) decreases from its peak value, th e diode is reverse biased a n d the cap acito r holds the voltage until the diode again conducts a t the peak o f the next carrier cycle. The o u tp u t voltage v0(t), there fore, follows the envelope o f vfa) shifted dow n by the tu rn-on voltage o f the diode.
Fig. 10.5-1 Broadband peak envelope detector. T he dc cu rren t source in the netw ork serves tw o valuable purposes. First, it provides a discharge p a th for the cap acito r w hen the diode is reverse biased, thus perm itting v0(t) to follow negatively sloping envelopes o f v((t) w ithout failure-tofollow d istortion. Secondly, it ensures th a t the diode tu rn s on a t the peak of each in p u t cycle even w hen the in p u t am plitude d ro p s below the nom inal tu rn -o n voltage o f the diode. C onsequently, even w ith a silicon diode in the detector, the o u tp u t faithfully responds to variations in the in p u t envelope dow n to very low levels. T he slightly undesirable effect o f / dc is the negative diode tu rn -o n voltage w hich appears a t the o u tp u t w hen vt { t) = 0. T his voltage can readily be com pensated for in circuits w here its presence is undesirable. T o o b tain a m o re q u an titativ e expression for v0{t) in term s o f i;f(i), let us consider the case w here vt(t) = K, cos cot an d w here C is sufficiently large so th a t over a carrier cycle v0{t) rem ains c o n stan t a t Vdc. F o r this case the diode cu rren t m ay be w ritten as iD (f) = l^toVilWcosrtg-qVic/kT = j sexcixate - iv< i< = ikT w ith an average value = I sI 0( x ) e - y^ lkT,
w h e re x
(10.5-1)
(10.5-2)
q V i/ k T a n d / 0(x ) is th e m o d ifie d B e sse l fu n c tio n o f o r d e r z e ro . S in c e in
10.5
BROADBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR
499
the steady state iD = / dc, we can rearrange Eq. (10.5-2) to yield

kT Vic = I n / 0(x) < J ] ln -^ s
kT, = 7
IqV A | l r ] v'
(10^ 3)
where in this case Vu = l n ( / dc/7s), which has a value in the range of 200 mV for germ anium diodes an d 650 mV for silicon diodes. A plot of , M /, kT I qV1 f ( V i) = ln / o 7 T q \ kT is show n in Fig. 10.5--2 for k T /q = 26 mV. It should be observed from Fig. 10.5 2 that / ( K,) is rem arkably linear for values of V1 in excess of 50 mV and thus may be closely ap proxim ated by / ( V i ) = 0.997K, - (54 mV) % V,. (10.5-4)
Vx.V
Fig. 10.5-2 Plot of /'( V\ ) vs. V, with kT/q 26 mV.
500
10.5
Consequently, with /(V ,) % V,, the output voltage is given by

I'dc = Vx - V0 (10.5-5)
for values of K, as low as 50 mV regardless o f w hether a germ anium o r silicon diode is being em ployed. E q u atio n (10.5-5) m akes it obvious th a t for Vx > 50 mV the exponential diode in the circuit o f Fig. 10.5-1 m ay be m odeled by an ideal diode in series w ith a b attery o f value V0 , as was assum ed in Section 10.4. O n the o th er hand, if q V J k T 26 mV, then (10.5-6) and q V iV kT Therefore, (10.5-8) an d we observe th a t the peak envelope detecto r functions as a square-law detector for Vt in the m illivolt range. U nfortunately, V0 m ust be rem oved from K >c by sub tractio n or capacitive dc blocking before the square-law property can be fully utilized. qV\ 4kT (10.5-7)
Output Ripple
Even if the o u tp u t cap acito r is large, a certain am o u n t of ripple exists on va(t) because o f the n arro w cu rren t pulses w hich flow each tim e the diode conducts to recharge the capacitor. It is a p p aren t from Eq. (10.5-1) th at the cu rren t pulses have the wave form show n in Fig. 4.5-3 w hich is indeed n arro w for x 1 o r Vy 26 mV. If we m odel these n arro w pulses as im pulses o f strength 7 7 dc, where T is the period o f the in p u t carrier, then b o th the im pulse m odel an d the actual pulses supply the sam e charge to the c ap acito r w hen the diode conducts. W ith the im pulse m odel, how ever, it is a p p a re n t th a t each pulse increases the cap acito r voltage by (10.5-9) (A slightly sm aller value o f A V is ob tain ed if the actual cu rren t pulse shape is used.) As should be expected, the ripple varies directly with the current / dc and inversely w ith the capacitance an d carrier frequency. U nlike the ripple in the narrow band peak envelope detector, th e ripple A V (Eq. 10.5-9) is independent o f K dc. This effect is a direct result o f providing / dc to discharge C in lieu o f a resistor. Failure-to-Follow D istortion N ow , if u,(t) = g(t) cos co0t an d we assum e th a t g(t) rem ains greater th a n 50 mV m ost o f the time, then we m ay m odel the exponential diode o f Fig. 10.5-1 by an ideal
10.5
BROADBAND PEAK ENVELOPE DETECTOR
501
diode in series w ith a b attery o f value V0. If, in addition, we assum e th at the o u tp u t ripple is small and th a t the diode conducts on the peak of each carrier cycle, then the ou tp u t voltage v0 is given by v0(t) = g(r) - V0 , (10.5-10)
which is the desired o u tp u t voltage. T o ensure th a t the diode conducts on the peak of each carrier cycle it is sufficient to require, w ith the diode in Fig. 10.5-1 reverse biased, th at the o u tp u t voltage decay m ore rapidly than the envelope g(i). Specifically, diode conduction is ensured if g(t) > I dc c (10.5-11)
for all t. If the inequality of Eq. (10.5-11) is not satisfied, failure-to-follow distortion of the form show n in Fig. (10.3-14) results. T he requirem ent o f a sm all am o u n t o f ripple m eans th a t / dcT /C = I dJ f C m ust be small in com p ariso n with th e average value o f g(f); on the o th e r hand, the require m ent o f no failure-to-follow d isto rtio n necessitates I J C > - g ( i ) for all I. If g(f) = y4[l + cos ojmt], then these two conditions require th a t / dc A oj A cum < C 2n
n a r r o w b a n d p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r.
(10.5-12)
Clearly, Eq. (10.5-12) can be satisfied only if a> con as was also the case for the Developing / dc with R esistor Bias If the current source in the d etector o f Fig. 10.5-1 is practically im plem ented by a larger resistor in series w ith a negative supply voltage Vcc the circuit show n in Fig. 10.5-3 results. F o r this circuit, with i>,(i) = Vx cos u>t and with a large value of C,
lD S*
Fig. 1 0 .5 -3 Broadband peak envelop e detector with resistor bias.
502
10.5
10 = Vdc. Since in this case the average diode current [given by Eq. (10.5-2)] m ust equal (Fdc + Vcc)/R , Vi{. isrelated to x = qV l/ k T by the equation + ij = M
\ ycc I Vcc
/ o(x).
(10.5-13)
F o r Vcc kT/q, Eq. (10.5-13) may be closely approxim ated by (cf. footnote on page 173) eqViclkT = M / q(x )5 Vcc from which we o btain K dc = l n / 0(x) - V0, (10.5-15) (10.5-14)
w here V0 = - I n (ISR/VCC). In particular, the value of K dc obtained from Eq. (10.5-13) differs by less th a n 1 % from the corresponding value o f Vdc obtained from Eq. (.10.5-14) if Vcc > 2.6 V (a condition which is alm ost always true in practice). C onsequently, by com paring Eqs. (10.5-3) and (10.5-15) we see th a t the o u tp u t voltage is n o t affected by replacing the cu rren t source / dc by the series R-Vcc com bination. O n the o th e r hand, the ripple voltage and the condition for no failure-to-follow d isto rtio n are affected by the bias change. F o r the circuit of Fig. 10.5-3 the ripple voltage AK (assum ing narro w current pulses) is given by AVx I Vcc+ VAT | c : (10.5-16)
the condition w hich ensures n o failure-to-follow disto rtio n is g(f) > - Vcc + ^ }~ K j>, (10.5-17)
which m ust be satisfied for all t. T he reader should convince him self of the validity of Eqs. (10.5-16) an d (10.5-17). Exam ple 10.5-1 D eterm ine the m axim um value o f R for the circuit show n in Fig. 10.5-4 which ensures no failure-to-follow distortion. Solution. If failure-to-follow disto rtio n occurs, it m ust occur on the negatively sloping p o rtio n of g(f) betw een 0 and 10 /isec. D uring this interval, g(t) = (5 V)( 1 - ^ I \ 1 0 /isec/ However, from Eq. (10.5-17), if , jV /u s e c < (15 V)[ 1 f , 30 usee/ ----------------- and - g ( r ) = i V//isec.
RflOOOpF)
(10.5-18)
10.5
PROBLEMS
503
for 0 < t < 1 0 //sec, then no lailure-to-follow distortion occurs. Clearly, if Eq. (10.5-18) is satisfied for f = 10 /xsec, it is satisfied over the entire interval of in te re st; therefore, w ith t 10 /isec Eq. (10.5-18) reduces to R < 20 kfi. Thus R mdx = 20 kQ.
PR O B L E M S 10.1 F o r the circuit shown in Fig. 10.P-1,
v2(r) - ^ p c o s 107i ^ s i n 107r,
where g(r) = (1 V) cos 103r and v,(t) has the form show n in the figure. Find r(f). 10.2 Modify the circuit of Fig. 8.4-2 so th a t it functions as a synchronous detector. 10.3 F o r the circuit shown in Fig. 10.P-2, va is related to r, by the relationship va = Kvf . Find an expression for v j t ) and show th at the circuit functions as a synchronous detector if B A. Show also th at with B = 0 the circuit functions as an envelope detector if m 1. 10.4 The half-wave rectifier in Fig. 10.1-6 is replaced by a full-wave rectifier. Sketch the frequency spectrum o f va for this case and show th at no spectral com ponents overlap/the low-frequency spectrum so long as w 0 > tom. F o r this case, dem onstrate also that the output of the average detector is doubled.
50 4
12 V
Figure 10.P-1
1 /
V ,
H, (jut)
Mt)
Low-pass filter v2(f) Scoscuq t
Figure 10.P-2
PROBLEMS
505
10.5 The baseband signal (after frequency dem odulation) o f a com posite SSB frequencydem odulated telephony signal has the form
<v(f)
~Y~ cos nwo[ y ~sin na)
+ A cos w 0t,
w here the individual voice channel g(t) is band-lim ited between 200 H z and 3 kH z and fo = 4 kHz. D raw the block diagram o f a system which can be em ployed to extract each g(i). Include the bandw idths an d center frequencies o f all filters an d indicate how the reference signal for each SSB d em o d u lato r is obtained. 10.6 F o r the circuit of Fig. 10.2-5, R = R 0 = 5 k il, C = 0.1 fiF, C 0 = 2000 pF, Vcc = 12 V, and v,{t) = g(t) cos 108t, w here g(t) is show n in Fig. 10.P-3. E valuate t> 0(r). 50 usee
('> 10 V
1 0 0 n se c
Figure 10. P 3
10.7 A " b a c k diode is a Z ener diode w hich has a breakdow n voltage w ithin a few millivolts of zero. The vD iD characteristic for such a diode is given by iD = e" lkT - 1), <o = vo/r, vp < 0, vB > 0,
where r is o f the o rd er of 10 i i A silicon b a c k d iode with r = 20 i i and Is = 1 0 ' 16 A is placed in th e circuit of Fig. 10.2-1 in which R = 1 8 0 il,a = 1 ,R 0 = 1 0 k fi,C o = 0.01 /iF, and = V, cos 108i. E valuate and plot the t'0-vs.-V, transfer characteristic for 0 < Vx < 2 V. O ver ap p ro x i m ately w hat range of V,does the circuit function as a linear average envelope detector? 10.8 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 10.P 4, Dj(t) = (0.25 V )(l + cos 104f)co s 107t. Find vjt). H ow m any decibels below the o u tp u t signal is the carrier ripple? 10.9 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 10.2-9, R , = R 2 = 1 k ii, R 3 = 50 k il, Rt = 500 kfi, C = 200 pF, A = 2000, and v,{t) = (1 V )(l -(- m co s 104t)c o s 108i.
506
Figure 10.P-4
F ind v0(t). If A is now reduced to 9 and D , and D2 are h o t carrier diodes with turn-on voltage V0 0.4 V, determ ine the m axim um size of m for linear dem odulation. 10.10 F o r the circuit of Fig. 10.3-1, R = 2 0 k fl, R 0 = 4 0 k fi, L = 10/iH , C 0 = C = 1000pF, and /(f) = (10 mA) cos 107f. Find t,(r), v(t), the conduction angle of iD (f), and the fractional ripple o f ('(f). 10.11 F o r the circuit of Fig. 10.3-1, R = R 0/ 2, C = C 0 , and i, = cos a>0t. Plot the total h a r m onic disto rtio n o f v,(t) vs. Q r for the values of Qr sufficiently large th at iD (t) may be m odeled as show n in Fig. 10.3-3. 10.12 F o r each o f the circuits show n in Fig. 10.P-5, let b(t) = I t = 5 mA and determ ine vjt), v'Jt), Vj(t), Q T, the fractional ripple, the diode conduction angle, an d the T H D for ii,(i). 10.13 If b(t) has the form show n in Fig. 10.P-6, determ ine i\, v0, an d v for each o f the circuits shown in Fig. 10.P- 5. 10.14 Repeat P roblem 10.13 with b(t) = (5 m A )(l + cos 2 x 104i). 10. i 5 W hat is the m inim um value of R w hich may shunt L in the circuit o f Fig. 10.P-5(a) w ithout causing diagonal clipping? 10.16 W hat is the m inim um value of R which may shunt L in the circuit of Fig. 10.P-5(b) w ithout causing diagonal clipping if 6(i) = (5m A )(l + j cos 2 x 104f)? 10.17 F o r the circuit shown in Fig. 10.P-7, determ ine expressions, for r,U), i 2(i), and t-3(f) assum ing th at g(t) = (1 m V )(l + cos 104t).
PROBLEMS
507
Ideal diode
v ,(Q .
b ( t ) COS 1 0 7i
10nH
1000 pF
:25ki2
1000 pF
KU)
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.P 5
b{t)
J5 m A t " 400 (isec 400 fisec
Figure 10.P-6
508
Figure 10.P- 7
10.18 Repeat P roblem 10.13, replacing the ideal diode with a silicon diode having V0 * 600 mV. H ow m uch resistance can be placed across the 10 /H inductor in this case before failure to-follow disto rtio n occurs? 10.19 F or the idealized b ro ad b an d envelope detector show n in Fig. 10.P-8, show th at no failure to-follow disto rtio n occurs if -& )< for a lii.
F o r this circuit, determ ine the m axim um value of m which may be used w ithout failure to-follow disto rtio n if g(t) = 4(1 + racoswi), w to0 . 10.20 F or the circuit show n in Fig. 10.5-4, g(i) = (10 V)(l + m cosiomf) and R = lO k il. Find the m axim um value o f m (as a function of a>J before failure-to-follow distortion occurs.
Figure 10.P-8
C H A P T E R 11
G E N E R A T IO N OF FM SIG N A L S
In this chapter, after discussing the theoretical lim itations on the transm ission of F M signals th ro u g h filters an d n onlinear netw orks, we study a num ber of circuits for generating frequency-m odulated signals. This discussion starts from the direct m echanization o f the F M differential equation and proceeds to both analog and digital generation circuits. In all cases we explore b o th the theoretical and the practical limits of the circuits.
11.1 FR E Q U E N C Y -M O D U L A T E D SIG N A L S
If the in stan tan eo u s frequency or phase of a high-frequency sinusoid is varied in p ro p o rtio n to a desired low -frequency signal f( t), a constant am plitude-m odulated signal is generated which has its spectrum concentrated ab o u t the frequency of the u nm odulated sinusoid. T hus a frequency- o r phase-m odulated signal, like an AM signal, can be efficiently tran sm itted with reasonably small a n te n n as if the carrier frequency is sufficiently high. In ad d itio n such a signal can be frequency division m ultiplexed. H ow ever, frequency- an d p hase-m odulated signals, unlike am plitude-m odulated signals, have the advantage th a t no inform ation is carried in their en v elo p e; thus atm ospheric and receiver noise which introduces unw anted pertu rb atio n s on the envelope of a received signal can be rem oved by lim iting the signal am plitude before the F M o r P M signal is dem odulated. As a consequence, the signal-to-noise ratio at the o u tp u t of an F M o r P M receiver is higher than th at of a com parable AM re ceiver which receives a signal w ith the same average carrier pow er as the received F M o r P M signal and which has been subjected to the same unw anted disturbances. T he price th a t m ust be paid for the increased ou tp u t signal-to-noise ratio in F M or PM receivers is increased transm itted signal bandw idth. F o r FM signals, the o u tp u t signal-to-noise ra tio increases only when the ratio of the bandw idth of the F M signal to the b an d w id th of f ( t ) is increased. A typical phase-m odulated signal has the form v(t) A cos < t> (t) = A cos [<y0f + A</>/(f)], (11.1-1)
w here < j> (t) = a> 0t + A ^ /(f) is th e in stan tan eo u s phase, A is the carrier am plitude, oj0 is the carrier frequency, A </> is the phase deviation, a n d /( i) is a signal pro p o rtio n al to the m odulation inform ation w ith the properties \f(t)U = 1 and
509
f ( t ) = 0.
( 1 1 .1 - 2 )
510
GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS
11.1
C learly the in stah tan eo u s phase varies in direct p ro p o rtio n t o / ( f ) w ith the constant of p ro p o rtio n ality A(f>. Any tim e-varying instan taneous phase (j>(t) has associated with it an instantaneous frequency which by definition is the derivative o f the instantaneous phase ; th at is, oj,(f) = d< t> (t) dt '
(11.1-3)
If, instead of varying < f> (t) in p ro p o rtio n to /(f), we vary a,(f) in p ro p o rtio n to /(f), th at is, if co,(f) = a)0 + Aco/(f), then , </>(r) = u> 0t + Aa>
(11.1-4)
J f(Q) d6 + d0
d6 -(- 6 q
(11.1-5)
and v(t) takes the form of a typical frequency-modulated sig n a l: u(f) = A cos to0t + Aa>
( 11. 1- 6 )
w here Aw, the frequency deviation, is the co n stan t of pro p o rtio n ality relating /( f ) to the in stan tan eo u s frequency an d 90 is an arb itra ry co n stan t phase w hich m ay be taken as zero w ithout loss of generality. A plot o f v(t) given by Eq. (11.1-6) with a saw tooth signal for /( f ) is show n in Fig. 11.1-1. It is a p p aren t from Eq. (11.1-3) th at we can convert any P M signal into an equiva lent F M signal; therefore, by developing the properties of the F M signal, we are sim ultaneously developing the properties of P M signals. H ence we shall restrict o u r atten tio n to the F M signal o f the form given by Eq. (11.1-6). Before co ntinuing further we should note th a t there are three frequencies associ ated w ith an F M signal. O ne frequency is obviously the carrier frequency co0 . The
A t)
Fig. 11.1-1 Sawtooth-modulated FM signal.
11.1
FREQUENCY-MODULATED SIGNALS
511
second frequency is the frequency deviation A u> , which is a m easure pf how far the in stantaneous frequency d ep arts from the carrier frequency as / ( f ) varies between plus an d m inus one. T he third frequency is the m axim um m odulation frequency tom [the frequency to which / ( f ) is band-lim ited]. This m axim um m odulation fre quency is a m easure of how rapidly the in stantaneous frequency varies a b o u t co0. We m ay express these three frequencies in the form o f two param eters by n o rm al izing oj0 and a> m to Aw w ith the relationships /?= and D = , (11.1-7)
where ft is referred to as the m o dulation index and D is referred to as the deviation ratio {] can have values in the thousands, whereas D is always required to be less than unity an d in m any practical systems m ay be 0.005 or even smaller). Frequency Spectrum T o obtain the frequency spectrum of an FM signal we may, in principle, o b tain the F ourier transform V(to) of v(t) given by Eq. (11.1-6). U nfortunately such an operation is n o t m athem atically tractab le for an a rb itra ry fit). Therefore, we restrict our initial a tten tio n to the special case of obtaining the spectrum of i?(f) with /( f ) = cos tomt. F ortunately, as we shall d em onstrate, the bandw idth of v(t) obtained with /( f ) = cos o)mt provides a conservative bound for the bandw idth o f v(t) which is m odulated in frequency by any /( f ) band-lim ited to mm. W ith /( f ) = cos u)mt. Eq. (11.1-6) may be w ritten in the form lit) = A cos (a)0t + sin w j ) . (11.1-8)
= A cos io0t cos (/? sin comt) A sin to0t sin (JJ sin oJmf),
which is the su perposition of tw o AM waves, the first m odulated by cos (fi sin u> mt) and the second m o d u lated by sin (/? sin comf)./T hus if we obtain the spectra of the two low-frequency, periodic m odu lating functions, we m ay shift them up in frequency by to0 to o btain the spectrum of v(t). N ow cos (fi sin a)mt) and sin (/? sin comt) m ay both be expanded directly as F ourier series whose coefficients are ord inary Bessel functions of the first kind with argum ent Jt: co cos (fi sin w mt) = J o(/0 + 2 J 2n{p)cos2nu>mt, n~ 1 0 0 sin (/? sin u)mt) = 2 J 2n+ (/J) sin (2n + l)a>mt.
n=0
(11.1-9)
(11.1-10)
A plot oiJJiP) vs. p for several typical values of /? and n is given in Fig. 11.1-2.
t E quations 9.1 -42 and 9.1 43 on p. 361 o f Handbook o f Mathematical Functions , M. A bram ow itz and I. A. Stegun, Eds., N ational Bureau o f S tandards, Applied M athem atics Series No. 55, G overnm ent P rinting Office, W ashington, D.C. (1964). Revised by D over, New Y ork (1965).
512
11.1
Fig. 11.1-2 Plot of J(0)vs. p. If we now recom bine Eqs. (11.1-9) an d (11.1-10) with Eq. (11.1-8) by m aking use of the trigonom etric identities cos x cos y = j[c o s (x + y) + cos (x y)] and sin x sin y = j[c o s (x + y) cos (x y)], we finally obtain v(t) = A { J 0(P) cos w 0t + J J P ) [cos (w0 + ( o j t - cos (co0 - co)t]
+
J 2(P) [cos
(c o 0
-(- 2 (om)t
cos
(o j0
- 2a>m)t]
+ J 3(P) [cos (coq + 3 a )J t - cos (co0 - 3 w ji] + J 4(P) [cos + }.

( o j0
+ 4(om)t + cos (oj0 - 4 a> m)t] (11.1- 11)
F rom Eq. (11.1-11) it becom es ap p aren t th a t the spectrum o f a sinusoidally m odulated F M wave contains an infinite n u m ber o f sidebands occurring at frequencies com, 2wm, 3 (Dm, . . . on each side o f the carrier frequency a> 0. F ortunately, as can be seen from Fig. 11.1-2, for any given m od u latio n index 3, only a finite n u m ber of Bessel functions have values significantly different from zero and thus only the corresponding num b er of upp er an d low er sidebands play a significant role in determ ining the F M spectrum . F o r exam ple, w ith /? = 1, J 0(l) = 0.7652, J J 1) = 0.4401, J 2(l) = 0.1149,. J 3(l) = 0.01956, J 4(l) = 0.002477, J 5(l) = 0.0002498, and J 6(l) = 0.00002094. T hus if we retain only those sidebands w hose coefficient J{ 1) is greater th an 0.01 (i.e., those sidebands w hich are greater th a n 1 % o f the unm odulated carrier), we observe
11.1
FREQUENCY-MODULATED SIGNALS
513
th a t the F M signal w ith p = 1 occupies a band o f frequencies of 6 com. A plot of the magnitude o f the line spectrum o f v(t) [given by Eq. (1 1.1-11)] with p = 1 is shown in Fig. 11.1 3(b). Also show n in the figure are sim ilar plots for p = 0.2, /? = 2.4048, P = 5, and/3 = 10. In each case only those sidebands greater th an 1 % of the un m o d u lated carrier are retained as being significant.f As expected from Fig. 11.1-2, the nu m b er of significant sidebands increases with p.
P =0.2 1 (a) p 1.0 1
>
Cl
)0
u> ~~
.............................................
1 ,.
P - 2.4048
j l l l
(c) wo
i i I i ___________________
u-*~ P BW 5
I \ . . i l l . (d) O J0 BW
Acu 1 i . I I I . , P 10 (Jjm-
1 Aui . ' - 1 I * " , . , . 1 I 1 1 , 1 1 . 1 , 1 , 1 . 1 1 , 1 % (e)
I I I ,
<jJ~
Fig. 11.1 3 Plot of am plitude spectrum o f an F M signal for several values of m odulation index. F r o m F ig . 11.1-2 w e a ls o o b s e r v e t h a t th e c o e ffic ie n ts o f th e v a r io u s s id e b a n d s o s c illa te a s th e m o d u l a ti o n in d e x is in c re a s e d . In p a r tic u la r , a s p is in c r e a s e d fro m z e ro , J 0(P) a n d th u s th e c a r r ie r a m p litu d e d e c re a s e fro m u n ity . T h e c a r r ie r a m p litu d e re a c h e s z e ro fo r P = 2 . 4 0 4 8 ; it th e n b e c o m e s n e g a tiv e a n d r e t u r n s to z e ro fo r p = 5.5200; a n d so o n . T a b le 11.1-1 ta b u l a te s th e v a lu e s o f P fo r w h ic h J(P) = 0 lo r n = 1, 2, 3, a n d 4. R e tu r n in g to F ig . 1 1 . 1 - 3 , w e o b s e r v e t h a t w e c a n d e te r m in e th e b a n d w id th (B W ) o f a s in u s o id a lly m o d u la te d F M c a r r ie r fo r a n y m o d u la tio n in d e x p b y d e t e r m in in g th e n u m b e r o f B essel f u n c tio n s J n(P) w h ic h e x c e e d 0.01 a n d th e n m u ltip ly in g
t Figure 11.1 3 would rem ain essentially unchanged if we retained all sidebands for which JAP) 0.005 because ./(/) decreases very rapidly with increasing n
514
11.1
Table 11.1-1 Values o f p for which J(P) = 0 n= 0 First zero Second zero Third zero F o u rth zero Fifth zero 2.405 5.520 8.654 11.792 14.931 n= 1 3.832 7.016 10.173 13.324 16.471 n= 2 5.136 8.417 11.620 14.796 17.960 n= 3 6.380 9.761 13.015 16.223 19.409 n= 4 7.588 11.065 14.372 17.616 20.827
The fact th at the carrier am plitude an d sideband am plitude vanish for know n values of /? perm its the rapid determ ination o f the frequency deviation vs. m odulation am plitude for an FVI generator whose calibration is not known. Specifically, m odulation of the form V\ cos a>m t is applied to the m o d u lato r with a know n value of w m. The am plitude o f V\ is then increased from zero until the carrier a t the m o d u lato r o u tp u t disappears. (The carrier is m onitored on a n arro w band receiver, or on a wave o r spectrum analyzer.) F o r this value of V, , Aw = 2.405ajm and a point on the Vt Aco calibration curve is determ ined. O th er points may be determ ined from subsequent zero values of the carrier o r oth er sidebands.
by 2com. W e can present this bandw idth in a universal form by norm alizing BW to 2Aco an d p lo ttin g it vs. j3. F o r exam ple, with /? = 1, BW = 6cum and thus BW = 3 ^ = 3 2 Aw Aco /? O th e r points o btained in a sim ilar fashion are presented in Fig. 11.1-4, in which a sm ooth curve is draw n as a best fit th ro u g h all the points. F o r very large values o f ft the curve ap p roaches an asym ptote of 1. T his asym ptote is intuitively reasonable for any FM signal with any /(f), since for a finite frequency deviation a large value of 3 im plies a sm all value of com o r a very slowly v a ry in g /(f). Very slow variatio n s in / (i) cause v(t) to vary alm ost statically betw een co0 Aco
Fig. 11.1-4 P lot o f norm alized FM bandw idth (BW) vs. m odulation index fi = A w /w m.
11.2
TRANSMISSION OF FM SIGNALS THROUGH NONLINEAR NETWORKS
515
and c0 + Aw; thus a filter w ith a bandw idth 2 Aw centered ab o u t w0 has the m ini m um bandw idth to pass the slowly varying carrier of v(t) undistorted. C onsequently the spectrum of v(t) m ust have BW = 2 Aw or equivalently BW /2 Aw = 1. As an exam ple of the usefulness of the norm alized bandw idth curve, consider an FM signal w ith a m o d u latio n frequency wm = 2n x 10 kH z and a frequency deviation of Aw = 2n x 50 kHz. F o r this signal , / i . 5 and thus from Fig. 1 1 . 1 4 BW /2 Aw = 1.6. C onsequently a bandw idth of 2n x 160 kH z is required for this sinusoidally m o dulated F M signal. Similarly with wm = 2n x 5 k H z and Aw = 2n x 50 kHz, ft = 10, BW/2 Aw = I.4, an d the band w id th is 2n x 140 kHz. As expected, a sm aller bandw idth is re quired for a fixed frequency deviation if the m odulation frequency is decreased. C onsequently, for any a rb itrary /( f ) band-lim ited to w m, the frequency com ponents o f /( f ) closest to wm have a greater effect on increasing the bandw idth of the FM signal than do those com ponents close to w = 0. T hus if we were to model /( f ) as cos wmr, a signal with ail of its energy concentrated at wm, the bandw idth of the FM signal would be greater th an the corresponding bandw idth with any o th e r /(f) whose energy is distributed in the frequency range between w = 0 and w = wm. As a result, the bandw idth curve o f Fig. 11.1-4 provides a conservative bound for any FM signal whose m odu latio n is band-lim ited to wm. A ctually, in m any practical cases, the highest-frequency sine-wave ap p roxim ation gives m uch too conservative an estim ate of bandw idth. F o r high-/j cases, where the peak deviation is high in com parison to the m axi m um frequency com p o n en t of the m odulating signal, there is a rule know n as "W o o d w a rd s T h eo rem . t A ccording to this rule, the shape of the envelope of the F M spectrum is approxim ately that of the am plitude probability density of the m o d u lating function. T he scale factor of this spectrum along the frequency axis is, of course, p ro p o rtio n al to Aw. Intuitively this m eans th at a high-/f square-w ave m odulation has tw o im pulses in frequency at f 0 Af th a t a high-/? triangular-w ave m odulation has a flat spectrum , an d th a t a high-/? G aussian or noiselike function has a G aussianshaped spectrum . T hus a co m b in atio n of a nu m ber of voice channels that will com bine to provide a noiselike signal produces an FM spectrum (provided that the [i is large) that con centrates its energy near the carrier rath er than near the edge of the band. In such cases the actual bandw idths required of filters and other circuits are substantially sm aller than m ight be expected from the sine-wave approxim ation. II.2 TRANSMISSION OF FM SIGNALS THROUGH NONI.INKAR NETWORKS In this section we shall d em o n strate that an F M signal of the form
t P. M. W oodw ard, The Spectrum of R andom Frequency M odulation," Telecom m unications Research Establishm ent, G reat M alvern, W orcs., England, M em o 666, D ecem ber 1952.
516
11.2
when passed th ro u g h a n o n lin ear nonm em ory circuit, behaves as if it were a single frequency sinusoid. Specifically, we shall show th a t the o u tp u t v0(t) of the nonlinear circuit may be expanded in a F ourier-like series of F M waves of the form o o v0(t) = a0 + a cos n= 1 nco0t + n Aco J7<> dd (11.2- 2)
where the coefficients are exactly the ones th at w ould be ob tain ed if the circuit were driven by Vx c o s to 0t. T his F o u rier-like expansion m akes evident the fact th a t a signal p ro p o rtio n a l to the original F M signal w ith the sam e in stantaneous frequency can be obtained by filtering the com ponents o f t> 0(i) which are centered in frequency ab o u t o j 0 . If the n onlinear circuit causes a x to be independent o f V -t , the o u tp u t of the n arro w b an d filter is independent o f Vt and an effective F M lim iter results. O n the o th e r hand, if a n arro w b an d filter is em ployed to extract the com ponents of v0(t ) centered in frequency a b o u t na>0 , an F M signal is obtained w ith its in stan taneous frequency p ro p o rtio n al to /( f ) b u t w ith n tim es the frequency deviation and n tim es the carrier frequency o f v(t). T his technique for increasing the deviation of an F M wave finds wide application w hen a specified frequency deviation is required and yet the m axim um deviation available from a particu lar m o d u lato r produces less than th e specified value. If m u ltiplication of the carrier frequency along with the deviation is n o t desired, the carrier m ay be heterodyned back to the desired frequency by any of the techniques o f C h a p te r 7 after the required deviation m ultiplication has been achieved.
y U) o
N onlinear nonmemory device
v (0 o
Fig. 11.2-1 Nonlinear nonmemory device characteristic. T o d em o n strate the validity o f Eq. (11.2-2), let us assum e th a t v(t) given by Eq. (11.2-1) is placed th ro u g h a no n lin ear nonm em ory device, as show n in Fig. 11.2 1. Since v(t) is, in general, n o t periodic in time, v = F(v) is n o t periodic in tim e an d a conventional F o u rier series expansion o f i?0(f) is n o t possible. H ow ever, v(t) is periodic w ith p eriod T = 2n/oj0 in r ( f ) , w here
T(f)
= t + C fm d O , co0 J
(11.2-3)
1 1 .2
TRANSMISSION OF FM SIGNALS THROUGH NONLINEAR NETWORKS
517
since, as a function of x, v(t) = ^ ( t ) is given by

u (i) = ^ (t) =
Fj
c o s o ) 0t.
(11.2 4)
Therefore, v0{t) = vol(x) = F [ i , ', ( t )] is a periodic function in x and m ay be expanded in a F ourier series in x o f the form
oo
= ôi(t) = a0 + a cos n(o0x. n= 1
(11.2-5)
If x, given by Eq. (11.2-3), is resubstituted in to Eq. (11.2-3), the F ourier-like series of Eq. (11.2-2) follows im m ediately. N o te th a t th e coefficients an in Eqs. (11.2-5) and (11.2-2) are the coefficients of the F o u rier series o f the o u tp u t o f the nonlinear device when the input is driven by a cosinusoidal signal of frequency a 0 and am plitude V t . C onsequently all o f the results of C hapters 1, 4, an d 5 o btained for cosinusoidal inputs to nonlinear devices apply directly to F M signals. If at the o u tp u t of the n onlinear device we wish to reclaim an F M signal p ro p o rtional to the in p u t F M signal, we m ust be able to separate the fundam ental FM com ponent o f v(t) from all th e higher-order F M com ponents of v0(t). Figure 11.2-2
illustrates a typical frequency spectrum for v0(t) in which F0(co) is the F o u rier tra n s form o f va(t). It is a p p a re n t from the figure th a t the fundam ental F M com ponent of v0(t) m ay be extracted by filtering provided th a t BW j BW , - ^ + ^ < < 00, (11.2- 6)
where B W , is the to tal b an d w id th of the fundam ental FM com ponent of v(t) and BW 2 is the to tal b an d w id th o f the second-harm onic FM com ponent of vjt). By noting th a t A co2 = 2 Ato, we m ay express Eq. (11.2-6) in the equivalent form
= o)0 -
RW BW , 2 Aw
+2
1 R BW W ,~
-
(1 L 2 7)
2 Aoj2
w h ere D is th e d e v ia tio n ra tio o f th e in p u t F M signal.
520
11.2
Nonsinusoidal FM Signals We have observed th at, when an F M signal is passed th ro u g h a nonlinear device, the resultant signal co n tain s the sam e instantaneous frequency inform ation as the original F M signal. Therefore, such a d istorted F M signal is indeed also an F M signal, since a signal of the form o f Eq. (11.2-1) can be extracted from it by placing it th ro u g h either a b an d p ass filter o r an inverse nonlinear operation.
v(i)
K,(/) o
v(t) V\ cos [oJoi f AouJf(Q) dff\ v (r) is an FM square wave
Fig. 11.2-5 Generation of an FM square wave. F o r exam ple, if an F M signal is passed th ro u g h the hard lim iter show n in Fig. 11.2-5, an F M squ are wave o f peak am plitude V2 results. In a sim ilar fashion, if r(f) given by Eq. (11.2-1) is passed th ro u g h a nonlinear device with the transfer characteristic given by = 2V-i sin i v{t) vr Vi < v ( t ) < Vu
( 11.2 - 8 )
an F M trian g u lar wave o f peak am plitude V2 results. O th e r nonlinearities yield o th er waveform s for the F M signals. N ote, how ever, th a t all the nonsinusoidal F M signals, as well as the sinusoidal F M signal, have one p ro p erty in c o m m o n : w hen they are plotted vs.
r(i) = t + f m d o ,
(D0 J they are periodic w ith period 2n/a)0 [cf. the p arag rap h containing Eq. (11.2-5)]. Figure 11.2-6 illustrates an F M trian g u lar wave plotted vs. t(t) an d vs. t. N o te th a t only when t> r (0 is p lo tted vs. x does the w aveform consist o f a series o f straight line segments. T he fact th a t a sinusoidal F M signal can be reclaim ed from nonsinusoidal F M signals suggests a widely used m ethod o f F M generation. Both F M square waves an d F M trian g u lar waves are readily generated by stan d a rd digital operations. T herefore, F M form s o f these waveform s are generated and then converted into a sinusoidal F M signal by filtering (for the F M square wave) o r by non-linear processing (for the F M trian g u lar wave). F o r exam ple, if the F M trian g u lar wave is placed th ro u g h a n o n lin ear device w ith the characteristic
v0 -
Fj sin
nvT(t) 2V,
11.3
TRANSMISSION OF FM SIGNALS THROUGH LINEAR FILTERS
521
*r(0 =
) (a)
(b)
Fig. 11.2-6 FM triangular wave plotted (a) vs. x and (b) vs. . a sinusoidal F M signal results. W hereas filtering to reclaim the sinusoidal FM signal places a lim it o n th e m o d u latio n index an d deviation ra tio th a t can be used w ithout causing undue d isto rtion, the use o f nonlinear processing to reclaim the sinusoidal F M signal im poses no such restrictions. 11.3 TRANSMISSION OF FM SIGNALS THROUGH LINEAR FILTERS In this section we shall consider the problem of determ ining the o u tp u t of a linear filter which is driven by an F M signal o f the form
( 1 1 .3 - 1 )
U nfortunately the solution to such a problem , unlike the corresponding problem in AM , which was studied in C h ap ter 3, is n o t possible in closed form for an arb itrary f ( t ) o r an a rb itra ry filter transfer function H(p). How ever, two particular cases with wide application in the design of F M system s are tractable m athem atically, and we shall restrict our atte n tio n to them. T he first tractab le situ atio n is th a t in which / (f) varies slowly in com parison with the d u ratio n o f the im pulse response o f the linear filter. In this q u asi-static case the filter o u tp u t is o b tain ed by substituting a>,{t) = a> 0 + Acof{t) for to in the filter transfer function H(ja>) to o b tain the o u tp u t v j t ) given by (11.3-2) In ad d itio n to establishing the validity of this intuitively satisfying quasi-static response, we shall a tte m p t to o b tain a b o und on the m axim um value o f wm [the frequency to which f ( t ) is band-lim ited] for which Eq. (11.3-2) m ay be employed.
522
11.3
T he second tractab le situ ation i^s th a t in which H{ja>) has both a m agnitude and a phase which are straig h t line functions of a> . In this case, regardless o f the rate at which / (r) is varied, v0(t) is given by v(t) = IH[ju)i(t - i0)]| cos co0t + A oj
J f(d)de + 0(cyo)
(11.3-3)
where 6(co0) = arg H(ja>0) an d t0 is the constant slope o f the arg H(jco)-vs.-a) curve. W e observe from Eq. (11.3-3) th at \H(jco)\ establishes the transfer function between the envelope o f v0(t ) an d w,(i i0), w hereas in the quasi-static case \H(jaj)\ estab lishes the transfer function betw een the envelope of v0(t) and t o,(t). A lthough Eqs. (11.3-2) an d (11.3-3) seem to be quite different in form, it is readily show n th at Eq. (11.3-3) reduces to Eq. (11.3-2) as com decreases relative to l/'f0. In either of th e above cases it is clear that, if \H(ju>)\ is a straight line function of co, the filter o u tp u t v0(t) has an envelope w hich varies in p ro p o rtio n to a >,(r); thus if we place an envelope d etector a t the filter o u tp u t we obtain an obvious m eans of FM dem odulation. T his technique will be discussed in m ore detail in C h ap ter 12.
Linear filter
h{i\= v(t) = AQie (expyaV)[exp /AajJ /(0) d%) Fig. 11 .3-1 Linear filter driven by FM signal. T o d em o n strate the validity of Eq. (11.3-2) consider the filter driven by v(t) which is show n in Fig. 11.3-1. If h{t) is the im pulse response of the filter and we represent the filter inp u t v(t) in the form i >(i) = A cos [u)0t + \p(t)]= (11.3-4)
where denotes the real p art an d i/(t)= A cop f (6) d6, then em ploying the convo lution integral we may w rite v(t) as
v0 (t) = A.
elw"
J h{T)e-jo,zeJ* T) rftj.
y { t)T +
(11.3-5)
If we now expand ip(t i) in a M acL auren series in t, we ob tain

il/(t -
t) =
iA (0 -
m -t2 2!
(11.3-6)
where the d o ts represent differentiation w ith respect to t (or r). H ow ever, if h(x) is zero for t < 0 an d decays to zero for x > t m (for exam ple, xM m ight represent four tim e con stan ts if h(t) were the im pulse response of a single-pole filter), then ij/(t x)
1 1.3
523
contributes to the integral of Eq. (11.3-5) only for 0 < r < xM. T hus if
(that is, if the rate of change of the ac portion of ihe instantaneous frequency, is sm all, i.e., if iom 1 /tm), then Eq. (11.3-5) simplifies to
v0(t) = A 0 le ^ e jlO 0, +'l'{,)i |
h{x)e-J ^ ,+li,i,)]x dx
= A3l6{eJlmot+m] //[/ ,-(f)]} = A\H[ja)i(t)]\ cos {aj0i + ij/(t) + arg H[jaj;(r)]}, (11.3-7)
which is the desired result. In o btaining Eq. (11.3-7) use was m ade of the fact that the defining equation for H(joj) is the F o u rier transform of the im pulse response given by H(jco) = | h(x)e dx. (11.3-8)
To obtain a lim it on the usefulness of Eq. (11.3-7) we shall follow an approach suggested by B aghdady.f W e first em ploy the expansion of Eq. (11.3-6) to write expji/Kt - r) = [expji/'U)] [exp - j\I/(t)x] exp j 4>(t)x2
2!
(t)x2 3!
(11.3-9)
W e then further expand the last term o f Eq. (11.3-9) in a M acL auren series in r to obtain exp/iA(r - t) = [exp7'i//(r)][exp - j\jj{t)x]
. +
, .iAWt2
j ~ y \
.iA(t)T3
3 r
+
(11.3-10)
Finally, if we assum e that for small values of xM the j[$(t)x2/2 !]-term is the main term co n trib u tin g to inaccuracies in Eq. (11.3-7) (which is usually the case in practice, even though som e nonrealistic exam ples can be set up where ip(t)x2/ 3 ! is m ore signi ficant than 0'(i)r2/ 2 !), then Eq. (11.3-9) m ay be w ritten in the form of the desired q u asi-static o u tp u t plus an e rro r te r m : v0{t) = + h(x)e dx
+ j
.m
F .
(11.3 11)
t E. J. Baghdady, Lectures on Communication System Theory, M cG raw -H ill, New York (1961), pp. 472 483.
52 4
1 1.3
Since m ultiplication in the t- (or r-) dom ain corresponds to differentiation in the frequency dom ain r 2h(r) d 2H(j(u) den2 (11.3-12)
E qu atio n (11.3-11) m ay therefore be rew ritten in the form d 2H[j,{t)] -I O t+ Va(t) = A & e <i yjliO It is now a p p aren t th a t if d 2H [ M t ) ] $(t) 2 dcof
max
M t)
dcof
(11.3-13)
d2H [jMi(t)} <

i}{t)
dcof
max
H[j(Oi(t)]
1 ,
(11.3-14)
then Eq. (11.3-13) reduces to Eq. (11.3-7) an d the quasi-static app ro x im atio n is valid. As an exam ple of applying Eq. (11.3-4), consider passing an FM signal through a high-Q r parallel R L C circuit for which Z u (yco) is closely ap proxim ated by (cf. Eq. 2.2-9) Z n (jco) = 1+ j R
.CO (O o
co > 0, a
w here co0 = \j~J~LC an d a = 1/2 R C (the reciprocal o f the circuit tim e constant). It follows im m ediately th at d 2Z n (joj) dco2 and d2Z n ( j w )
dor
- 2R (0 (l)f a2 1 + j(11.3-15)
Z u ( ja ))
(11.3-16)
In deriving Eq. (11.3-16) we have assum ed th at co/t) is centered a b o u t co0 . If this were n o t the case, Eq. (11.3-16) w ould give a sm aller value. If we now let f ( t ) = cos comi (the w orst case), then
\j/{t)
= Aco c o s comt,
(/(t ) =
Acocom sin comi,
and I^WLax = Acocom;
11.3
525
therefore, the q u asi-static ap p ro x im atio n is valid provided th at
If we in terpret m uch less than u n ity as 1/20 (5% error or less), then for P = Aoj/ojm = 5,
A oj
<
1
-
and for fi = 10, Acu 1
H ow ever, since the deriv atio n for the m axim um value of Aco/a involved consistently conservative approxim ations, in m ost cases the bounds may be relaxed by 50 % and the quasi-static a p p ro ach will still yield reasonably accurate results. N o te from Eq. (11.3-17) th a t the q u asi-static ap p roxim ation is valid if either com a or Aa> a. T herefore, if the m axim um m odulation rate of f ( t ) [or a>,(0] is m uch less th an the reciprocal of the circuit tim e constant, the deviation may be large w ithout destroying the validity of Eq. (11.3-7). O n the o th er hand, if 2 Aco 2a, where 2a is the circuit 3 dB b andw idth, then / (i) m ay vary quite rapidly w ithout
Slope io
ui
Fig. 1 1 .3 -2
Filter with linearly sloping m agnitude and phase characteristic.
528
11.4
D irect su b stitu tio n o f u, a n d v2 given by Eq. (11.4-3) into Eq. (11.4-4) o r Eq. (11.4-5) indicates th at v , an d v2 are indeed two independent solutions ; and since the differential eq u atio n is second-order an d linear [as clearly indicated by Eq. (11.4-5)], any o ther solution m ay be o b tain ed as a linear com bination of i>, and v2. H ence the m ost general solution m ay be w ritten as v(t) = A i cos
J (0,(0) dO + A 2 sin j" co,(0) dO J cu(0) dO + 0OJ ,

(11.4-6)
= C cos
where A 1, A 2 ,C , an d 6 0 are arb itrary co n stan ts of integration w hich m ay be uniquely specified by the initial conditions y(0) and (0). F o r exam ple if r(0) = F, and (0) = 0, then v(t) = Vt cos and if co((f) = cj0 + Aa>f (i), then u(t) = Vl cos to0t + A a> f (8) dd , (11-4-7)
J a>i(0) dO ;
which is the desired F M signal. Any o ther set o f initial conditions merely changes the am plitude of u(r) an d introduces a co n stan t phase angle w hich is of little consequence, since it m ay be tak en as zero w ith a different choice o f tim e axis. N ote th a t Eq. (11.4-4) an d (11.4-5) are even functions in cof(t); hence negative values o f co,(t) p ro d u ce the sam e i?(t) as the corresponding positive values of co,(i). T hus to avoid this full-wave rectification effect of co,((), the instantaneous frequency m ust be g reater th a n z e r o ; th a t is, u>i(t) = <y0 + Aa>/(f) > 0 or equivalently A w < a> 0. (11.4-9) (11.4-8)
This restriction is of little consequence, since no d em o d u lato r exists which can recover /() if Eq. (11.4-9) is n o t satisfied. G en eratio n o f an F M signal by sim ulating the FM differential equation is particularly well suited to an analog com puter. Figure 11.4-1 illustrates an analog co m p u ter block d iag ram w hich em ploys tw o m ultipliers, tw o integrators, and an inverter to im plem ent Eq.(11.4 4). F o r the block diagram of Fig. 11.4-1 the equation describing v(t) takes the form
J' K MK, vt f)v(0) d9 +
v{t) = 0,
(11.4-10)
11.3
525
therefore, the quasi-static ap p ro x im atio n is valid provided th at
01.3-17)
If we in terpret m uch less than u n ity as 1/20 (5% error or less), then for /? = Ato/iom = 5, Ato a an d for 3 = 10, Aco
a ~
1 2
H ow ever, since the derivation for the m axim um value o f Aai/a involved consistently conservative approx im atio n s, in m ost cases the bounds may be relaxed by 50 % and the quasi-static a p p ro ach will still yield reasonably accurate results. N o te from Eq. (11.3-17) th a t the q u asi-static approxim ation is valid if either iom a o r A w a. Therefore, if the m axim um m odulation rate of /( f ) [or a>,(f)] is m uch less th an the reciprocal of the circuit tim e constant, the deviation m ay be large w ith o u t destroying the validity of Eq. (11.3-7). O n the o ther hand, if 2 Aa> 2a, w here 2a is the circuit 3 d B b andw idth, then /( f ) m ay vary quite rapidly w ithout
Fig. 11 .3-2 Filter with linearly sloping magnitude and phase characteristic.
526
1 1.4
destroying the validity o f the quasi-static solution. A lthough we derived Eq. (11.3-17) for a specific filter, a sim ilar e q u atio n results for alm ost all narrow band filte rs; specifically, K l 2 Aw\ 2 P \ BW 1, (11.3-18)
where K usually lies betw een 1 and 5. Several m ore specific exam ples are derived by B aghdady.t T o d em o n strate the validity o f Eq. (11.3-3), let us consider the filter with the m ag nitude an d phase function show n in Fig. 11.3 -2. If v(t) is again given by v(t) = M4Ae1[a"> , +Û )]l then i> 0(f) = . [ / - H I jw J F H ] , (11.3-19) where V(a>) is the F o u rier transform of /4ejI" 0' + *(,,). W ith H(jaj) given in Fig. 11.3-2 substituted into Eq. (11.3-19), v(t) reduces to
CpjO(u>o)gj<t>oto
va(t) = St A --------------I a>. = die
~ja)V (co)e~jw,
- j V(o))e
0 0 < (~,o) + f Aeje(00)ejm0'0 de^1

jd t
0 >,(f
_ ,o )1
~ fo)
3 tcA a)o +
A\H[jiOi(t
to ^
Ji
( > - ) + (moil
coa = - i0)]| cos [a)0t + i/(t t 0)
+ 0(coo)],
(11.3-20)
which is the desired result. In the above derivation, use has been m ade of the fact th at the o perations of e ~ ja> , an d jco in the frequency dom ain are equivalent to a time delay of t0 an d the differentiation op eratio n respectively in the tim e dom ain.
11.4 FR EQ U EN C Y M O D U L A T IO N
T E C H N IQ U E S T H E FM D IF F E R E N T IA L E Q U A T IO N
In this section an d the sections to follow we shall study the theoretical m ethods (and their practical im plem entation) by which we m ay vary the in stantaneous frequency of a sinusoidal carrier in p ro p o rtio n to the m odulation inform ation / ( f ) to obtain an FM signal of the form v(t ) = A cos which has the in stan tan eo u s frequency a),it) = a > 0 + Aa>/(f).
t Op. cit.
co0t + Aa>
f( 6 ) d 0
(11.4-1)
(11.4-2)
1 1 .4
FREQUENCY MODULATING TECHNIQUES
527
In g e n e ra l, th e th e o r e tic a l m e th o d s o f p ro d u c in g a fre q u e n c y -m o d u la te d s ig n a l c a n b e b r o k e n in to six b a s ic c a t e g o r i e s : 1. T h e a n a lo g s im u la tio n o f th e F M d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n . ~2. T h e q u a s i-s ta tic v a r ia tio n o f th e o s c illa tio n fre q u e n cy o f a n o s c illa to r . 3. T h e g e n e r a tio n a n d n o n lin e a r w a v e sh a p in g o f a n F M tria n g u la r w ave. 4. T h e g e n e r a tio n an d filte rin g o f a n F M s q u a re w ave. 5. T h e g e n e r a tio n a n d fre q u e n c y m u ltip lic a tio n o f n a r ro w b a n d F M (th e A rm s tro n g m eth o d ).
6. The generation of FM in specialized devices, e.g. the P h asitro n etc.

O f a ll th e a b o v e m e th o d s o n ly th e a n a lo g s im u la tio n o f th e F M d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n a n d th e g e n e r a tio n an d w a v e sh a p in g o f a tria n g u la r F M w av e p ro d u c e a th e o r e ti c a lly p e rfe ct F M s ig n a l w h ic h m a y h av e a fre q u e n cy d e v ia tio n Aw o r m a x im u m m o d u la tio n fre q u e n c y w m a s h ig h a s th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n cy w 0. B o th th e g e n e r a tio n an d filte rin g o f a n F M s q u a re w ave a n d th e A rm s tro n g m e th o d re q u ire the filte rin g o f a d is to rte d F M sig n a l to p ro d u c e th e o u tp u t F M s ig n a l a n d th u s h a v e Aw a n d w m lim ite d w ith re s p e c t to w 0 b y c u rv e s s im ila r to th o s e o f F ig . 1 1 .2 -3 . s ta tic m e th o d b o th Aw a n d w m a re e v e n m o r e sev e re ly re s tricte d . In th e q u a s i T h e m a x im u m
m o d u la tio n fre q u e n cy m u st be k e p t sm a ll in c o m p a r is o n w ith th e r e c ip r o c a l o f th e e n v e lo p e tra n s ie n t tim e c o n s ta n t o f th e o s c illa to r , w h ile Aw m u st b e m u ch less th a n w 0 to p re v e n t n o n lin e a r itie s in th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n cy o f th e F M sig n al. In th e re m a in d e r o f th is s e c tio n a n d th e s e c tio n s fo llo w in g we sh a ll c o n s id e r e a ch o f th e a b o v e te c h n iq u e s in so m e w h a t g r e a te r d e ta il. S p e c ific a lly , we sh a ll a tte m p t to o b ta in a b lo c k d ia g ra m fo r a n F M g e n e r a to r c o r re s p o n d in g to e a c h o f th e a b o v e m e th o d s , a lo n g w ith th e m a x im u m v a lu e s o f Aw a n d wm (re la tiv e to w 0 ) fo r w h ich th e g e n e r a to r fu n c tio n s p ro p e rly . In e a c h c a s e we sh a ll th e n d ev e lo p o n e o r m o re p h y sic a l im p le m e n ta tio n s fo r th e g e n e r a to r .
The FM Differential E quationt

A s e c o n d -o rd e r , lin e a r, h o m o g e n e o u s d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n w h ich h as as its tw o lin e a rly in d e p e n d e n t s o lu tio n s th e F M sig n a ls an d ( 1 1 .4 - 3 )
is g iv e n in in te g ro -d iff e re n tia l fo rm by
o r. e q u iv a le n tly , is g iv en in d iffe re n tia l fo rm by
( 1 1 .4 - 5 )
t D. T. H ess, " F M D ifferential E q u a tio n (letter),
P ro c. I E E E
, 54, N o. S, p. 1089 (Aug. 1966).
528
1 1.4
D irect su b stitu tio n o f v t an d v2 given by Eq. (11.4-3) into Eq. (11.4-4) o r Eq. (11.4-5) indicates th at v t an d v2 are indeed tw o independent solutions ; and since the differential eq u atio n is second-order an d linear [as clearly indicated by Eq. (11.4-5)], any other solution m ay be o b tain ed as a linear co m bination of Vi and v2. H ence the m ost general solution m ay be w ritten as v(t) = A j cos J a> (9) dO + A 2 sin
J co;(0) dO
(11.4-6)
= C cos
J a>i(0) dO + 0OJ ,
w here A 1, A 2,C , an d 9 0 are a rb itrary con stan ts o f integration w hich m ay be uniquely specified by th e initial conditions i(0) and i;(0). F o r exam ple if i(0) = K, and (0) = 0, then v(t) Vx cos and if a>i(t) = <y0 + A w f (t ), then v(t) = Vl cos co0( + Aco I f{ 0 ) d 0 oJ
J cj,(0) dO ;
(11.4-7)
which is the desired F M signal. Any o ther set of initial conditions merely changes the am plitu d e of u(t) an d intro d u ces a co n sta n t phase angle w hich is o f little consequence, since it m ay be tak en as zero with a different choice of tim e axis. N ote th a t Eq. (11.4 4) an d (11.4-5) are even functions in (t); hence negative values o f a);(t) p ro d u ce th e sam e u(t) as the corresponding positive values of co;(t). Thus to avoid this full-wave rectification effect o f co,(f), the instantaneous frequency m ust be greater th a n z e ro ; th a t is,
a>i(t) = co0 + Acof(t) > 0
(11.4-8)
or equivalently A oj < (o0. (11.4 9)
T his restriction is of little consequence, since no d em o d u lato r exists which can recover f i t ) if Eq. (11.4-9) is n o t satisfied. G en eratio n of an F M signal by sim ulating the FM differential equation is particularly well suited to an analog com puter. Figure 11.4-1 illustrates an analog co m p u ter block d iag ram w hich em ploys tw o m ultipliers, tw o integrators, and an inverter to im plem ent Eq.(11.4-4). F o r the block diagram o f Fig. 11.4-1 the equation describing v(t) takes the form K MK Jvi( t ) j , K MK Jvi(0)v(O)d0 + v(t) = 0, (11.4-10)
1 1 .4
FREQUENCY MODULATION TECHNIQUES
529
Fig. 11.4-1
A nalog com puter im plem entation of FM differential equation.
which is identical in form to Eq. (11.4-4). It is thus apparent that the instantaneous frequency of v(t) in the block diag ram o f Fig. 11.4 1 is (11.4-11) Hence, if v,(t) is chosen as
1 + At)
(J) q
an d K i K m V1 is adjusted to equal a>0 , the analog com puter has the desired in stan ta neous frequency co,{t) = o j0 + Acof (t). If, in ad d itio n the initial cond itions (IC) of the integrators are set so th at v(0) = Vl and
5 (0 )
K , K Mv m
= 0,
with the result th a t i)(0) = 0, then the analog com puter generates the F M signal given by Eq. (11.4 7). (A practical circuit to take care of the initial-condition problem autom atically will be presented shortly.) The block d iag ram o f Fig. 11.4-1 can be constructed n o t only on the analog com puter, b u t also as an independent F M generator. If good-quality integrated o p eratio n al am plifiers are em ployed as the basic com ponent of the integ rato rs and the inverter a n d if high-speed integrated m ultipliers (Section 8.3) are em ployed, then
530
11 .4
the resultant F M g en erato r should perform satisfactorily w ith carrier frequencies exceeding 10 M H z. In ad d ition, linear frequency deviations equal to the carrier fre quency may be o b tained regardless of the m odulation frequency, which may exceed the carrier frequency. T he extrem e range of Ai d and com is a direct result of the fact th a t the solution of the F M differential eq u atio n is a theoretically perfect FM signal regardless of the values of Aco and (om, provided th a t Atu < oj0. Because of the high deviation ratio (D = Aa>/a)0) possible with the analog m o d u lator of Fig. 11.4-2, an F M signal with specified values of Aco and a> m can be generated at a reasonably low carrier frequency to0 . T his F M signal can then be heterodyned by a crystal oscillator with frequency t o c to any desired carrier frequency ( d '0 = a ) 0 + o j c . If u> c a>0 , as is the case w hen co0 was initially a low value, then the stability of the center frequency of the resultant FM signal is controlled prim arily by the stable crystal oscillator and is alm ost independent of the less stable frequency w 0. F o r exam ple, if a> c = 9co0 an d a> 0 varies by 1 %, then coc varies by only 0.1 %. T he lim it on the m axim um ra tio of coc to w 0 to obtain center frequency stability is set by the problem o f separating the FM signal at the difference frequency wc u)0 (heterodyning produces b o th the sum and the difference frequencies) from the desired F M signal. Specifically, a filter with BW 2a > 0 and a center frequency of loc + < x > 0 is required to perform the separation. T he QT of such a filter m ust satisfy the relation ship = hence, as increase.
c d c/ ( d 0
BW
2 \a 0
+ 1) ; I
(11.4-12)
increases, the required QT and thus the filter com plexity greatly
Amplitude Limiting and Initial Conditions

T o avoid the problem of having to set the initial- conditions to ensure an FM signal of a desired am plitude and, in turn, to extend the usefulness of the FM generator beyond the low -frequency analog com puter two additional feedback loops may be added to the block diagram of Fig. 11.4-1 as show n in Fig. 11.4-2. The tw o additional loops have the sam e effect on the FM generator as an am plitude-lim iting circuit has on a sinusoidal oscillator. As a m atter of fact, with vt(t) = V2 (a constant), the effects are identical. Specifically, for values of K env < Vy, the system poles lies in the righthalf com plex plane an d a grow ing oscillation occurs. W hen K env = Vx, the poles lie on the im aginary axis an d the oscillations stabilize. If, how ever, for som e reason K env increases beyond Vx, the com plex conjugate poles m ove into the left-half plane an d the envelope of the oscillation decays back tow ard Vx. It is a p p aren t th a t even if v,{t) is a function of time, the envelope of tit) should stabilize at Vl , since for this value no signal is fed into m ultipliers M 3 an d M 4 , the two additional loops are opened, and the block diagram of Fig. 11.4-2 reduces to the original diagram of Fig. 11.4-1. T o o b tain a m ore q u an titative picture of how the envelope of v(t) stabilizes, we m ay w rite the differential equation governing the behavior of v(t) from the block
1 1.4
FREQUENCY MODULATION TECHNIQUES
53 1
Inverter
M jfvr
In teg ra to r
In teg rato r
M,
O u tp u t : v(/)
M2
o ---------- * Peak envelope detector
*=1 iK J t) V\ o
Fig. 11.4-2 A nalog im plem entation of F M differential equation with am plitude stabilization mechanism.
diagram of Fig. 11.4 2f :

, a (h: a 0 = t'(i)( 1 H j H j of cof a \ cof J /2 a
tbA
v(t)
2 I ^ ( 0 1 2 ----- 3
\ cof
^----- 2 cof I ,cof
(1 1 .4 -1 3 )
where <o,(r) = K , K Mv,{t) and a(i) = K IK ^[ V l - K C T V (r)].
F o r this case, the m ost general solution is given [as the reader should verify by substi tuting in Eq. (11.413)] by (f) = C exp
a(0) d
cos
J co,(0) dd +
90
(11.4-14)
^ env(0
w here again C and 90 are a rb itra ry constants. It is a p p aren t th at from Eq. (11.4-14) that ênv(f) = C exp J K , K ^ [ V i v mm de ,
(1 1 .4 -1 5 )
t E quation (11.4-13) is n o t obvious by inspection. T he interested reader should m ake an effort to derive it from the block diagram o f Fig. 11.4-2; the m ore casual reader should accept its validity and proceed to the conclusion draw n from the equation.
532
11.5
or equivalently,
ln^
- v^ K J0 O = f K ,K U [V t ~ )) ]]ddO. e.
(11.4-16)
By differentiating Eq. (11.4-16) with respect to time, we obtain dV UVAt (11.4-17)
which has as its solution (11.4-18) where B is an a rb itra ry co n stant of integration. As expected, we observe from Eq. (11.4-17) th a t K env(i) ap p ro aches Vl and does so w ith a tim e co n stan t r = 1/K'MVl K l . Therefore, if pow er is applied at t = 0, for t > 4 t, v(t) (for Fig. 11.4-2) is given by
In the above analysis we assum ed th a t the envelope detector extracted the in stan taneous envelope of v(t). In general, however, the detector contains some filtering, so th at the d etector o u tp u t is a filtered version of the instantaneous envelope. If this equivalent filter contains a single pole at som e low frequency (which m ost peak en velope detectors do), then the above results are still valid except that Venv(() rises tow ard K, m ore slowly and with a second-order response which is usually dom inated by the low -frequency d etector pole. If, on the other hand, the peak envelope detector contains two or m ore poles, the possibility of squegging e x ists; hence higher-order envelope d etector filters should be avoided. In addition, the single pole of the peak envelope detector should lie well below the lowest value of the in stantaneous frequency of prevent the possibility of having the envelope d etecto r o u tp u t vary over a carrier cycle. Such a variation would significantly d isto rt the F M signal, since cc(t) in Eq. (11.4-13) w ould vary over a cycle in this case.
11.5 Q U A S I-S T A T IC F R E Q U E N C Y M O D U L A T IO N
W hen the frequency deviation Aw and the m axim um m odulation frequency wm of an FM signal are b o th sm all fractions o f the carrier frequency w 0 (which is the case in m ore than 95 % of the practical applications for which an FM signal is re quired), then the F M differential equ atio n given by Eq. (11.4-5) can be closely approxim ated by either of the following quasi-static forms, which act as the defining equ atio n s for a b ro ad class of FM g e n e ra to rs:
( 1 1 .5 - l a )
11.5
QUASI-STATIC FREQUENCY MODULATION
533
and
^ 2tf(i)ajj(i) v(t) v ( t ----------- 3 + - 7 -2 = 0.

cof
1U (11.5-lb)
w ,(i)
The justification for this ap p ro x im atio n is based on the fact that, when both Aw w 0 an d wm w 0 , the term v(t)<b,{t)/a)l { t)3 in Eq. (11.4-5) becom es vanishingly sm all in com parison with the term s v(t) and i>(f)/a>;(f)2 ; hence it may be added to (Eq. 11.5-lb) or subtracted from (Eq. 11.5-la) Eq. (11.4-5) with negligible effect on the solution i(0 -t F o r exam ple, if we consider the case where w,(i) = co0 + Aw cos w mt(the m ost restrictive case for given values Aw, wm, and w 0), then the solution to the F M differen tial equation is given by A co sin wmi + 0o ( w0r -l from which it follows that i(t) = A(cu0 + Aw cos wmf) sin I a> 0t -I- ^ sin wmr + 0O) \ U)m I (11.5-2)
w here A and 0o are a rb itrary constants of integration. Therefore, from Eq. (11.5-2) and the fact th a t w,(i) = Awwm sin w mt, it is ap p aren t that fib./4Aww_ sin w_f W; cos w i) y = (w0 ;------+ Aw ------------ y sin ( w 0r H and thus (11.5-4) I Aw sin comt + 0O| (11.5-3) \
IlLax
(0 - Aw)2
/?(w0/Aw - l )2
forA oj/oj0 1 F o r ft = Ato/com = 5 a n d w 0 = 20 Aw, Eq. (11.5-4) has the num erical value of 5 x 10 4, for which the second term in the FM differential equation relative to the first term is truly negligible. In m ost practical m odulators, as we shall see, w0 is usually m uch g reater th an 20 A w ; th u s Eq. (1 1 .5 -la a n d b) is an excellent ap p ro x im a tion to the F1.1 differential equation. The advantage of being able to em ploy Eq. (11.5 la and b) as the basis for p ro ducing an F"M signal is th a t it is m uch m ore simply im plem ented by practical circuits than is the exact equation. Specifically, each of the L C circuit m odels show n in Fig. 11.5-1 has as its defining differential equation one of the quasi-static FM differential
t If a negligibly sm all term is added to o r subtracted from the FM differential equation having a set of initial conditions specified at / = 0, it will be a considerable length of tim e before the solu tions to the original differential equation and the modified differential equations differ signifi cantly. However, if the circuit which im plem ents the modified differential equation contains an envelope-limiting m echanism which is fast-acting in com parison with a>m (all practical FM generators m ust contain such a mechanism), then the initial conditions of the modified differential equation are updated at a sufficiently rapid rate to ensure th a t its solution differs from the solution of the original differential equation by a negligible am ount.
534
11.5
w,M
c + c
)('+ S q )
,< o
w,(0 3
(uXO2
V(0
^ J
Fig. 11.5-1 T hree quasi-static F M m odulators.
equations. In each circuit a tim e-varying controlled source is em ployed to vary the instan tan eo u s frequency. T he im aginative reader should be able to construct several oth er L C circuits w ith tim e-varying controlled sources which also have as their d e fining equations one o f the q uasi-static F M equations. T o o b tain the differential equation for any o f the circuits o f Fig. 11.5-1, one m ust w rite a single-node eq u atio n . F o r exam ple, for circuit (a) we have jl + !co + [1 + A(t)]ic 0
= i f V (d)d 6 +
Lj
C0i>(t) + C[ 1 + A (f)]i)(0
( 1 1 .5 - 5 )
11.5
535
o r equivalently, 0 = where 1 (11.5-6)
If we differentiate Eq. (11.5-6) w ith respect to tim e we o b tain Eq. (11.5-lb), w hich is the desired result. As an alternative point of view, the tim e-varying controlled source in the circuits of Fig. 11.5-1 m ay be th o u g h t of as varying the capacitance or inductance of the circuit m odel as a function of time. F o r exam ple, the last term in Eq. (11.5-5) could be regarded as the current of a tim e-varying capacitance C(r) = [1 + A(t)]C. W ith this point of view, we obtain an additional technique for im plem enting quasi-static F M generators w hich entails placing tim e-varying capacitors or inductors in shunt with parallel L C circuits. In each of the circuits o f Fig. 11.5-1 we note th at a>,(f) is a nonlinear function of A(t) \ thus if A(t) varies in p ro p o rtio n to the m odulation inform ation /(f), th at is, if A(t ) = A 0 + A J ( t ) , (11.5-7)
then / l i / ( f ) m ust be kep sufficiently sm all so th a t co,(f) also varies in p ro p o rtio n to /(f), as is usually desired. Specifically, if for circuit (a) o f Fig. 11.5-1 we expand a),-(f) in a M acL auren expansion in A 1f ( t ) to obtain (11.5-8) where coo = 1
and Aft ^ C A X 1
= 2(C0 + C) [1 + CAJOCo + C)]
th e n we o b se rv e th a t o n ly if
536
1 1.5
does the in stan tan eo u s frequency have the desired form cy,(i) = oj0 + Aajf(t). F o r exam ple, if the m axim um am plitude of the nonlinear term of Eq. (11.5-8) is to be less than 1 % of the m axim um am plitude of the linear term , then Aw/u>0 < 0.0133 or equivalently a 0 > 75 Aa>. If A 0 1 (which is usually true in practice), then (0 X = y / L ( C 0 + C) 1 and A(o (D0 CAX
2(c0 + cy
Identical restrictions on Aa>/a>0 are obtained for the o th er circuits o f Fig. 11.5-1 ; hence, if = Aw/o)m > 1 (which is usually true for the m ajority of F M signals) then satisfying Eq. (11.5-9) is sufficient to ensure th at Eq. (11.5-1) is also valid. Therefore, with fi > 1 a n d w 0/A w > 75, the o u tp u t signals of the quasi-static F M generators are of the desired form
= A cos
(11.5-10)
T h e p roblem now rem ains o f synthesizing the circuit m odels o f Fig. 11.5-1 w ith practical circuits. T he first obstacle to be overcom e is the synthesis of a lossless LC circuit. T his is readily accom plished by placing a lossy LC circuit which has the form of the circuits of Fig. 11.5-1 (plus som e equivalent shunt loss) in the feedback loop of an oscillator. At the point where the loop gain of the oscillator is unity, the oscillator provides exactly th e required negative resistance to -cancel the equivalent shu n t loss of the lossy L C circuit, f In addition, m ost oscillators contain the necessary am plitude stabilization m echanism to ensure the self-starting of the FM generator as well as a specified level for the envelope of the o u tp u t F M signal. A lthough the oscillator is capable of cancelling the L C circuit loss, the Q of the L C circuit should be kept as high as possible so that, if the oscillator lim its in a n o n linear fashion, the sinusoidal w aveform of the o u tp u t FM signal is m aintained. In a d d itio n , the tim e c o n stan t o f the envelope-lim iting circuitry (cf. Section 6.8) should be fast in com parison w ith variations in f ( t ) to ensure th at the o u tp u t envelope readjusts itself to a fixed level for each sm all variation in / ( f ) and thus is independent o f f(t). T he fast tim e co n stan t also provides the continuous updating of the initial conditions o f y(f), thereby further ensuring close correspondence betw een the solutions of the exact an d of the quasi-static FM differential equations. A practical L C circuit em ploying a differential pair which im plem ents the circuit m odel of Fig. 11.5-l(a) is show n in Fig. 11.5-2. F o r this circuit the capacitor current t Consider, for example, the oscillator of Fig. 6.1-6. Since nv, vh the controlled current source gm y, is equal to ngm v(t). However, the voltage across the current source is v, ; thus the current source may be replaced by an equivalent negative conductance ngm. With A,(jo>0) = 1, ngm = (Gl + rt2Gin), which is exactly the negative of the total circuit loss, GL + n2Gin. Therefore, the circuit loss is canceled, leaving a pure LC network.
1 1.5
537
- Oscillator QV
Time - varying controlled source
h(t) ho + W U )
Fig. 11.5-2 Q uasi-static FM g en erato r em ploying a differential pair.
ic is sam pled by the sm all resistor r f (which is not loaded by the input im pedance of (?3) to develop a voltage v ] = icr at the base of Q3 . T he am plification of the differential pair, which is directly controlled by I k(t), produces a collector current at Q 3 which sim ulates the tim e-varying controlled source A(t)ic where, on a sm all-signal basis,
w 1 , *q rikl - sj,)r ~ W + -iF F m Therefore, for the circuit of Fig. 11.5-2 (cf. Eq. 11.5-8), 1
<n
(11.5-1 l )
(11.5-12) J L ( C 0 + C )(l + B)
t T he value of r should be sufficiently sm all so that, when it is transform ed into an equivalent parallel resistor at a0 , it is m uch greater th an R loss and thus is a negligible com ponent o f the total tuned-circuit loss. If this were n o t the case, the total tuned-circuit loss w ould be a function of r: however, r, like C, varies with A(t). Therefore, the envelope level at which the FM wave would stabilize (which is directly related to the tuned-circuit load see Section 6.5) would be a function of A(t)\ this is an undesired effect. t The collector current o f Q 3 also contains low-frequency term s p ro p o rtio n al to Ik(t) which are shunted to ground by L and thus d o not con trib u te to the output.
538
11.5
and A< w O Jn B (Ikl/ I k0) 2(1 + B) (11.5-13)
w here B = CaqrIk0/4 k T ( C 0 + C). As a result, v,(t) is given by vtU) = K cos an d v(t) is given by vdt) = Vcc + Vo cos co0t + Aco j ' m d e + d o ^ , (11.5-15) + Am J f ( 9 ) d 6 + 0O J (11.5-14)
provided th a t 3 = Aco/tom > 1, co0 > 75 Ato, an d the o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit has suffi cient b an d w id th to pass th e spectrum o f th e F M signal. B oth V, a n d V0 a re determ ined by th e am p litude-lim iting m echanism o f the oscillator in the fashion described in Section 6.5. T o choose values for th e various param eters o f the tim e-varying controlled source, we first observe th a t B is a function o f tem p eratu re an d should be as small as possible in com parison w ith unity to keep to0 independent o f T. T he lim it on the sm allness of B is determ ined by the required ra tio of Agj/co0 and the ra tio I ki/ I k0 (cf. Eq. 11.5-13). F o r a specified ra tio of Aco/a> 0 the m inim um value of B results when Kl/ I k0 is as large as possible. T he lim it on th e size o f this ratio is 1, since I k(t) > 0 ; therefore, a sensible choice w ould be to select I kl x I k0 an d to select B with its m inim um value of B = 2 Aoj/m0 1 + 2 Ao)/u)0 2 Aft) too &)0 Acu. (11.5-16)
W ith this value o f B, to0 simplifies to 1 I L (C 0 + C ) 1 1 + 2Aco/co0 J L ( C 0 + C) a> 0 Aa>. (11.5-17)
We also observe that 10 keep Q3 operating as a linear controlled source, Q 3 m ust function as a snvll tgnai am plifier or, equivalently, It^l < 10 mV. Since r l/o)0C and co0 >; A , the am plitude of ic m ay be ap p ro x im ated by V,oj0C ; thus the am plitude of': n r h iiap p iu x iin ated b y V,rco0C. C om bining the requirem ent of V,roj0C < 10 mV w .. definition of B (and letting a * 1 and k T / q - 25 mV), we obtain co0(C 0 + C)BV, B V fa IkO^loss where Q r x to0(C0 + C )Rloss is the Q of the circuit with f ( t ) = 0. Since B, V, , Q r , and Kloss are usually know n o r specified quantities, Eq. (11.5-18) determ ines the m inim um value of I k0.
< 0. 1,
(11.5-18)
1 1.5
539
As a num erical exam ple, consider the design of an FM generator of the form shown in Fig. 11.5-2, for which w 0 = 108 rad/sec, A w = 106 rad/sec, w m = 2 x 105 rad/sec, Q T = 20, Vt = 5 V, Vcc = 10 V, and R luss = lO k il F rom Eq. (11.5-16) we obtain t h e xop tim u m value of B for a tem perature-insensitive center frequency, nam ely, B 2 A<u/a)0 = 0.02 provided t h a t / kl % I k0. In addition, from Eq. (11.5-18) we find th at k0 m ust be g reater th an 2 mA. A choice of I kl = I k0 of 2.5 mA would be reasonable here. In addition, since Q T = a>0(C0 + C )î0ss then C 0 + C = 20 pF, a value which when substituted into Eq. (11.5-15) yields L = 5 H. If we choose C 0 = C 10 p F (the ratio of C to C 0 may be chosen arbitrarily), then with k T / q = 26 mV an d a 1, from the definition of B we obtain r = 1.6 Q. Clearly r is not loaded by Q 3. T he oscillator differential p air can now be designed to yield the correct value of V,. Usually lie oscillator is designed to stabilize with a large value of x such that, even if small am plitu d e v ariations exist at v(t), v0(t) has a constant am plitude. This effect follows from the fact th at w ith large values of x the ou tp u t of 0 , is a lim ited version of the in p u t to Q 2 T o cause the oscillator to stabilize at x = 10 we choose M such that M = 0.25 //H and I k such th at
T hus Gm ( 10) m ust equal 1/500 Q and from Fig. 4.6-5 gmm ust equal 1/130 Q. However, since gm = q l J A k T , I k 800 fi A. N ow if R l = 6 kQ and the o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit bandw idth is sufficient for the F M signal (BW /2 A w > 1.6 w ith ft 5, or BW > 3.2 x 106 rad/sec), then v0 = (10 V) - (6 V) cos If we choose BW = 5 x 106, w ith the result th at Q r for the o u tp u t-tu n ed circuit is 20, then L l = 3 xH and CL = 33.3 pF. An alternative circuit for o b taining the tim e-varying controlled current source required to im plem ent the circuit m odel of Fig. 11.5 1(a) is show n in Fig. 11.5 3. For this circuit, which em ploys a single transistor, ^4(0 is given by <xqrIEo kT *qr I Ei m , kT
( 0 = gm(0 r =
provided that r is sufficiently sm all so th at the tran sisto r is operated in a sm all-signal fashion and th a t the im pedance o f C E at <w 0 is small in com parison w ith the m inim um value o f gin(f) so th a t app ears across the tran sisto r junction. T he im pedance of C E at < om should also be large in com parison with the m axim um value o f gm(t) so
540
1 1.5
Fig. 11.5-3 Im plem entation o f tim e-varying controlled source w ith a single transistor.
t h a t I ^ t ) flo w s e n tire ly th ro u g h th e tr a n s is to r . T h is la tte r re q u ire m e n t c a n b e im
p le m e n te d o n ly if co0 e x c e e d s u>m b y a f a c to r o f 1 0 0 0 o r m o re . F o r e x a m p le , i f I E1 = 0 .9 I E0 (w h ic h is d e s ira b le , a s w e h a v e see n , to k e e p co0 in d e p e n d e n t o f T ), th e n ^>inmax 8inmin th e re fo re , if a)0 C E > 1 0 g inm>x and (omC E <
th e n u>0lajm m u st b e g r e a te r th a n 1 9 0 0 to p e rfo rm c o m p a r a b ly w ith th e d iffe re n tia lp a ir im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e tim e -v a ry in g c o n tr o lle d so u rce . C o n s e q u e n tly , o n ly w hen e x tre m e ly w id e s e p a r a tio n s e x ist b e tw e e n co0 a n d com c a n th e sin g le tr a n s is to r b e used in p la c e o f th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir a s th e tim e -v a ry in g c o n tr o lle d s o u rc e . H o w e v e r, w h en th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .5 - 3 is e m p lo y e d , th e s a m e d e sig n c r ite r ia a r e u sed a s w ere used fo r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .5 -2 . S till o th e r v a r ia tio n s o n th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e tim e v a ry in g c o n tr o lle d c u r r e n t s o u r c e re q u ire d fo r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 . 5 - l ( a ) w ill be e x p lo re d in th e p r o b le m s a t th e e n d o f th e c h a p te r.
1 1.5
541
T h e c ir c u it m o d e l o f F ig . 11.51(b) c a n b e im p le m e n te d in e x a c tly th e s a m e fa s h io n
a s th e m o d e l o f F ig . 11.51(a) e x c e p t t h a t a n in d u c t o r L r e p la c e s th e c a p a c i to r C.
W ith th e in d u c to r , h o w e v e r, a n a d d itio n a l c o u p lin g c a p a c it o r m u st b e in s e rte d in se rie s w ith L to p re se rv e th e b ia s c o n d itio n s o f th e c irc u its o f F ig s . 1 1 .5 -2 a n d 1 1 .5 -3 . T h is a d d itio n a l la rg e c a p a c it o r m a k e s th e in d u c tiv e c a se less a ttr a c tiv e th a n th e c a p a c itiv e c a se . A s im ila r a rg u m e n t a p p lie s to th e c ir c u it m o d e l o f F ig . 11.5 c h a rg e 1(c). A tim e -v a ry in g c a p a c ita n c e c a n a ls o b e o b ta in e d from a n y d ev ice w h o se s to re d
ju n c t io n h a s th is p ro p e rty .
q is a n o n lin e a r fu n c tio n o f th e a p p lie d v o lta g e vD . A n y re v e rs e -b ia s e d P N F o r e x a m p le , if a d ev ice h a s th e r e la tio n s h ip q = g (vD ), w h ere g (vD) re p r e s e n ts a n o n lin e a r fu n c tio n o f vD , th e n th e d e v ic e c u r r e n t is g iv e n by dq d g(vD). (vD m , IQ. iD= ~ r = vD = C )vD , (11.5-19)
dt (*V[)
w h e re C ( r 0 ) =
dg(vD )/d vD . If
a h ig h -fre q u e n c y d ev e lo p e d v o lta g e
fre q u e n cy b ia s a n d c o n tr o llin g v o lta g e d ev ice a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .5 4, th e n 'o (i) = C [ - Vc c ~ c [ - vc c
iD (t) c a n b e w ritte n as
Vc (t) + Xi)] [i3(f)vc (t) + m m .
V cc +
v (t) a n d
a lo w -
V d t) a re su p e rim p o s e d a c r o s s th e
V J t )] ( 11-5
2 0
[ I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t Kc (r) is n e g lig ib le in c o m p a r is o n w ith fre q u e n cy s e p a r a tio n b e tw e e n th e s e tw o v o lta g e s .] In a d d itio n , if it is a s su m e d th a t Kc (i) Vc c a n d o(i)
v (t) b e c a u s e
o f th e la rg e
Kc c ,-th e n E q . (1 1 .5 18)
c a n b e a p p r o x im a te d by its first tw o p o w e r-s e rie s te rm s in th e fo rm

Co C(f) ,----------------- ----------------- ,
iD= C(-Vccm
To oscillator
dC {,/V c c )v(t)v(t) - 8C i V (c )V c(t)v (t). dV c c dVc c
( 1 1.5-21)
Fig. 11.5-4 Nonlinear capacitor employed in quasi-static FM generator.
542
11.6
S in c e th e p r o d u c t u(t)i5(t) p ro d u c e s te r m s in th e v ic in ity o f d c a n d 2co0 w h ic h a re n o t p a sse d b y th e L C c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .5 -4 , th e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t o f iD m a y b e n e g le c te d in th e c o m p le te d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n fo r v (t ):
0 = "W -
KO 777^ * 0 + + 7^ 7 7~ 7^ C0;( I)3 0,(i)2
( 1 1 .5 - 2 2 )
w h ere co,(i) = \ /y J L [ C 0 + C (i)]- C le a r ly E q . ( 1 1 .5 - 2 0 ) is id e n tic a l w ith E q . ( 1 1 .5 - l b ) a n d th u s th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .5 - 4 m a y b e e m p lo y e d a s a q u a s i-s ta tic F M g e n e r a to r . A s p e cific a p p lic a tio n o f th is c ir c u it is e x p lo re d in th e p ro b le m s a t th e en d o f th e c h a p te r. I n p r a c tic a l s itu a tio n s o n e in c re a s e s b o t h th e lin e a r ity a n d th e d e v ia tio n se n sitiv ity b y u sin g tw o (diodes in a p u sh -p u ll a rr a n g e m e n t. S p e c ia l h y p e r -a b r u p t ju n c t io n s a re a v a ila b le in w h ich C (i) v a rie s a s th e s q u a re o f th e s ig n a l v o lta g e . W ith s u c h u n its th e s ta tic r e s tr ic tio n s o n m a x im u m d e v ia tio n b e fo re e x c e ss iv e d is to r tio n m a y b e s o m e w h a t re la x e d . In th e o ld e r lite r a tu r e th e c ir c u it id e a s d e s c rib e d in th is s e c tio n w ere k n o w n a s r e a c ta n c e t u b e a n d v a r a c to r tu n e d F M g e n e r a to r s. B o th ty p e s o f c ir c u its .h a v e b e e n in use fo r o v e r 4 0 y e a rs. T h e s ta tic r e s tr ic tio n s o n th e v a cu u m tu b e v e rsio n s w ere w ell d e s c rib e d m o r e th a n 2 5 y e a rs a g o . p re s e n te d p re v io u sly . T h e d y n a m ic r e s tr ic tio n s a n d th e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e s e g e n e r a to r s to th e e x a c t F M e q u a tio n a re n o t k n o w n to h a v e b e e n
11.6 TRIANGULAR-W AVE FREQUENCY M O D U LA TIO N

T h e g e n e r a tio n a n d n o n m e m o r y w a v e sh a p in g o f a n F M tr ia n g u la r w av e is th e m o s t p r a c tic a l m e th o d o f g e n e r a tin g a s in u s o id a l F M sig n a l w h ich h a s n o th e o r e tic a l r e s tr ic tio n s o n e ith e r its fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n Ao> o r its m a x im u m m o d u la tio n fre q u e n c y com. (T h e r e s tr ic tio n Aa> < a>0 , t o a v o id fu ll-w a v e r e c tific a tio n o f th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n c y , d o e s , o f c o u rs e , a p p ly .) In th is s e c tio n we sh a ll stu d y th e p r o b le m o f F M tr ia n g u la r w av e g e n e r a tio n b y firs t p re s e n tin g a g e n e r a l b lo c k d ia g ra m o f a tr ia n g u la r w a v e g e n e r a to r a n d th e n im p le m e n tin g th e b lo c k d ia g r a m w ith p h y sic a l c irc u itry . W e sh a ll a ls o c o n s id e r th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f a w a v e sh a p in g c ir c u it w h ich c o n v e r ts th e F M tr ia n g u la r w av e in t o a s in u s o id a l F M sig n a l. A s w as p o in te d o u t in S e c tio n 11.2, a n F M tria n g u la r w av e vT(t) is a s y m m e tric tr ia n g u la r v o lta g e w h ich is p e rio d ic ( o f p e rio d T = 2n/a>0) w h e n p lo tte d vs. t(i) = t + f f ( d ) dd
co0 J
(cf. F ig . 1 1.2-6).
W e a ls o r e c a ll fro m S e c tio n 11.2 th a t su c h a w a v e fo rm h a s th e
in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n c y
ajj(t) = co0 + A a >/().
(1 1 .6 -1 )
F ig u r e 1 1 .6 -1 illu s tr a te s th e b lo c k d ia g ra m o f a sy ste m w h ich p ro d u c e s a p e rio d ic tr ia n g u la r w a v e in z(t) o f p e a k -to -p e a k a m p litu d e 2 V2 a n d th u s a n F M tr ia n g u la r w av e
11.6
TRIANGULAR-WAVE FREQUENCY MODULATION
543
Voltage-controlled switch Integrator constant: K,
FM triangular wave vr(/)

V
V A
v(t) = A sin
Vr
TZV r
m 0
Inverter
\
V ..
v,(i)
2 -y
Threshold sensor
V2
(Schmitt trigger)
Fig. 11.6-1
B lo c k d i a g r a m o f a n F M t r i a n g u l a r w a v e g e n e r a t o r .
o f th e sa m e p e a k -to -p e a k a m p litu d e in t. T h e sy ste m g e n e r a te s a n a lte r n a tin g se q u e n c e o f p o s itiv e ly a n d n e g a tiv e ly s lo p in g ra m p s in t ( t ) b y in te g r a tin g + i,{t) a n d i,(i) re s p e ctiv e ly , w h ere i|(0 = ^0 1 H / (O
T o o b ta in th e c o r r e c t p e a k -to -p e a k a m p litu d e fo r th e a lte r n a tin g s e q u e n c e o f ra m p s a t th e in te g r a to r o u tp u t, a th re s h o ld s e n s o r s w itc h e s th e in te g r a to r in p u t fro m i,{t) to i,(i) w h en th e in te g r a to r o u tp u t r e a c h e s V2 a n d s w itc h e s th e in te g r a to r in p u t b a c k to ,(i) w h e n th e in te g r a to r o u tp u t re a c h e s - V2 . M o r e s p e c ific a lly , w h e n th e in p u t v o lta g e to th e th re s h o ld s e n s o r re a c h e s a v alu e o f V2 , a step o f v o lta g e a p p e a rs a t th e o u tp u t, c a u s in g th e v o lta g e -c o n tr o lle d S(t) to sw itc h fro m c o n t a c t a to c o n t a c t b. S im ila r ly , w h e n th e in p u t v o lta g e to th e s e n so r re a c h e s V2 , a s te p o f v o lta g e o p p o s ite to th e o r ig in a l s te p c a u s e s S(r) to r e tu r n fro m c o n ta c t b to c o n t a c t a. F ig u r e 1 1 .6 - 2 illu s tr a te s th e in p u t-o u tp u t c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f th e th re s h o ld s e n s o r re q u ire d to o p e r a te th e v o lta g e -c o n tr o lle d sw itc h , a s w ell a s th e c o r re s p o n d in g p lo t o f S(t) vs. vT(t). T o o b ta in a m o r e q u a n tita tiv e e x p r e s s io n fo r vT(t) a s su m e , a t f = i ,, i r (f i) = V2 su ch th a t S(r) s w itc h e s fro m a to b. H e n c e , fo r t > t( ,
- W ) =
- / o f 1 + /(*)
is a p p lie d to th e in te g r a to r o f F ig . 1 1 .6 -1 a n d Vjist) is g iv en by
v r (t) = V2 - K ,
J' if
m do
= V2 -
K , 10 (i -
t) +
de
( 11.6- 2 )
" o J ,,
V2 K , I 0[z(t)
'f(i i)],
f, < t < t i + 1,
w h e re K , is th e in t e g r a t o r c o n s ta n t. C le a rly , fo r t > fi? vT(t) is a n e g a tiv e r a m p w ith
544
11.6
Threshold sensor
V ,
Switch - control level - Hysteresis loop v7
(a)
S C ontact b C ontact 1 1 Fig. 11.6-2 (a) Plot of vc vs. vT for the threshold sensor, (b) Plot of switch position vs. vT for the threshold sensor-controlled switch com bination.
(b)
Fig. 11.6-3 P lo t o f Vj(t) vs. z(t).

slo p e K , I 0 in x, a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .6 -3 . a t w h ic h tim e S (r) s w itc h e s to a. T h e ra m p r e a c h e s V2 a t t = ti + l ,
F o r t > t i + l , it { t) is a p p lie d to th e in te g r a to r a n d ( 1 1 .6 - 3 )
v T(t) ta k e s th e fo rm
vT(t) = V2 + K f I 0 [x(t) t(/ ,+ 1)],
w h ic h is a p o s itiv e ra m p o f s lo p e K , I Q in x. W h e n v T(t) a g a in re a c h e s V2 a t t = ti + 2 , th e c y c le re p e a ts. I t is n o w q u ite a p p a r e n t fro m F ig . 1 1 .6 -3 th a t r r (f) is in d ee d a p e rio d ic tria n g u la r w av e in x w ith a p e rio d 4K 2
(1 1 .6 -4 )
K ,I o
11.6
545
a n d a p e a k -to -p e a k a m p litu d e 2 V 2 . T h u s i f vT(t) is p la ce d th ro u g h a n o n lin e a r d ev ice w ith a tra n s fe r fu n c tio n g iv e n by v = A sin V, < Vt < Vt , ( 1 1 .6 - 5 )
th e n o n lin e a r d e v ic e o u tp u t v(t) is th e d e sire d F M sig n a l v(t ) = A c o s <uot ( 0 = A cos w here

2
tz tz K
w 0t +
Aco J f ( d ) d 6 + 6 0
( 1 1 .6 - 6 )
-jI
a>0
2 V,
a n d 9 0 is an a r b it r a r y p h a s e a n g le w h ich m a y b e ta k e n a s z e ro w ith th e c o r r e c t c h o ic e o f tim e o rig in . It is o f in te re s t to n o te th a t th e v o lta g e a t th e o u tp u t o f th e th re s h o ld s e n so r sits a t o n e v o lta g e level d u rin g th e p o s itiv e ly s lo p in g p o rtio n s o f vT(t) a n d sits at a n o th e r v o lta g e lev el d u rin g th e n e g a tiv e ly s lo p in g p o r tio n s o f vT(t). H e n c e , w hen p lo tte d v ersu s t(r), th e th re s h o ld s e n so r o u tp u t is a p e rio d ic s q u a re w av e w ith th e s a m e p e rio d a s Vj{t). T h e r e fo r e , th e th re s h o ld s e n s o r o u tp u t vs. tim e is a n F M s q u a re w ave. C o n s e q u e n tly it is p o s s ib le to o b t a in fro m a sin g le n e tw o rk a n F M tria n g u la r w av e, a n F M s q u a re w av e, a n d a n F M s in u s o id a l sig n al. (N o te th e 9 0 p h a se shift b e tw e e n th e s q u a r e w av e a n d th e tw o o th e r w a v e fo rm s.) H o w e v e r, i f o n ly th e F M s q u a re w av e is d e s ire d , a m u ch s im p le r te c h n iq u e fo r g e n e r a tin g it is a v a ila b le . S u c h a te c h n iq u e is e x p lo re d in S e c tio n 11.7. T h e a b ility to g e n e ra te s ev e ra l d iffe re n t ty p es o f F M s ig n a ls s im u lta n e o u s ly m a k e s th e tria n g u la r F M g e n e r a to r q u ite v a lu a b le as a p ie ce o f la b o r a t o r y test e q u ip m e n t. T h e b lo c k d ia g ra m o f F ig . 1 1 .6 -1 c a n b e p h y sic a lly im p le m e n te d by s e le c tin g c ir c u its w h ich p e rfo rm th e fu n c tio n o f e a c h b lo c k an d in te r c o n n e c tin g th e m . re p r e s e n ta tiv e c ir c u it in e a c h case. A l th o u g h th e re a re m a n y p o s s ib le c ir c u its fo r e a c h o f th e b lo c k s , we sh a ll s ele ct o n ly o n e
Threshold Sensor (Large-Hysteresis Schmitt Trigger Circuit)

T h e d esire d th re s h o ld s e n s o r c h a r a c t e r is tic is g iv en in F ig . 11.6 2. F o r h ig h -fre q u e n c y o p e r a tio n th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o sw itc h in g p o in ts sh o u ld be 4 V o r m o re. S u c h an a m p litu d e w ill a llo w th e tria n g u la r w av e to d riv e the d io d e w a v e sh a p in g n e tw o rk w ith o u t fu r th e r a m p lific a tio n . T h is d ir e c t d riv e is h ig h ly d e s ira b le , s in c e to lin e a rly a m p lify a tr ia n g u la r w av e re q u ire s a n e x tre m e ly w id e b a n d a m p lifie r. T h u s th e b a s ic p r o b le m in th e S c h m itt trig g e r d esign in th is c a s e is to m a x im iz e th e h y ste re sis o f th e c irc u it. (In th e m o r e n o rm a l use o f th e c ir c u it, o n e m in im iz e s th e h y ste re sis.) A p o s s ib le S c h m itt trig g e r c ir c u it is illu s tra te d in F ig . 11.6 4. I f Q 2 is a llo w e d to m o v e o n ly b e tw e e n th e a c tiv e re g io n an d c u to ff, th e n th e o u tp u t is a lw a y s iso la te d fro m th e rest o f th e c irc u it. A lso , k e e p in g Q 2 a c tiv e w ill a v o id the
546
11.6
Fig. 11.6-4 Schm itt trigger circuit.

u n d e s ir a b le c ir c u it d e la y th a t w o u ld b e c a u s e d by th e tim e n e c e s s a ry fo r Q 2 to c o m e o u t o f s a tu r a tio n . T h e r e g e n e r a tio n fe e d b a c k p a th is s u p p lie d by th e tw o tr a n s is to r s w h e n b o th a re a c tiv e . I f y,(f) is in itia lly la rg e a n d n e g a tiv e , th e n Q l w ill b e o ff a n d Q 2 o n : vE = [ K (1 a 2) R J k] V
W h e n vf(t) in c re a s e s to th e n e ig h b o r h o o d o f th e b r a c k e te d te rm in uE , th e n b o th tr a n s is to r s b e c o m e a c t iv e ; a n d i f th e lo o p g a in e x c e e d s u n ity , re g e n e ra tiv e s w itc h in g o c c u r s w h ic h le a v e s Q , o n a n d Q 2 off. In c r e a s in g v jt ) fu r th e r h a s n o e ffe ct o n th e o u tp u t v o lta g e . I f o n e s ta r ts to d e c re a s e t\{t), th e n re v e rse sw itc h in g w ill n o t o c c u r <xl R aI k. A g a in , re g e n e ra tiv e a c tio n u n til Q i c o m e s o u t o f s a tu r a tio n fa r e n o u g h so th a t a p o s itiv e b a s e -e m itte r v o lta g e m a y b e a p p lie d to Q 2 . T h is re q u ire s vt) % a n d su d d en s w itc h in g to th e in itia l s ta te w ill o c c u r , f I f th e tw o in p u t s w itc h in g lev els a re d e n o te d by vit a n d viu fo r lo w e r a n d u p p er v a lu e s re s p e c tiv e ly , th e n v x V x c t iR J b and viu
k
V, -
(1 -
oc2) R J k.
H e n c e th e p e a k -to -p e a k v a lu e o f th e tr ia n g u la r w av e is
VPP = - I k R *[<*i -
(1 -
a 2)] 0 .9 5 /jR .
f F o r a m ore detailed description of the Schm itt trigger circuit, see J. M illm an and H. T aub, Pulse, Digital, and Switching Waveforms, M cG raw -H ill, N ew Y ork (1965), pp. 389-402.
11.6
547
T h e o u tp u t v o lta g e o f th e c ir c u it sw itc h e s b e tw e e n re g io n ,
and
h e n c e th e o u tp u t sw itc h in g a m p litu d e is a 2 R L/fc. In a d d itio n , to k e e p Q 2 in th e a c tiv e
Vcc
a2R LI k > K
- (1 - 2 )/**.
o r, a s a c o n s e rv a tiv e a p p r o x im a tio n , Vcc
> K + IkR L.
F ig u r e 1 1 .6 -5 illu s tr a te s th e s e c h a r a c te r is tic s .
V 0
f f r >K + ltRL ycc - a2R, lk

H - -- v
V ;/
,, K - a x R J k 0 a2) R J k
V PP^0.9S/t R,
F:g. 11.6-5 Schm itt trigger transfer characteristic.

F o r high -free, u e n cy o p e r a tio n o n e trie s to k e e p th e re s is ta n c e v a lu e s lo w (b e lo w 1 k Q ) ; h e n c e fo r la rg e o u tp u t a n d in p u t v o lta g e s th e c u rr e n t le v e ls a r e a p p r e c ia b le p e rh a p s 10 ;n A o r m o re. T h u s Q 2 m u st b e c h e c k e d fo r e x c e ssiv e d is sip a tio n .
V o lta g o C j p .rolled S w itch , Inverter, and In tegrator

T h e r e n a m in g p o r tio n o f th e c ir c u it m a y b e im p le m e n te d by th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .6 -6 . T h e v o lta g e -c o n tr o lle d s w itc h in g is a c c o m p lis h e d by th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir (Q x a n d Q 2), an d th e c a p a c it o r C is e m p lo y e d a s th e in te g ra to r. in v e rte r. T r a n s is to r Q } fu n c tio n s as th e
It is a p p a r e n t t h a t w ith uc (i) le ss th a n VB b y s e v e ra l tim e s k T /q (cf. F ig . 4 .6 - 2 ) , (f) flo w s e n tire ly o u t o f Q x, w ith th e re su lt th a t the c o lle c to r c u rr e n t o f Q t h a s th e v a lu e ic l = ait(t) w h ile iC2 = 0. th ro u g h R 3 to d e v e lo p a v o lta g e T h e c o lle c t o r c u rr e n t o f Q t , less (1 x)iE 3, flow s
VR3 [l'i (1 ~ 0t3)i3]^3W ith th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e ju n c t i o n v o lta g e a c r o s s D e q u a ls v o lta g e o f Q 3 (w h ic h is tru e if D a n d Q 3 a re in te g ra te d o n th e s a m e c h ip s a m e g e o m e tr y a n d i f iD % iE3), vR3. = vR3 = R'3i E 3 ; th u s
(11.6-7)
th e e m itte r -b a s e a n d h av e th e
R'3 '
1 ct3 + 3
(11.6-8)
Now iC3 = a3iEJ flows into the integrating capacitor.
548
11.6
< Ri
' I
Inverter <
R'l= (2a 1)R3 R3
y .D Qi
1*0
x Integrator +
|
*V i
c< ?2
Voltagecontrolled switch ^
S(t)
/ v current C O ? )
Input
vc(i)
'.W = / o [ n : 4 f / ( 0 ]
Fig. 11.6-6 Practical im plem entation o f the voltage-controlled switch, the inverter, an d the in teg rato r o f Fig. 11.6-1.
O n th e o th e r h a n d , w ith vc(t) g r e a te r th a n VB b y s ev e ra l tim e s k T / q , (t) flo w s e n tire ly o u t o f Q 2 , iE3 = i C 3 = ci = 0 , a n d iC2 = a 2 'i flo w s o u t o f th e in te g ra tin g c a p a c ito r . C o n s e q u e n tly , i f th e a lp h a s a re e q u a l a n d th e r a tio R 3/ R 3 is a d ju s te d to e q u a l 2 a 1 s o t h a t iE3 = i, in E q . ( 1 1 .6 -8 ), th e n a s vc e x p e r ie n c e s a s te p in c re a s e fro m s e v e ra l tim e s k T / q b e lo w VB t o s e v e ra l tim e s k T / q a b o v e VB, th e in te g r a to r c u rr e n t s w itc h e s fr o m a i / i ) t o a i/r ); th is is th e d e s ire d e ffe ct fo r th e v o lta g e -c o n tr o lle d s w itc h -in v e rte r c o m b in a tio n . W e n o te th a t, w h e n a i,(i) flo w s in to th e in te g r a to r , th e o u tp u t v o lta g e vT(t) is g iv e n by M t) = h^)dT;
(1 1 .6 -9 )
1 1 .6
549
th e re fo re , th e in te g r a to r c o n s t a n t K , fo r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .6 - 6 h a s th e v alu e K t = ~ ( 1 1 .6 - 1 0 )
W e a ls o n o te th a t, to k e e p Q 2 fro m s a tu r a tin g vc(t)m 3[X m u st b e less th a n vT(t)nnn + K0 ; to k e e p Q 3 fr o m s a tu r a tin g , Vc c (t)maxR 3 m u st b e g r e a te r th a n i>r (t)max.
Fig. 11.6-7 Com plete F M triangular wave generator.

F ig u r e 1 1 .6 - 7 illu s tr a te s th e c o m p le te c ir c u it fo r th e F M tr ia n g u la r w av e g e n e r a to r w h ic h c o m b in e s th e th re s h o ld s e n s o r o f F ig . 1 1 .6 - 4 w ith th e c irc u it o f F ig . 1 1 .6 -6 . T w o e m itte r fo llo w e rs w ith c o m p e n s a tin g b a s e -e m itte r ju n c t io n b ia se s a re e m p lo y e d to is o la te th e in te g r a tin g c a p a c it o r fro m th e in p u t to th e S c h m itt trig g er. In a d d itio n , a d c -le v e l s h ifte r is in c o r p o r a te d a t th e S c h m itt trig g e r o u tp u t, w ith th e r e s u lt th a t
uc (0 =
v o (t) V0
/ d c ^ E lO -
(1 1 .6 - 1 1 )
T h is s h ift p e rm its vc(t)max to b e k e p t le ss th a n vT(t )mi + V0 , a s is re q u ire d to k e e p Q 2 fro m s a tu ra tin g . F o r e x a m p le , if Vj{t) min = V2 = 3 V a n d Vc c = 1 0 V , th e n a
550
11.6
In a d d itio n , if Vc c
c h o ic e o f /dc/? io o f 13 V w o u ld p re v e n t Q 2 fro m s a tu ra tin g .
<x.RLl k fo r th e S c h m itt trig g e r is 5 V , th e n vc(t) s w itc h e s b e tw e e n (3 V ) V0 a n d (8 V ) V0 . F o r th is c a s e VB s h o u ld b e c h o s e n b e tw e e n th e tw o lim its o f vc(t ) ; VB = 5 V w o u ld b e r e a s o n a b le . T h e 10 p F c a p a c it o r a c r o s s R E10 c o u p le s th e fa st I f fo r th e F M tria n g u la r w av e g e n e r a to r o f F ig . 1 1 .6 -7 th e S c h m itt trig g e r sw itch e s s ta te s w h en its in p u t re a c h e s + V2 a n d if R'3 = (2 a l)/?3 so t h a t K , = a/C, th e n th e c a r r ie r freq u en c y is g iv e n b y (cf. E q . 1 1 .6 -6 ) _ n K ,I 0 nccl0 Mi ^ ^ U 1 . 6 - 12) rise a n d fall tim e s o f v0(t) to vc(t).
~ ~ 2 k T ~ 2K 2C
w h ic h is in v ersely , i p o r tio n a l to C. H e n c e , fo r a n y g iv en v alu e s o f 10 a n d V2 , C m a y b e c h o s e n to yield t'.e d esire d c e n te r fre q u e n c y fo r th e F M rad/sec. T o o b ta in a s p e c M td fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n , w e first n o te th a t (f) m a y b e w ritte n in th e fo rm / ;(f) = /0 + w h ere /, = I 0Aco/co0 . WV th e n c h o o s e 1 1 to o b ta in th e d esire d Aw. ( 1 1 .6 - 1 3 ) F o r e x a m p le , if tria n g u la r w ave. For e x a m p le , if I 0 = 3 inA a n d V2 = 3 V , C = 1 5 7 p F yield s a c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y o f 1 0 7
/0 = 3 m A a n d a>01 0 7 rad/sec, a fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n
e q u a l to o n e -h a lf th e c a r r ie r
fre q u e n c y m a y b e o b ta in e d b y c h o o s in g /, = I 0/ 2 = 1 . 5 m A . T h e c u rr e n ts I 0 a n d /j a re d e v e lo p e d by Q l 3 . T h e d io d e D 2 in th e b a s e c ir c u it o f Q i 3 c o m p e n s a te s fo r th e b a s e -e m itte r tu r n -o n b ia s so th a t
an d ( 1 1 .6 - 1 5 ) K5 I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t Vx m u s t b e s e le c te d b e lo w VB V0 t o k e e p Q l3 fr o m s a tu ra tin g . F o r VB = 5 V , a r e a s o n a b le v a lu e fo r Vx w o u ld b e 6 V . 1, a n d we d e s ire /0 = 3 m A a n d N o w if \\ = 6 V , Vk = 6 V , VEE = 10 V , a n d a ( 1 1 .6 - 1 5 ) Vi Rs x t 1 = 4 k ii
/j = 1.5 m A to a c h ie v e a>0 = 1 0 7 rad / sec a n d A w = 1 0 7/2 rad / sec, th e n fro m E q .
and from Eq. (11.6-14)

VFF K
Ra ~ V JR S + I 0 = 890 a
11.6
55!
T o c o n v e r t a n F M tr ia n g u la r w av e to a s in u s o id a l F M s ig n a l, a n o n lin e a r n e tw o rk w ith th e tra n s fe r c h a r a c t e r is t ic v = A s in ^ f is re q u ire d , j ( 1 1 .6 - 1 6 )
F ig u r e 1 1 .6 -8 illu s tra te s th is c h a r a c te r is tic fo r th e c a s e w h ere A = 1 V
a n d V2 = 2 V . In a d d itio n , F ig . 1 1 .6 - 8 in c lu d e s th e b re a k p o in ts a n d th e s lo p e o f a p o s sib le se v e n -s e g m e n t p ie c e w is e -lin e a r a p p r o x im a tio n to th e n o n lin e a r c h a r a c t e r is tic. M o r e se g m e n ts c a n b e ad d e d if a c lo s e r a p p r o x im a tio n is d esired . F ig u r e 11.6 9 illu s tr a te s tw o p o s s ib le d io d e w a v e sh a p in g n e tw o rk s w h ich p h y si c a lly re a liz e the p ie c e w is e -lin e a r c h a r a c te r is tic sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .6 -8 . T h e v o lta g e s o u rc e s in th e n e tw o rk a re c h o s e n to c o r r e s p o n d to th e b r e a k p o in ts o f F ig . 1 1.6 8,
Fig. 11.6-8 P lot o f v = (1 V) sin [nvT/(4 V)] vs. vT plus a seven-segment piecewise-linear approxi m ation of the characteristic. t See L. Strauss, Wave Generation and Shaping, M cG raw -H ill, New York (1960). Section 2-8 and Problem 2-22 discuss and illustrate a diode w aveshaping netw ork. See also G. Klein, "A ccurate T riangle-Sine C onverter, ISSCC Digest o f Technical Papers (Philadelphia ), pp. 120-121 (Feb. 1967).
552
11.6
(a)
Rt = l.23R
*2 = 0.53/?
0 Fig. 1 1 .6 -9 (a) D iode w aveshaping netw ork to realize the piecewise-linear ap p roxim ation of
Fig. 11.6-8. (b) M ore practical version of a diode w aveshaping netw ork to realize the ap p ro x i m ation o f Fig. 11.6-8.
Rl,R2,a n d R 3a re s e le c te d to g iv e th e c o r r e c t s lo p e in e a c h re g io n . R 3 /(R 3+ R ) m u s t e q u a l 0 .7 8 5 to p ro d u c e th e in itia l s lo p e o f th e p ie c e w ise -lin e a r c h a r a c t e r is t i c ; th e re fo re , R3= 3 .6 4 R . S im ila rly ,

w h ile th e re s is to rs F o r e x a m p le , RARi (R x \\R 3 ) + R 0 .4 8 a n d w ith th e re s u lt th a t Rt = 1.23/? a n d R 2= = 0 .2 5 , {R .W R A R ,) + r 0 .5 3 R . I f m o r e s e g m e n ts a r e e m p lo y e d in
t h e p ie c e w is e -lin e a r a p p r o x im a tio n o f th e n o n lin e a r c h a r a c te r is t ic , s e v e ra l m o r e d io d e -r e s is t o r - v o lt a g e - s o u r c e b r a n c h e s w o u ld b e re q u ire d in th e c ir c u it o f F ig .
11.7
1 1 .6 -9 .
PRACTICAL SQUARE-WAVE FREQUENCY MODULATION
553
W h e n p h y s ic a l d io d e s a re u sed in p la c e o f th e id e a l d io d e s o f F ig . 1 1 .6 -9 ,
each dc source should be reduced in magnitude by V0 to account for the turn-on bias of
th e d io d es. S in c e th e k e y t o lo w d is to r tio n in s u c h a n e tw o r k is s y m m e try it is a p p a r e n t th a t
the circuit of Fig. 11.6 9(b) is much to be preferred. This is true because it avoids the
n e c e ss ity o f m a tc h in g p a irs o f re s is to rs fo r R i a n d R 2, e tc ., as is th e c a s e fo r c ir c u its o f th e ty p e re p r e s e n te d b y F ig . 1 1 .6 -9 ( a ) W ith w e ll-m a tc h e d c o m m e r c ia l s ilic o n d io d e s ( l N 9 1 4 B s, fo r e x a m p le ) a n d c o m m e r c ia l 1 % re s is to rs , a fiv e -b r e a k p o in t (p e r h a lf-c y c le ) n e tw o rk c a n yield to ta l h a r m o n ic d is to r tio n s o f 5 0 d B b e lo w th e fu n d a m e n ta l. o f up to 3 0 M H z o r m o r e c a n b e h a n d le d . W h e n h o t c a r r ie r d io d e s (V0 ~ 0 .4 V ) a re u sed to m in im iz e c h a r g e s to r a g e p ro b le m s , th e n c a r r ie r fre q u e n cie s
11.7 P R A C T IC A L SQ U A RE-W A V E F R E Q U E N C Y M O D U L A T IO N
S q u a re -w a v e fre q u e n c y m o d u la tio n fo llo w e d by n a r r o w b a n d filte rin g is e m p lo y e d in m a n y p r a c tic a l s itu a tio n s . In p a r tic u la r , it is a p p lic a b le in th o s e s itu a tio n s w h ere th e d e v ia tio n r a tio D = A co/<x>0 m u st b e g r e a te r th a n th e few p e rc e n t p o s s ib le w ith th e q u a s i-s ta tic F M m o d u la to r s a n d y e t n o t s o g r e a t t h a t D d e te rm in e s a p o in t a b o v e th e to p c u rv e o f F ig . 1 1 .2 - 3 a n d th u s p re v e n ts th e e x tr a c tio n o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l F M w av e b y filte rin g , f I n g e n e r a l, th is ra n g e o f d e v ia tio n r a t io s u su ally a rise s w h e n a la rg e
number o f r e a s o n a b ly lo w -fre q u e n c y carriers are to b e m o d u la te d in fre q u e n cy by

in d e p e n d e n t in fo r m a tio n s ig n a ls, s o t h a t th e y c a n b e m u ltip le x e d in fre q u e n cy , a n d th e n e m p lo y e d c o lle c tiv e ly a s th e m o d u la tio n fo r a h ig h -fre q u e n c y F M o r A M sig n a l. M a n y s y s te m s w h ic h m u s t tr a n s m it a la rg e q u a n tity o f in d e p e n d e n t d a ta o r a la rg e n u m b e r o f v o ic e c h a n n e ls d o s o in th is fa sh io n . A lth o u g h a n F M s q u a r e w av e c a n b e o b ta in e d a s a b y -p r o d u c t o f g e n e r a tin g a n F M tr ia n g u la r w a v e (a s w e saw in S e c t io n 11 .6 ), a n F M s q u a re w a v e c a n b e g e n e ra te d d ir e c tly a n d m o r e sim p ly b y c o n tr o llin g th e fre q u e n c y o f a s y m m e tric a s ta b le m u lti v ib r a to r h a v in g th e b a s ic fo r m sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .7 -1 . E a c h a m p lifie r in th e m u lti v ib r a to r o f F ig . 1 1 .7 -1 is a s su m e d to h a v e th e in p u t, o u tp u t, a n d tra n s fe r c h a r a c te r is tic s sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .7 -2 . T h e s e c h a r a c te r is tic s c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te th o s e o f in te g ra te d in v e rte rs w h ic h in c o r p o r a t e a n o u tp u t b u ffe r a m p lifie r. B e fo r e d e te r m in in g h o w th e a s t a b le m u ltiv ib r a to r p e rfo rm s a s a n F M g e n e r a to r , le t u s rev iew its b a s ic o p e r a tio n fo r th e c a s e w h e re I(t ) = J 0 (a c o n s ta n t). J F o r th is c a se , th e w a v e fo rm s o f v n , vi2 , v o l , a n d vg2 a r e sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .7 -3 . R e fe rrin g to th e w a v e fo rm s, w e o b s e r v e th a t, fo r t < 0 , vBl = 0 a n d vi2 < 0 ; th u s th e in p u t t o a m p lifie r 2 a p p e a r s a s a n o p e n c ir c u it (a m p lifie r 2 is c u t off), w h ile th e o u tp u t o f a m p lifie r 1
t Since a square wave contains only odd harm onics of its fundam ental frequency, the filter following the F M sq u are wave generator m ust only be capable o f separating the F M wave centered at o)g from the FM wave centered at 3<w 0. t In this treatm ent we are assum ing th at the reader has som e fam iliarity w ith the basic operation of m ultivibrators. If this is n o t the case, he should consult either J. M illm an and H. T aub, Pulse, Digital, and Switching Waveforms, M cG raw -H ill, N ew Y ork (1965), C h ap ter 11, o r L. Strauss, Wave Generation and Shaping, 2nd edition, M cG raw -H ill, N ew Y ork (1970), pp. 385-389.
554
11 .7
C, = C2= C
/(/) = / + / , / ( 0 = / o [l +
\
1 , Input characteristic
V,
Fig. 11.7-1 ,.FM square-w ave generator em ploying a stable m ultivibrator.
'
O utput impedance 0 Reverse transfer impedance ~ 0
V i'
Forw ard transfer characteristic
Fig. 11.7-2 Input and transfer characteristics for the am plifiers in Fig. 11.7-1.
a p p e a rs a s a s h o r t c ir c u it (a m p lifie r 1 is s a tu ra te d ). T h e r e fo r e , /0 flow s e n tire ly in to C j , c a u s in g vi2(t) to in c re a s e a s a lin e a r ra m p w ith slo p e I 0/C . H o w e v e r, a t t = 0 , w h en vi2(t) = V6 , th e in p u t to a m p lifie r 2 a p p e a r s as a n in c re m e n ta l s h o r t c irc u it (cf. F ig . 1 1 .7 -2 ) c a u s in g I 0 to flo w e n tire ly in to a m p lifie r 2 in s te a d o f C , . I f I 0 > I c (w h ich w e a s su m e it is), th e n v02(t) d ro p s in s ta n tly to z e ro , w ith th e re s u lt th a t vn (t) d ro p s a n e q u a l a m o u n t V2 , s in c e vC2(f) c a n n o t c h a n g e in s ta n ta n e o u s ly . T h e d e c re a s e in Vn b e lo w Vb c a u s e s in to e q u a l 0 a n d vol to rise ra p id ly to V2 . (E v e n th o u g h C ] is c o n n e c te d d ir e c tly a c r o s s vo l , th e s m a ll a s su m e d o u tp u t im p e d a n c e p e rm its C j t o b e c h a rg e d a lm o s t in s ta n ta n e o u s ly .) A t th is p o in t I 0 flo w s in to C 2 , c a u s in g Dn to in c r e a s e a s a ra m p w ith s lo p e I J C w h ile vol = V2 , vi2 = V{ , a n d vo2 = 0. W h e n , at t = T / 2 , vn = Vs , th e c ir c u it s w itc h e s to its o r ig in a l s ta te a n d th e p ro c e s s c o n tin u e s .
11.7
H i
555
"I
"" T 2n Wo 2CV2 /o
V2
F r o m th e w a v e fo rm o f vn o r vi2 it is a p p a r e n t th a t th e s lo p e I J C tim e s T/2 m u st e q u a l V2 ; h e n c e T = 2 V2C 1 r o r e q u iv a le n tly , ( 1 1 .7 - 2 ) V,.C' In th e a b o v e a n a ly s is w e a ssu m e d /0 > I c . I f th is w ere n o t th e c a s e , v0, a n d vo2 w o u id n o t d ro p to z e ro v 'h en th e re s p e c tiv e a m p lifie rs w ere o n , b u t r a th e r w ou ld re m a in a t s o m e v o lta g e w h ic h w o u ld p r o b a b ly b e s tro n g ly d e p e n d e n t o n th e in d iv id u a l a m p lific a tio n fa c to r s o f th e c o m p o n e n ts m a k in g up the a m p lifie rs. In a d d itio n , th is v o lta g e w h ich w o u ld p r o b a b ly b e s e n sitiv e to te m p e ra tu re a n d p o w e r su p p ly v o lta g e , w o u ld d e te r m in e th e size o f th e n e g a tiv e step in vn a n d vi2 , a n d th u s w ou ld s tro n g ly in flu e n c e th e p e rio d T . C o n s e q u e n tly , in a n y r a tio n a l d esig n I 0 is c h o s e n to be g r e a te r th a n I c . N o w if th e c u r r e n t d riv e s in th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .7 -1 a re p e rm itte d to b e fu n c tio n s o f tim e w ith th e r e s tr ic tio n /(f) > I c fo r a ll f, ( 1 1 .7 - 1 )
(1 1 .7 -3 )
th en th e b a sic w a v e fo rm s o f F ig. 1 1 .7 -3 rem ain th e sa m e e x cep t th at th e r, w a v efo rm s
556
11.7
fo r Vi < 0 b e c o m e fr e q u e n c y -m o d u la te d a n d ta k e th e fo rm
vtjit) =
(V2 -
Vt) +
1 + r f ( e) *0 0
dd
= 1 o r 2,
( 1 1 .7 - 4 )
w h e re /(f) = I xf ( t ) a n d t; is th e tim e a t w h ic h th e c irc u it sw itc h e d fro m its p re v io u s sta te . W e m a y re w rite E q . ( 1 1 .7 - 4 ) in th e fo rm
Vijit) =
(V 2 -
Va) + ^ [ t ( i ) -
T(f,)],
(1 1 .7 - 5 )
w h e re i(t) = t + (I J I 0) J ' f ( 9 ) d 6 ; h e n c e vi}(t) vs. t is a lin e a r ra m p w ith s lo p e I o /C w h ic h s ta r ts a t (K2 Vs) a n d te r m in a te s a t Va, a t w h ic h p o in t th e c ir c u it sw itc h e s sta te s. C le a rly , th e n , th e w a v e fo rm s vn , v o l , vi2 , a n d vo2 vs. x(t) a r e id e n tic a l w ith th e c o r r e s p o n d in g w a v e fo rm s vs. t fo r th e c a s e w h e re I(t) = I 0 . C o n s e q u e n tly th e o u tp u t s q u a re w av e is p e r io d ic in t w ith p e rio d T = 2 V 2C / I 0( ot co0 = n l J V 2 C ), w h ich is th e re q u ire d fo rm fo r a n F M s q u a re w av e w ith in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n cy
(1 1 .7 - 6 )
I f I J I 0 is a d ju s te d to e q u a l A o)/ oj0 , th e n w,-(f) = ft0 + Aft>/(f). (1 1 .7 - 7 )
In th e e a se o f a n F M s q u a re w av e g e n e r a to r , it is e v e n m o r e e ss e n tia l to k e e p I(t) > I c . I f th is re q u ire m e n t is n o t m e t, th e p e a k -to -p e a k a m p litu d e o f v(t) w ill v a ry w ith tim e a s /(f) v a ries re la tiv e to I c . I n a d d itio n , s in c e T i s a fu n c tio n o f b o th I{t ) a n d th e p e a k -to -p e a k a m p litu d e o f v , th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n c y w ill n o t v ary lin e a rly w ith /(f). E x a m p le 1 1 .7 - 1 G iv e n tw o a m p lifie rs w ith V2 = 5 V , Vs = 0 V , a n d I c = 1 m A ,
c h o o s e v a lu e s f o r /(<) = I 0 + I t f ( t ) a n d C su c h t h a t th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .7 -1 p ro d u c e s a n F M s q u a re w av e w ith cy,(f) = 1 0 8 + 5 x 1 0 7 / (f) rad/sec. Solution.- S in c e Aoj/wq = I / o b I(t)min

=
l 0 ~
U 2 .
T h u s w e m u st c h o o s e I 0 > 2 m A to k e e p a c o n s ta n t p e a k -to -p e a k a m p litu d e o u tp u t s q u a re w ave. A c h o ic e o f 3 m A fo r I 0 w o u ld b e re a s o n a b le . H e n c e I x = 1.5 m A . In a d d itio n , s in c e co0 = 1 0 8 rad/sec a n d s in c e a>0 = n I 0/V 2 C , C = 19 p F . T h e p ro b le m n o w re m a in s o f im p le m e n tin g th e a m p lifie rs a n d c u r r e n t s o u rc e s o f F ig . 1 1 .7 -1 w ith p r a c tic a l c irc u its . O n e p o s s ib le a m p lifie r c o n fig u r a tio n e m p lo y in g d is c r e te tr a n s is to r s is sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .7 -4 . F o r th is c ir c u it g , p ro v id e s th e b a s ic a m p lific a tio n , w h e re a s Q 2 , fu n c tio n in g a s a n e m itte r fo llo w e r, p ro v id e s th e lo w o u tp u t im p e d a n c e n e c e s s a ry t o e n s u re t h a t v(t), w h ic h is lo a d e d b y th e c a p a c ito r C ,
11. 7
557
Fig. 11.7-4 D iscrete com ponent im plem entation of am plifiers in the circuit o f Fig. 11.7-1.
rise s ra p id ly w h en Q ! is c u t off. tim e is c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te d by r = [R c ( 1 a)||K*]C. F i r s t , it S p e c ific a lly , th e tim e c o n s ta n t c o n tr o llin g th e rise
T h e d io d e v o lta g e -s o u r c e c o m b in a tio n ( D 2-V 2) p e rfo rm s tw o fu n c tio n s .
c a tc h e s th e o u tp u t v o lta g e a s it rise s to w a rd its s te a d y -s ta te v a lu e , th u s fu r th e r im p ro v in g th e r is e tim e o f th e o u tp u t s q u a r e w ave. S e c o n d , it e s ta b lis h e s th e p e a k o u tp u t v o lta g e a t a p p r o x im a te ly V2 (V2 < Vc c ), w h ic h is in d e p e n d e n t o f su p p ly v o lta g e v a r ia tio n s if V2 is d ev e lo p e d by a Z e n e r d io d e . H e n c e co0 = n I 0/ V 2C is less sen sitiv e to p o w e r su p p ly v a ria tio n s . T h e d io d e D i p ro v id e s a c o m p e n s a tin g ju n c t i o n v o lta g e d r o p fo r th a t o f Q 2 w hen g j is s a tu ra te d , th e re b y e n s u rin g v0 0 w h en Q 1 is tu r n e d o n . I f D t w ere n o t in c lu d e d , v0 w o u ld v a ry b y V2 + V0 in s te a d o f V2 w h e n Q t sw itc h e s b e tw e e n s a tu r a tio n an d c u t o f f ; h e n c e V2 w o u ld b e re p la c e d b y V2 + V0 in d e te r m in in g co0 , a n d a>0 w ou ld be s ig n ific a n tly m o r e d e p e n d e n t o n te m p e ra tu re . I f fo r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .7 - 4 we a s su m e th a t th e b a s e -e m itte r ju n c t io n s o f <2i a n d Q 2 a n d th e d io d e s D x a n d D 2 c a n b e m o d e le d a s id e a l d io d e s in se rie s w ith re v e rs e b ia s in g b a tte r ie s o f F0 0 .7 V (fo r s ilic o n tr a n s is to r s a n d d io d e s), th e n w e o b s e r v e th a t th e i c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e a m p lifie r is id e n tic a l to t h a t o f F ig . 1 1 .7 - 2 w ith Vg = 2 V0 . T h e fo rw a rd tr a n s fe r c h a r a c te r is tic o f th e a m p lifie r is a ls o id e n tic a l to th a t o f F ig . 1 1 .7 -2 w ith I c = (Vc c Fq)//?/^, w h e re /? = a/(l a). N o te th a t I c is th e v a lu e o f th e b a s e c u r r e n t to Q t w h ic h c a u s e s Q t to s a t u r a t e ; th a t is, vCEl & 0. S in c e little o r n o s ig n a l p a sse s b e tw e e n th e c o lle c to r a n d th e b a s e o f Q , (ev en w ith o u t
558
11 .7
th e e m itte r fo llo w e r), th e re v e rse tra n s fe r im p e d a n c e is e ss e n tia lly z e ro w h ile th e o u tp u t im p e d a n c e , b e c a u s e o f th e e m itte r fo llo w e r, is q u ite sm all. T o k e e p th e o u tp u t im p e d a n c e s m a ll, th e e m itte r fo llo w e r m u st re m a in in its a c tiv e re g io n a t a ll tim e s. H o w e v e r, w h en th e a m p lifie r is o p e r a tin g w ith in th e a s ta b le m u ltiv ib r a to r , a n d w hen Q i is s a tu ra te d ( vB % 0), th e c u rre rit /(f) m u st flow in to th e v0(t) te r m in a l fro m th e c a p a c it o r w h ich is b e in g c h a rg e d . T h u s to k e e p Q 2 a c tiv e , th e c u r r e n t th ro u g h R E m u s t e x c e e d i(t) o r. ^ > !/U)lma, (1 1 -7 -8 )
E q u a tio n ( 1 1 .7 - 8 ) d e te r m in e s th e m a x im u m size o f R E. F o r e x a m p le , if |/(f)|max = 4 .5 m A (E x a m p le 1 1 .7 -1 ) a n d VEE = 9 V , R E m u st b e c h o s e n to b e le ss th a n 2 kQ. T h e re s is to r R c is u su a lly c h o s e n s o m e w h e re b e tw e e n 2 0 0 Q a n d 5 kC2; th is is a c o m p ro m is e b e tw e e n fast sw itc h in g tim e s (s m a ll re s is to rs a re n o t a ffe cte d a s m u ch a s la rg e re s is to rs b y s tra y c a p a c ita n c e ) a n d p o w e r d is sip a tio n . F ig u r e 1 1 .7 -5 illu s tra te s a c o m p le te F M s q u a r e w av e g e n e r a to r e m p lo y in g th e a m p lifie rs o f F ig . 1 1 .7 -4 . F o r th is g e n e r a to r Q s a n d Q b a c t a s th e c u rr e n t s o u rc e s /(f). T h e K3 a n d VA v o lta g e s o u rc e s p ro v id e th e b ia s fo r Q s a n d Q 6 , w h ile D s (w h ich is tu rn e d o n by R ) p ro v id e s a c o m p e n s a tin g ju n c t i o n v o lta g e fo r th e b a s e -e m itte r v o lta g e s o f Q s a n d Q 6 so th a t s o m e d eg re e o f th e rm a l s ta b ility is o b ta in e d . A g a in , fo r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .7 -5 , i f th e b a s e -e m itte r ju n c t io n s o f Q 5 a n d Q 6 a s w ell a s D s a re m o d e le d by a n id e a l d io d e -b a tte r y c o m b in a tio n , th e n 10 I{t) = J
k
11 -+ ~ / (t). R2 ( 1 1 .7 - 9 )
R1
y3
R 2J
S in c e b o th V3 a n d V4 p la y a r o le in d e te r m in in g /(f), b o th s h o u ld b e Z e n e r c o n tr o lle d to k e e p I(t) a n d in tu r n a>,(t) in d e p e n d e n t o f v a r ia tio n s in su p p ly v o lta g e . In a d d itio n , th e in e q u a lity V3 > V S ( 1 1 .7 - 1 0 )
m u st b e sa tisfie d to k e e p Q 5 a n d Q 6 fro m s a tu r a tin g w hen e ith e r <2, o r Q 3 is on. T h e re s is to rs R t a n d R 2 a re c h o s e n to y ield th e d esire d v a lu e s o f /0 a n d /( o n c e Vx , K3 , a n d V4 a re sele c te d . F o r e x a m p le , if Vt = 3 V , V3 = 2 V , V4 = 10 V , an d a = 1, w h ile (fro m E x a m p le 1 1 .7 -1 ) /0 = 3 m A a n d /, = 1.5 m A , th e n R2 = ^
1
= 2kQ
and
R, =
' 3 / K-z
- = 2kQ .
~r I Q
T h e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 1 .7 - 5 a ls o illu s tra te s a sim p le b a n d p a s s filte r fo r e x tr a c tin g th e fu n d a m e n ta l F M w av e fro m th e F M s q u a re w av e t sq(f). S p e c ific a lly , if th e filte r B W = 1 !R l C is su fficie n tly w id e to p a ss th e fu n d a m e n ta l F M c o m p o n e n t o f r sq(f) w h ile a tte n u a tin g a ll o th e r F M c o m p o n e n ts , th e n th e filte r o u tp u t t>(f) is g iv e n by 2V 2 v{i) = c o s n
co0 t + Aa> f(9)dd
f
90
(1 1 .7 -1 1 )
ll.i
MISCELLANEOUS FREQUENCY MODULATOR
559
Fig. 1 1.7-5 w h ere con = an d
C om plete F M square-w ave generator.
n l0
V 4 ~ V3 .| 1---- 3
V3 )
V2C
V2 C \
n il
Ri
n Vi
A to =
V2C
V2C R 2
(N o te th a t th e o u tp u t filte r sh o w n h a s a tra n s fe r fu n c tio n o f u n ity at co0 .) 11.8 M IS C E L L A N E O U S F R E Q U E N C Y M O D U L A T O R S T H E A R M ST R O N G M E T H O D In th is s e c tio n w e sh a ll c o n s id e r s e v e ra l a d d itio n a l m e th o d s o f p ro d u c in g F M sig n als. T h e s e m e th o d s in c lu d e th e Armstrong method and th e m e th o d o f v a ry in g th e e le c tr ic a l tim e d e la y o f a d e la y lin e. N e ith e r o f th e s e m e th o d s is so v e rsa tile a s th e
560
11.8
p re v io u s ly d is cu ss e d m e th o d s , s in c e th e y a r e q u ite re s tric te d in th e m a x im u m size o f b o th Aco a n d a>m re la tiv e to co0 . T h e A r m s tr o n g m e th o d (n a m e d a fte r its in v e n to r E . H . A rm s tro n g , w h o w as a p io n e e r in th e field o f fre q u e n c y m o d u la tio n ) h a s th e a d v a n ta g e o f c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y s ta b ility , s in c e its c a r r ie r m a y b e o b ta in e d fro m a c r y s ta l o s c illa to r . I n a d d itio n , it is o f in te re s t h is to r ic a lly , s in c e it w as o n e o f th e first m e th o d s o f F M g e n e r a tio n . T h e v a r ia tio n o f th e e le c tr ic a l tim e d e la y o f a d e la y lin e is o f in te re s t b e c a u s e th is te c h n iq u e a p p e a r s t o b e th e m e th o d b y w h ic h th e fre q u e n cy m o d u la tio n o f a la se r b e a m c a n b e m o s t e a s ily a c c o m p lis h e d . S p e c ific a lly , i f a s tr o n g tra n s v e rs e e le c tr ic field is p la c e d a c r o s s s p e c ia lly c o n s tr u c te d tr a n s p a r e n t c r y s ta ls , u su a lly c a d m iu m s u lp h id e , th e d ie le c tr ic c o n s ta n t a n d , in tu r n , th e v e lo c ity o f w a v e p r o p a g a tio n th ro u g h th e c ry s ta l v a ry w ith c h a n g e s in th e a p p lie d e le c tr ic field . S in c e th e c r y s ta l h a s a fin ite le n g th d ; v a r ia tio n s in th e p r o p a g a tio n v e lo c ity u re s u lt in c o r r e s p o n d in g v a r i a tio n s in th e tim e ta k e n b y a n e le c tr o m a g n e tic w av e, la s e r lig h t in th is c a s e , to p ass th ro u g h th e c r y s t a l ; i.e. th e tim e d e la y th ro u g h th e c ry s ta l is g iv e n by
to = -. v
( 1 1 .8 - 1 )
H e n c e v a ry in g th e a p p lie d field a s a fu n c tio n o f tim e p ro d u c e s c o r r e s p o n d in g v a r i a tio n s in i 0(i) w h ic h , a s w e s h a ll see, a re s u fficie n t to p ro d u c e a fre q u e n c y -m o d u la te d sig n al. T h e A rm s tro n g m e th o d is a d ir e c t re s u lt o f th e fa c t th a t, fo r v e ry s m a ll fre q u e n cy d e v ia tio n s, a n F M sig n a l o f th e fo rm
v(t) = A c o s
co0t + Aco
f(0 )
( 11. 8- 2 )
w h ich m a y b e e x p a n d e d a s
v(t) = A c o s co0 t c o s Aco
f ( 9 ) d d A sin co0 t sin Aco
f(& )d 0 ,
( 1 1 .8 - 3 )
c a n b e c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te d by
v(t) x A c o s co0 f A Aco j * f { 0 ) dd sin co0t.
(1 1 .8 4)
E q u a tio n ( 1 1 .8 - 4 ) fo llo w s fro m th e fa c t th a t, fo r x w ith in 2 % . 1 1 .8 -1 , w h ich c o m b in e s A c o s co0 i w ith th e A M sig n a l
1 a n d sin </>*</>
H o w e v e r, E q . ( 1 1 .8 - 4 ) m a y b e re a liz e d b y th e b lo c k d ia g ra m o f F ig .
A A to f f { 0 ) d 0 s in co0 t.
Since co0 may be crystal controlled, the carrier frequency is quite stable.
11.8
MISCELLANEOUS FREQUENCY MODULATOR
561
A cosuv Crystal oscillator

Fig. 11.8-1 T h e o n ly d ifficu lty q u ite sm all. Block diagram o f A rmstrong system for generating FM . is th a t A w fo r th e sy ste m o f F ig . 1 1 .8 -1 o f n e c e ss ity m u st b e
C o n s id e r , fo r e x a m p le , f ( t ) = c o s wt.
F o r th is c a se
A w f f ( 6 ) dd = J
sin wt,
w h ic h h a s a p e a k v a lu e o f A w /w . F o r th e A r m s tr o n g m o d u la to r to fu n c tio n c o r r e c tly in th is c a se , A w /a) m u st b e le ss th a n o r e q u a l to 0 .2 . F o r th e m o r e g e n e r a l c a s e in w h ich f ( t ) is b a n d -lim ite d b e tw e e n w L a n d w m, Aa> J ' f ( 9 ) d 6 h a s a p e a k v a lu e ra n g in g fro m a m a x im u m o f Aj j } / w l [w h en a ll th e e n e rg y o f f ( l ) is c o n c e n tr a te d a t tt>L] to a m in im u m o f A w /w m [w h en a ll th e e n e rg y o f f ( t ) is c o n c e n tr a te d a t com ]. d is tr ib u tio n s o f f ( t ) , Aco m u st b e s u fficie n tly s m a ll th a t Aa> (oL < 0 .2 . ( 1 1 .8 - 5 ) H o w e v e r, s in c e th e p e a k v a lu e o f A w ' f (9 ) dO m u s t b e less th a n 0 .2 fo r a ll p o s s ib le fre q u e n cy
In p ra c tic e , E q . ( 1 1 .8 - 5 ) is u su a lly re la x e d to Aft) < 0 .5 , ( 1 1 .8 - 6 )
s in c e v e ry ra re ly is a ll th e e n e rg y o f f ( t ) c o n c e n tr a te d a t w L. E v e n E q . ( 1 1 .8 - 6 ) re q u ire s e x tre m e ly s m a ll v a lu e s o f Aw. I f f ( t ) is b a n d -lim ite d b e tw e e n 1 0 0 H z a n d 1 0 k H z , A w m u st b e le ss th a n 27i(50 H z). S in c e A w is d ir e c tly d e te rm in e d b y th e v a lu e o f w L , th e m in im u m v a lu e o f w L s h o u ld b e n o s m a lle r th a n n e c e ss a ry w h e n u sin g th e A r m s tr o n g m o d u la to r. T o o v e r c o m e th e p r o b le m o f th e s m a ll fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n a p p e a rin g a t th e o u tp u t o f th e A r m s tr o n g m o d u la to r , we m a y p la c e th e o u tp u t sig n a l th ro u g h a s e q u e n c e o f fre q u e n c y d o u b le r s a n d trip le rs| ( o f th e fo rm d iscu sse d in S e c tio n 1.4),
t H igher-order m ultiplication is usually n o t attem pted because of the difficulty in extracting the higher harm onics at the m ultiplier o u tp u t w ith conventional tuned circuits.
562
11.9
For
th e re b y in c re a s in g th e fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n , a s w as p o in te d o u t in S e c tio n 11.2.
e x a m p le , if th e A r m s tr o n g m o d u la to r p ro d u c e s a n F M s ig n a l w ith a)0 = 27r(100 k H z ) a n d Au> = 27t(50 H z), b y p la c in g te n fre q u e n c y d o u b le r s a fte r th e m o d u la to r we o b ta in a t th e o u tp u t o f th e la s t d o u b le r a fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n o f 27t(50 H z ) x 2 10 = 2 ti(5 1 .2 k H z ). I n a d d itio n , w e o b t a in a c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y o f 2 7 t(1 0 0 k H z ) x 2 10 = 27t(102.4 M H z ). T h is c a r r ie r m a y b e h e te ro d y n e d t o a n y d e sire d fre q u e n c y b y a n y o f th e te c h n iq u e s o f C h a p te r 7 w ith n o e ffe ct o n th e fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n . A n o th e r c r y s ta l-c o n tr o lle d o s c illa t o r s h o u ld b e e m p lo y e d in th e m ix e r to m a in ta in th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y s ta b ility . S in c e a ll th e b lo c k s o f th e d ia g ra m o f F ig . 1 1 .8 -1 c a n b e p h y sic a lly im p le m e n te d by c ir c u its d is cu ss e d e lse w h e re in th is b o o k , w e le a v e th e p h y sic a l c ir c u it c o n s tr u c tio n a s a n e x e rc is e fo r th e re a d e r.
Variable T im e -D e la y
M o d u la to r
I f th e d e la y e x p e r ie n c e d b y a c o n s ta n t-a m p iitu d e sin u s o id A c o s co0 r p a s sin g th ro u g h a n e tw o rk is a fu n c tio n o f tim e , i.e., if t0 = f 0(f), th e n th e s ig n a l a p p e a rin g a t th e n e tw o rk o u tp u t h a s th e fo rm v(t) = K A c o s [co0 t (w0 r0(i)], ( 1 1 .8 - 7 )
w h e re K is th e a tt e n u a t io n in tro d u c e d b y th e n e tw o rk . N o w i f f 0(i) c a n s o m e h o w b e c a u s e d to v a ry in p r o p o r tio n to J '/ ( 0 ) dO, i.e., if m = (m d o , ft}0 J ( n .8 - 8 )
th e n a n F M s ig n a l o f th e d e sire d fo rm is p ro d u c e d a t th e n e tw o rk o u tp u t. I n th e c a s e o f th e fre q u e n cy m o d u la tio n o f a la s e r b e a m , th e field a c r o s s th e c ry s ta l th ro u g h w h ic h th e b e a m is p a sse d m u st b e v a rie d in p r o p o r tio n to j ' f (8) d 8 to p ro d u c e a tim e d e la y o f th e fo rm g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 1 .8 - 8 ).
11.9 FR E Q U E N C Y S T A B IL IZ A T IO N O F FR E Q U E N C Y M O D U L A T O R S
In m a n y a p p lic a tio n s th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y a t th e o u tp u t o f a n F M m is s io n re q u ire s th a t c o m m e r c ia l F M corresp on d s 100 M H z. g e n e r a to r is
re q u ire d to b e e x tre m e ly s ta b le . F o r e x a m p le , th e F e d e r a l C o m m u n ic a tio n s C o m s ta tio n s (8 8 M H z to 1 0 8 M H z ) m a in ta in a c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y s ta b ility o f + 2 k H z a b o u t th e ir a ssig n e d s ta tio n fre q u e n cy . T h is to m a x im u m c a r r ie r v a r ia tio n o f tw o p a rts in 1 0 5 fo r a s ta tio n a t S u c h s ta b ility is u su a lly n o t d ir e c tly o b ta in a b le w ith a n y o f th e F M
g e n e r a to r s p re v io u s ly d is cu ss e d , w ith th e p o s s ib le e x c e p tio n o f th e c r y s ta l c o n tr o lle d A r m s tr o n g g e n e r a to r . T h is s ta b ility m a y b e o b ta in e d b y c o m p a r in g th e o u tp u t s ig n a l o f a n F M g e n e r a to r w ith a c ry s ta l o s c illa t o r in s u c h a fa s h io n t h a t a n e r r o r s ig n a l re s u lts i f th e F M c a r r ie r is n o t a t its sp e cifie d fre q u e n cy . T h is e r r o r s ig n a l is th e n a m p lifie d a n d fed b a c k to th e F M g e n e r a to r in p u t w ith th e c o r r e c t p h a s e to r e tu r n th e F M c a r r ie r to its re q u ire d fre q u en cy .
11.9
FREQUENCY STABILIZATION OF FREQUENCY MODULATORS
563
Fig. 11.9-1
B lock diagram o f frequency stabilization system.
A w id ely u sed fre q u e n c y s ta b iliz a tio n fe e d b a c k sy ste m is sh o w n in b lo c k d ia g ra m fo rm in F ig . 1 1 .9 -1 . o f th e fo rm I n th is fig u re th e o u tp u t o f th e F M g e n e r a to r is a ssu m e d to b e
y(t) = A cos
w 0t + Et + yt + Aco j* f ( 9 ) d d
w h e re w 0 is th e d e s ire d c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y , y is th e fre q u e n c y s h ift d u e t o th e fe e d b a c k lo o p , a n d e is th e fre q u e n c y d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e a c tu a l c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y w ith n o fe e d b a c k a n d th e d e sire d c a r r ie r fre q u e n cy . T h e F M g e n e r a to r o u tp u t is m ix e d w ith a h ig h ly s ta b le c r y s ta l- c o n tr o lle d o s c illa to r a n d th e d iffe re n c e te r m is e x tra c te d . o u tp u t h a s th e fo rm If th e c r y s ta l-c o n tr o lle d o s c illa t o r o p e r a te s a t th e fre q u e n cy co0 cod, th e n th e m ix e r
v t(t) = C c o s
+ y)t + Aco
Jf ( G ) d 6 J .
( 1 1 .9 - 2 )
T h e m ix e r o u tp u t is th e n p la c e d th ro u g h a fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r (to b e d is cu ss e d in C h a p te r 12) w h ic h h a s th e tra n s fe r c h a r a c t e r is tic b e tw e e n in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n c y a n d o u tp u t v o lta g e sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .9 -1 , w ith th e re s u lt th a t th e d e m o d u la to r o u tp u t is g iv e n b y
v2(t) - K d[e + y - a) + Acof{t)].
(11.9-3)
564
11.9
(In re a lity , th e c e n te r fre q u e n c y o f th e d is c r im in a to r sh o u ld b e a>d. T h e te rm S oj re p r e s e n ts th e e r r o r in o b ta in in g th e d e sire d fre q u en cy . T h is te rm c o m b in e s th e in a c c u r a c ie s o f th e d e m o d u la to r a n d th e c r y s ta l o s c illa to r .) T h e d is c r im in a to r o u tp u t is p la ce d th ro u g h a lo w -p a ss filte r w h ich is su fficie n tly n a r ro w to re m o v e th e / ( i)- te r m fro m v2(t). T h e filte r o u tp u t is th e n a m p lifie d by A 0 a n d a p p lie d to th e in p u t o f th e F M g e n e r a to r . T o p ro d u c e a te rm yt in th e p h a se o f th e F M g e n e r a to r o u tp u t, th e filte r o u tp u t m u st h a v e th e v a lu e y / K g a s w ell a s - A 0 K d[e + y da) ] ; th u s 7 = ~ A 0 K gK d[e + y <5], ( 1 1 .9 - 4 )
w h ere K g is th e g e n e r a to r c o n s ta n t w h ic h re la te s in p u t v o lta g e to fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n . E q u a tio n ( 1 1 .9 - 4 ) m a y b e r e a rr a n g e d in th e fo rm - A 0K gK d(e 7 So) - e + S oj 1 + l / A 0K gK d n 1 9 -5 1 K
1 + A 0 K gK d
F r o m E q . ( 1 1 .9 - 5 ) it is a p p a r e n t th a t, a s A 0 K gK d a p p r o a c h e s in fin ity , y a p p r o a c h e s e + da) a n d th e re s u lta n t n e t c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y a p p r o a c h e s a>0 + Sw. T h u s fo r a h ig h -g a in fe e d b a c k sy ste m th e fin a l s ta b ility is a fu n c tio n o f o n ly th e c ry s ta l o s c illa to r s ta b ility a n d th e d e m o d u la to r s ta b ility . O n c e o n e h a s a h ig h -g a in (n o n o s c illa tin g ) sy ste m , o n e h a s th e p ro b le m o f s p re a d in g th e a llo w a b le v a r ia tio n s b e tw e e n th e c ry s ta l o s c illa to r a n d th e fre q u e n cy d e m o d u la to r. I f th e re fe re n c e fre q u e n c y is v e ry c lo s e to th e d esire d o u tp u t fre q u e n c y , th e n cod w ill b e m u c h lo w e r th a n oi0 a n d a 1 % d e tu n in g o f th e d e m o d u la to r w ill c a u s e a m u c h s m a lle r p e rc e n ta g e c h a n g e in to0 . A s we sh a ll see, fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r s c a n b e c o n s tr u c te d o f q u a r tz c ry s ta l tu n in g e le m e n ts ; h e n c e , w ith p ro p e r te m p e r a tu r e c o n t r o l, s ta b ilitie s o f s e v e ra l p a rts p e r m illio n a r t a v a ila b le b o th fro m th e in itia l c ry s ta l o s c illa t o r a n d fro m th e d is c r im in a to r . A s a n e x a m p le , c o n s id e r a c a s e w h ere A 0 K gK d = 1 0 0 a n d w h ere a n F M g e n e r a to r a t 2 0 M H z is u sed to g e n e r a te a fin a l c a r r ie r a t 6 0 M H z . T h e s ta b iliz in g c ry s ta l o s c illa to r o p e r a te s a t 5.9 M H z , a n d th is fre q u e n cy is m u ltip lie d b y a fa c to r o f 10 to o b ta in th e re fe re n c e fre q u en cy . 3 x 3 = 9 or 2 x 2 x 3 o p e ra te s a t 1 M H z . F r o m a m o d ifie d v e rsio n o f E q . ( 1 1 .9 - 4 ) , y = or -3 0 0
y -
(In a p r a c tic a l c ir c u it, m u ltip lic a tio n b y
= 12 w o u ld b e m o r e r e a s o n a b le .) T h e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r
100 (3 + 3y disci0 10 3 ^ 0 ) ) 100,

+ 3 0 i 5 ducO> +
1000,
301
- jQ j-e
3OSCOJ
H e n c e , i f th e o r ig in a l 2 0 M H z o s c illa t o r h a s a m a x im u m d rift o f 1 % o r e = 2 n (2 0 0 k H z ), th e n th e fin a l 6 0 M H z s ig n a l h a s th e fo llo w in g d r ift t e r m s : 6 0 0 1 , 301 ,300, 301 / 3000 ^ 301 osc^
PROBLEMS
565
I f th e d is c r im in a to r is a c c u r a te a n d s ta b le to w ith in \ % a n d th e 5.9 M H z o s c illa to r is s ta b le to w ith in 15 p a r ts p e r m illio n , th e n th e fin a l w o rs t-c a s e o u tp u t v a r ia tio n fro m 6 0 M H z s h o u ld n o t e x c e e d a p p r o x im a te ly
2 k H z + 2.5 k H z + 900 H z = 5.4 k H z ,

o r less th a n o n e p a r t in 104 . I n th is c a s e a b e tte r c ry s ta l o s c illa t o r w o u ld n o t b e o f m u ch h elp u n til o n e h a d ra ise d th e fe e d b a c k g a in a n d im p ro v e d th e d is c r im in a to r s ta b ility . PRO BLEM S
11.1 F or the sinusoidally m odulated F M signal v(t) = V, cos (a>0r + fi sin ojm t ), a) show th at the rm s value o f lit) is given by
ym = J y = A sfi-
Jim
(Hint :
n= - x
Jl(fi) = 1) and
b) determ ine the am plitude o f the significant sidebands for the case w here p = 5 and K, = 5 V. 11.2 D eterm ine the bandw idth occupied by the phase-m odulated signal v{t) = A cos [co0i + A 0 /(i)] for the case w here A ij> = 5 rad and / ( / ) = sin 105f. R etain only frequency com ponents which are greater than 1 /0 o f the unm odulated carrier. 11.3 A 10 V oeak-to-peak square wave is generated with a carrier frequency of 14 M H z and m odulated with a baseband signal which is band-lim ited to 5 M Hz. The FM square wave is then placed thro u g h a rectangular bandpass filter centered at 70 M H z in order to o btain a 70 M H z F M test signal. T he filter BW passes all sidebands greater than 1 % ol the unm odulated carrier at 70 M H z. D eterm ine the m axim um frequency deviation which m ay be applied to the F M square wave w ithout introducing excessive disto rtio n into the 70 M H z test signal. 11.4 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. ll.P - 1 , determ ine a n expression for i jt). Assume th at the FE T has a square-law characteristic in its satu ratio n region. 11.5 The FM signal
^ = A , cos w 0t H v(t) \ w-
wm sin t\ I
is passed through a high-Q single-tuned filter with bandw idth BW = 2a centred at o0.
566
Figure l l . P - 1
Assum ing the q u asi-static ap proxim ation to be valid, show th at the instantaneous frequency at the filter o u tp u t is given by tt).(i) = m0 + Aw cos w mt tan
dt\
_ ,A c o s comt\ --------------- 1.
I
F o r the case w here Aco/com = [! = 5 an d Aco/a = | (a set of param eters for which the quasi-static appro x im atio n is valid), determ ine the percentage of third-harm onic d istortion (relative to Aw) introduced in to the instantaneous frequency by the nonlinear phase characteristic o f the filter. (H in t: E xpand tan - 1 6 in its M acL auren series and keep the first tw o terms.) 11.6 Verify th at v(t) = C cos [ f co,(0) d6 + 0O ] is indeed a solution of Eq. (11.4 4). 11.7 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 1 l.P -2 , the t = 0 value o f ic , is 100 mV while the i = 0 value o f vC2 is 0. D eterm ine an expression for v0(t) for t > 0 (cf. Section 8.3). (In practice, the circuit of Fig. 1 l.P -2 has a sufficient num ber of leakage paths to be self-starting. In addition, the oscillation am plitude is lim ited by the nonlinearity o f the drain-source resistance of the F E T at a b o u t 200 m V J
PROBLEMS
567
O perational amplifier g a in = 3000 Figure l l . P - 2
1 l.o F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 1 l.P -3 , Q , has a collector-base capacitance given by C(vCB) = Ai'ca ' l/2. where A = 15.7 p F y / v o lts.. a) Shew that the instantaneous frequency o f the oscillator is given by
a ) i( t) = = = = = = ,
j l
[c 0 + c m
where Q = ^ + co Co = AFcc- " 2, and C(t) = ^ Vcc' V ( t ) .
b) D eterm ine a num erical expression for v(t). (In a practical F M oscillator w ith small values of C , a n d C 2, m ost o f C 2 w ould be supplied by the em itter-base capacitance o f the tran sisto r and thus the physical cap acito r C 2 w ould be om itted.) 11.9 Verify that Eq. (11.4-14) is the solution to Eq. (11.4 13).
568
silicon transistors
Figure l l . P - 3
11.10 D eterm ine expressions for v,(t) an d v0(t) in the circuit o f Fig. 11.5-2 with the following param eter v a lu es: Ve e = V c c = 15 V, /* = /*, = 1m A , /* = 2 m A , C 0 = 0,
f ( t ) = cos 5 x 102t, C = C L = lOOOpF,
R loss = R l = 5 kft, L = L l = 1 0 /jH , an d
r = -n, ii, M = 0.5/iH .
All transistors are silicon an d id en tical 11.11 F o r the triangular-w ave F M generator show n in Fig. 1l.P -4 , determ ine the instantaneous frequency. T he Schm itt trigger in the circuit has the following ch aracteristics: 1) W hen v(t) increases upw ard thro u g h + 5 V, the Schm itt trigger o u tp u t switches from - l O V t o . + lOV. 2) W hen v(t) decreases dow nw ard thro u g h 5 V, the Schm itt trigger switches from + 1 0 V to - 1 0 V. 11.12 Design an eight-diode w ave-shaping netw o rk 'sim ilar to the one show n in Fig. 11.6 9(b) which converts the o u tp u t o f the circuit o f Fig. 1 l.P - 4 into a 4 V peak-to-peak sinusoidal FM wave. T he tim e intervals betw een b reak points on the o u tp u t waveform should be equal.
PROBLEMS
569
5k
vw -
Schmitt trigger
i kn o v W f +
>100
v2( 0
,> 5
2g m v2<0
< b
v(i)
gm= /100 f i, C =1000 pF, v,=(5 V )[l+0.1 /(f)]

Figure 1 l.P 4
Figure ll.P -5
570
11.13 Show th a t the-F E T circuit in Fig. l l .P - 5 m ay be m odeled as a controlled current source A(t)ic where
A o AifU) 2 lo s s lK fi t )'
VP \ provided that a) b) c) d)
r 1/a>0C,
VP
p,(t) \VF\, the FE T operates in its square-law region, and the low-frequency com ponents of iD are shunted to ground by L.
If C0 = C = 500 pF, L = 10/xH, r = l f t VP = 4 V, V ss = 2 V, Vt = 1 V, VDD = 10 V, l DSS = 4 mA, and the oscillator lim its the o u tp u t waveform to 4 V peak-to-peak, find an expression for the F M voltage across the tuned circuit for the case w here / ( f ) = cos 103f. 11.14 Design an F E T oscillator w hich can be used in conjunction with the circuit show n in Fig. ll .P - 5 which has the num erical values given in P roblem 11.13. 11.15 In the circuit show n in Fig. 11.7-5, Vcc = K = F4 = 12 V, V2 = 5 V, = 1.5 V, V3 = 3 V, R , = 4.5 k ii, R 2 = 3 kQ, R E = 4 k il, Rc = 2 kfi, r = 47 il, C t = C 2 = 1000 pF, p > 100, and /( f ) = cos 104f. Sketch csq(r) and find an expression for the instantaneous frequency.
C H A P T E R 12
FM D E M O D U L A T O R S
In b r o a d o u tlin e a n F M re c e iv e r is s im ila r to an A M rece iv e r. a n d filterin g .
B o th a re n o rm a lly
s u p e rh e te ro d y n e ty p es w ith R F a m p lifie rs, R F filte rin g , m ix e rs, a n d I F a m p lific a tio n In th e A M re c e iv e r th e d esire d o u tp u t in fo r m a tio n is c a rrie d in the In th e F M re c e iv e r th e d esire d in fo r c a r r ie r e n v e lo p e flu c t u a tio n s ; h e n c e e n v e lo p e lin e a r ity m u st b e m a in ta in e d n o t o n ly in th e fro n t en d b u t th r o u g h o u t th e re ce iv e r. to d e m o d u la te th e F M m a tio n is c o n ta in e d in th e v a r ia tio n s in th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fr e q u e n c y ; h e n c e , in c r d e r sig n a l, o n e m u st c o n v e r t th e se fre q u e n cy v a r ia tio n s in to b a s e b a n d a m p litu d e v a ria tio n s . U n fo rtu n a te ly , m o s t F M d e m o d u la to r s a re a t le a st to so m e e x te n t a ls o c a p a b le o f d e m o d u la tin g A M sig n als. c o r ru p te d H e n c e if, in th e c o u rs e o f p a ssa g e th ro u g h th e .ra n si >nal is v ch F M -to -A M c o n v e r s io n , th e n m is sio n c h a n n e l o r th e fro n t e n d o f th e re c e iv e r, th e e n v e lo p e o f th e F M b y n o ise , fad in g o r filte r-in d u c e d
e n v e lo p e c o r r u p tio n s w ill b e d e te c te d a n d w ill a p p e a r a t th e o u tp u t a s b a s e 'a n d n o ise o r d is to rtio n . A s we sh a ll see, s o m e F M d e te c to r s a re m o r e s u s c e p tib le th a n o th e rs to th is ty p e o f d is to r tio n . H o w e v e r a lm o s t a ll F M re c e iv e rs o f re a s o n a b le q u a lity in c lu d e an In so m e p r a c tic a l c irc u its , th e r a tio e n v e lo p e a m p litu d e v a r ia tio n re m o v a l c ir c u it, c o m m o n ly c a lle d a lim ite r, b etw een th e la st I F a m p lifie r a n d th e d e m o d u la to r . e n ta n g le d . d e te c to r fo r e x a m p le , th e lim itin g a n d th e d e m o d u la tio n fu n c tio n s b e c o m e s o m e w h a t F o r th e s a k e o f in itia l u n d e rs ta n d in g we sh a ll first stu d y d e m o d u la to r s fo r w h ich th e se o p e r a tio n s a re c o m p le te ly s e p a ra te a n d in d ep en d e n t. A fte r a d is c u s s io n o f lim ite rs , th is c h a p te r o u tlin e s th e th e o r e tic a l lim ita tio n s o n v a rio u s ty p es o f F M d e m o d u la to r s . I t th e n a n a ly z e s all th e c o m m o n F M d e m o d u la tio n c ir c u its a s w ell a s s e v e ra l useful b u t n o t y et c o m m o n c irc u its . e x te n s io n F M re ce iv e rs. T h e c h a p te r e n d s w ith a s e c tio n o n th e m o r e c o m p le x d e te c to r s th a t a re used in th re s h o ld
12.1 L IM IT E R S
T h e lim ite r c ir c u it is id e a lly a z e ro -m e m o ry n o n lin e a r c irc u it th a t p ro d u c e s a c o n s ta n ta m p litu d e , c o n s ta n t-w a v e s h a p e ty p e o f o u tp u t fo r a ll its p e rm is sib le in p u t lev els o r w a v e sh a p e ty p es. F ig u r e 1 2 .1 -1 sh o w s a n id e a l lim ite r c h a r a c t e r is t ic ; F ig . 1 2 .1 -2 sh o w s tw o p r a c tic a l c h a r a c te r is tic s . A n y n o is e -c o r r u p te d o r a m p litu d e -m o d u la te d F M sig n a l a p p lie d to th e c irc u it o f F ig . 1 2 .1 -1 w ill b e c o n v e r te d in to a c o n s ta n t-a m p litu d e F M s q u a re w ave.
571
T h is
572
FM DEMODULATORS
v(r) + V2
12.1
v,(0 -v 2
Fig. 12.1-1
Ideal lim iter characteristic.
(a) Fig. 12.1-2 P ractical lim iter charactistics.

s q u a re w av e m a y b e a p p lie d d ir e c tly to c e r ta in ty p e s o f F M d e te c to rs . I n o th e r c a se s it m a y b e filte re d th e filte r m u st re m o v e th e c a r r ie r s th ird a n d h ig h e r o d d h a r m o n ic s a n d th e ir sid e b a n d s w ith o u t d is tu r b in g th e sid e b a n d s a r o u n d th e c a f r ie r to p ro d u c e a c o n s ta n t-a m p litu d e s in u s o id a l F M sig n al. I n a c tu a l c irc u its , su ch N o r m a lly th e ir b a n d filte rs a t th e o u tp u ts o f lim ite rs te n d to b e d e sig n e d p rim a r ily to s a tis fy th e re q u ire m e n ts o f th e d is c r im in a to r r a th e r th a n th o s e o f th e lim ite r. a t th e d e m o d u la to r o u tp u t. F ig u r e 1 2 .1 -3 sh o w s a c ir c u it th a t m ig h t b e m o d e le d b y th e c h a r a c t e r is tic o f F ig . 1 2 .1 -2 (a ). T o a c c o m p lis h su c h a m o d e lin g , o n e re p la c e s th e re a l d io d e s b y a c o m b in a tio n o f a n id e a l d io d e , a b a tte r y , a n d a se rie s re s is to r. T h e tw o o u tp u t v o lta g e b r e a k p o in ts o c c u r w h en v.{t)R 0 K ' w id th s a re ju s t la r g e e n o u g h to p re v e n t sig n a l-in d u c e d A M w h ich c a u s e s d is to r tio n
Fig. 12.1-3 D iode limiter.
12.1
LIMITERS
573
w h e re V0 is th e d io d e tu r n -o n v o lta g e . T h e m id s e c tio n slo p e is R 0/ ( R q + ^) w h ile th e o u ts id e s e c tio n s lo p e s in c lu d e s r diode in p a ra lle l w ith R 0 . I t is o b v io u s th a t, a s r diode a p p r o a c h e s z e ro a n d a s th e in p u t d riv in g a m p litu d e b e c o m e s v ery la rg e w ith re s p e c t to V0 , th e o u tp u t w a v e sh a p e a p p r o a c h e s a s q u a re w av e. O f c o u r s e , e v en if rdiode is z e ro , th e re w ill b e n o lim itin g a t a ll if th e in p u t a m p litu d e is less th a n V0 . W h e r e a s th e rise a n d fa ll tim e s o f th e o u tp u t sig n a l fro m th e c h a r a c te r is tic o f F ig . 1 2 .1 -1 a re a lw a y s in d e p e n d e n t o f th e d riv in g sig n a l, th e o u tp u t s lo p e s fo r th e c h a r a c te r is tic o f F ig . 1 2 .1 2 (a ) a r e a lw a y s a fu n c tio n o f th e d rive. T h o u g h th e o u tp u t s ig n a l fro m F ig . 1 2 .1 - 2 is n o t a s q u a re w av e, its fu n d a m e n ta l c o m p o n e n t c a n b e c a lc u la te d d ir e c tly th ro u g h th e use o f th e sin e-w a v e tip c h a r a c te ris tic s o f C h a p te r 4. T h u s th e q u a s i- s ta tic o u tp u t o f su ch a lim ite r fo llo w e d b y a b a n d p a s s filte r is k n o w n e x a c tly . W ith th e s y m m e tric a l c h a r a c te r is t ic s o f F ig . 1 2 .1 - 2 g o th e tr e m e n d o u s a d v a n ta g e s o f h a v in g n o d c o r ev en h a r m o n ic s . H o w e v e r, v a rio u s sin g le -e n d e d c h a r a c t e r istics c a n a ls o b e u sed a s lim ite rs. e x p o n e n tia l ju n c t io n . th a t
o j0
F o r e x a m p le , th e I t( x ) / I 0(x ) c u rv e o f F ig . 4 . 5 - 5
in d ic a te s th e in p u t-filte r e d -o u tp u t r e la tio n s h ip fo r a c o n s ta n t-c u r r e n t b ia s-d riv e n S u c h lim ite rs a re re s tric te d in th e ir m o d u la tin g fre q u e n c y
1 0 4 com
c a p a b ilit ie s ; a s w as p o in te d o u t in S e c tio n 5.6 , th e in p u t c o u p lin g c a p a c ito r re q u ire s b e o f th e o r d e r o f if p ro p e r lim itin g a c t io n is to o cc u r. T h e p re s e n t-d a y p r a c tic a l c ir c u it th a t c o m e s c lo s e s t to a p p r o x im a tin g th e id e a l c h a r a c te r is tic is a d iffe re n tia l-p a ir lim ite r p re c e d e d b y o n e o r m o r e s ta g e s o f d iffere n tia l-p a ir d riv e rs. F ig u r e 4 . 6 - 2 in d ic a te s th e b a s ic c h a r a c te r is tic , w h ile F ig . 4 . 6 - 4 As sw in g s th e o u tp u t in d ic a te s th e o u tp u t o f a b a n d p a s s filte r fo llo w in g a d iffe re n tia l-p a ir lim ite r. in d ic a te d in T a b le 4 .6 - 1 , a n in p u t v o lta g e sw in g o f + 7 8 m V
c u rr e n t in e ith e r tr a n s is to r fro m 5 % to 9 5 % (o r v ice v e rsa ) o f its p e a k valu e. T h u s if th e lim ite r s ta g e is p re c e d e d by a n o t h e r s y m m e tric a l sta g e w ith a v o lta g e g a in o f 7 8 , th e n a + 1 m V in p u t v o lta g e sw in g w ill p ro d u c e th is n e a rly c o m p le te o u tp u t sw ing. S u c h a c h a r a c te r is t ic d o e s in d eed a p p r o a c h th e id e a l c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .1 -1 q u ite c lo se ly . C o m m e r c ia l in te g r a te d -c ir c u it d iffe re n tia l-p a ir lim ite rs w ith th re e c a sc a d e d p a irs a re re a d ily a v a ila b le . T h e s e u n its h a v e v o lta g e g a in s o f 7 0 d B o r m o r e (g r e a te r th a n 3 0 0 0 tim e s) in to a 1 k Q lo a d . F ig u r e 1 2 .1 - 4 illu s tra te s a sim p lifie d v e rsio n o f su ch a
limiter. This unit has a level-shifting emitter-follower output to a llo w it to su p p ly a s q u a re -w a v e o u tp u t w h ic h is c e n te re d a b o u t 0 V. If th e c ir c u it w ere used in c o n
ju n c t io n w ith a b a n d p a s s filte r, th e filte r w o u ld r e p la c e R 2 in th e c o lle c t o r o f Q 4 . I f a s in u s o id a l F M s ig n a l is re q u ire d a t th e lim ite r o u tp u t, a b a n d p a s s filte r c e n te re d a t th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y m u st fo llo w th e n o n lin e a r lim ite r c h a r a c te r is tic . T h is filte r m u st h a v e su ffic ie n t b a n d w id th (u s u a lly B W > 8 Aa>) s o t h a t its a m p litu d e c h a r a c t e r is t ic re m a in s s u fficie n tly fla t in th e v ic in ity o f w 0 to p re v e n t d e v ia tio n in d u c e d a m p litu d e v a r ia tio n s (cf. E q . 1 1 .3 -2 ). O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e filte r b a n d S u c h c o n flic tin g re q u ire m e n ts w id th m u st b e s u fficie n tly n a r ro w s o th a t th e h ig h e r h a r m o n ic c o m p o n e n ts o f th e n o n lin e a r lim ite r o u tp u t d o n o t e n te r its p a s sb a n d . a re p o s sib le o n ly i f D a n d j8 fo r a g iv e n F M sig n a l d e te rm in e a p o in t w ell b e lo w th e a p p r o p r ia te c u rv e in F ig . 1 1 .2 -3 . P r o b le m s 1 2.4 a n d 12.5 c o n s id e r th is p o in t in m o r e d eta il.
.u
F M DEMODULATORS
level shift Fig. 1 2 .1 -4 D ifferential-pair lim iter with square-wave output.
1 2 .1
12. 1
LIMITERS
575
D y n a m ic L im itin g W h e n a p eak e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is p la ce d a c r o s s a tu n e d c ir c u it d riv e n by a n a m p litu d e m o d u la te d c u rr e n t a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .1 -5 , th e m o d u la tio n o f th e tu n e d -c ir c u it v o lta g e d ep en d s n o t o n ly o n th e b a n d w id th o f th e p a ra lle l R L C c irc u it, b u t a ls o o n th e R 0C 0 tim e c o n s ta n t o f th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r c irc u it. In p a r tic u la r, a s w as sh o w n in E x a m p le ( 1 0 .3 - 2 ) , if th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r tim e c o n s ta n t b e c o m e s su fficie n tly larg e , all a m p litu d e m o d u la tio n is strip p e d fro m th e tu n e d -c ir c u it v o lta g e , p ro v id e d th a t fa ilu re -to -fo llo w d is to r tio n d o e s n o t o c c u r. In a d d itio n , if ,(f) is an a m p litu d e m o d u la te d F M s ig n a l, th e a m p litu d e v a r ia tio n s m a y be re m o v e d fro m th e tu n e d c irc u it v o lta g e w h ile its in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n c y re m a in s id e n tic a l w ith th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n cy o f i',(t). A s we sh a ll n o w d e m o n s tra te , ev en if i,(t) is a n a m p litu d e -m o d u la te d F M sig n al,
the envelope of the tuned-circuit voltage i)(i) and the point at which diagonal clipping
o c c u r s m a y be d e te rm in e d fro m th e e q u iv a le n t c irc u it fo r th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r d ev e lo p e d in S e c tio n 10.3. A t th e s a m e tim e w e sh a ll sh o w th a t th e in s ta n ta n e o u s p h a se o f (f) a n d v(t) a re id e n tic a l, p ro v id e d th a t th e b a n d w id th o f the u n lo a d e d tu n ed c irc u it is su fficie n tly la rg e so th a t th e c ir c u it a p p e a rs re sistiv e (o f v alu e R ) o v er th e b a n d o f fre q u e n c ie s o c c u p ie d b y th e F M sig n al. T o d e m o n s tra te th a t th e re su lts o f S e c tio n 10.3 re m a in v alid w hen /,(f) is an a m p litu d e -m o d u la te d F M sig n a l o f th e fo rm
i,(f) = b(t) c o s
io0 t + Au>
f(0 )d d
-b (t)cos to0r(i),
v ic in ity o f co0 . T h e r e fo r e , v(t) m a y b e w ritte n in th e g e n e ra l fo rm u(f) = g ( t ) c o s (OqT ! (i).
(12.1-1)
we r e tr a c e th e a n a ly s is o f S e c tio n 10.3. W e first a s su m e th a t Q T fo r th e p a ra lle l R L C c ir c u it is su fficie n tly h ig h so th a t v(t) c o n ta in s fre q u e n cy c o m p o n e n ts o n ly in th e
,(< )= M O
C O S L < )l(0 ]
Fig. 12.1-5 D ynam ic limiter.
576
FM DEMODULATORS
12. 1
N o w i f th e R 0C 0 tim e c o n s ta n t is s u fficie n tly lo n g so th a t r(i) c o n ta in s little o r n o rip p le a n d if n o fa ilu re -to -fo llo w d is to r tio n o c c u r s , th e n t;0(r) m u st e q u a l g(f). A lso , th e d io d e c u rr e n t m u st c o n s is t o f a tr a in o f n a r ro w p u lses o c c u r r in g a t th e p e a k s o f v(t ): th u s i'D(f) m a y b e e x p a n d e d in a F o u r ie r - lik e se rie s o f th e fo rm
d(0 = * do(0 + 2/D0(t)cos co0r,(f) + .

ex p re sse d as g(t) = iDo(t) * z o(0 , w h ere z0(t) is th e im p u lse re s p o n s e o f th e R 0 C 0 n e tw o rk . In a d d itio n , th e
(12 .1-2 )
S in c e iD0(t) flo w in g th ro u g h a n R 0 C 0 c ir c u it m u st d e v e lo p v0(t) = g(f), g (i) m ay b e
( 1 2 .1 - 3 ) e q u a tin g
o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l F M re s u lts in
> (i)
sig n a l c o m p o n e n ts flo w in g in to th e tu n e d c irc u it to z e ro
cos
0 t
g(i) ,
+ 2 iD0(i)
c o s w q T ^ ).
(1 2 .1 4)
[H e re it is a ssu m e d
th a t th e tu n e d c ir c u it a p p e a rs re sistiv e to i?(f).] F o r E q . ( 1 2 .1 - 4 ) r(f) a n d a ls o g(r) _ . ~ 1 d o U ) ... ( 1 2 .1 - 5 )
to b e sa tisfie d , i ^ r ) m u st b e e q u a l b(t) 2
2 R
A s in S e c tio n 10.3 th e s im u lta n e o u s e q u a tio n s , E q s . (12.1
3) a n d ( 1 2 .1 - 5 ) , m ay
b e re la te d to th e e q u iv a le n t c ir c u it sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .1 -6 . W e n o te th a t th is c irc u it is id e n tic a l w ith th e c o r r e s p o n d in g c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 0 .3 -5 [e x c e p t th a t C = 0 , w h ich is a d ir e c t re su lt o f a s su m in g th e tu n e d c ir c u it to b e re s is tiv e to u (f)]; th e re fo re , th e e n v e lo p e g(t) a n d th e p o in t w h e re fa ilu r e -to -fo llo w d is to r tio n o c c u r s m a y b e d e te r m in e d in e x a c tly th e s a m e fa s h io n a s th e y w ere in C h a p te r 10. It is n o w c le a r fro m F ig . 1 2 .1 - 6 th a t, i f C 0 is c h o s e n su fficie n tly la rg e so th a t it a p p e a rs a s a n a c s h o r t c ir c u it o v e r th e b a n d o f fre q u e n c ie s o c c u p ie d by th e a c c o m p o n e n t o f b(t), th e n g (t) rise s slo w ly to th e d c level gW = w ( K | | y ) , ( 1 2 .1 - 6 )
Fig. 12.1-6 Equivalent circuit for determining g(t) and i^ t).
12.2
FREQUENCY DEMODULATION TECHNIQUES
577
w h ere b(t) is th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e lev el o f i',(f). C o n s e q u e n tly , s in c e t ^ f ) = t(f), v(t ) is a lim ite d F M sig n a l g iv e n b y Iit) = b(t)
r/_..Kn
cos
a>0 t + Aco
f'
f{0 )d d
( 1 2 .1 - 7 )
A lth o u g h th e e n v e lo p e o f i^f) is in s e n sitiv e to ra p id v a ria tio n s in b(t ), it d o e s re sp o n d to slo w c h a n g e s in th e a v e ra g e v alu e o f b {t ) ; h e n c e th e c ir c u it lim its o n ly d y n a m ic a lly . T h e lim itin g a c tio n o f th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .1 - 5 a ssu m e s th a t fa ilu re -to -fo llo w d is to r tio n d o e s n o t o c c u r. It w as d e te rm in e d in E q . ( 1 0 .3 - 4 ) th a t th e c o n d itio n w h ich e n su re d n o fa ilu re -to -fo llo w d is to r tio n fo r th e d y n a m ic lim ite r w as g iv e n by 2R R0 + 2R C o n s e q u e n tly , if la rg e e n v e lo p e v a r ia tio n s in b(t) a re e x p e c te d , R 0 m u st b e k e p t sm a ll in c o m p a r is o n w ith R , a t th e e x p e n se o f a g re a tly re d u ced o u tp u t a m p litu d e , to p re v e n t fa ilu re -to -fo llo w d is to rtio n . 12.2 F R E Q U E N C Y D E M O D U L A T IO N T E C H N IQ U E S In th is s e c tio n w e s h a ll e x p lo r e s o m e o f th e m e th o d s b y w h ich a sig n a l p ro p o r tio n a l to / (f) c a n be o b ta in e d fro m a lim ite d F M sig n a l h a v in g e ith e r o f th e fo rm s
m <
r(f) = A c o s or v jt) = B F
a>0t + Aco
f(0 )d 6
= A c o s o j0T(f)
( 1 2 .2 - l a )
a>0t + A w
f(8 )d d
B F [ co0 t ( )],
( 1 2 .2 - l b )
w h ere t(r) = t + (Aco/co0 ) p f ( 6 ) d 6 an d F (6 ) is th e p e rio d ic s q u a re w av e sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -1 . T h e v o lta g e i<r) re p re s e n ts th e o u tp u t o f a lim ite r fo llo w e d b y a b a n d p ass filte r to e x tr a c t th e fu n d a m e n ta l F M sig n a l, w h e re a s vsq(t) re p re s e n ts th e d ir e c t o u tp u t o f a n id e a l lim ite r. ^ (0)
2n
Fig. 12.2-1 Plot o f F(0) vs. 9.
578
FM DEMODULATORS
12.2
T h e r e a re o n ly two b a s ic te c h n iq u e s fo r d e m o d u la tin g [o r e x tr a c tin g f ( t ) fro m ] an F M sig n al. T h e first te c h n iq u e p la c e s a n F M m o d u la to r in th e re tu rn b ra n c h o f a fe e d b a c k a m p lifie r. T h e re s u lta n t d e m o d u la to r , re fe rre d to a s th e p h a s e -lo c k e d lo o p ( P L L ) , m a k e s use o f th e fa ct th a t a fe e d b a c k a m p lifie r w ith su fficie n t lo o p g a in p e rfo rm s in its fo rw a rd b r a n c h th e in v e rse o p e r a tio n o f th a t w h ic h is p e rfo rm e d in its re tu rn b ra n c h . S in c e th e P L L is s o m e w h a t s p e c ia liz e d in its o p e r a tio n , we sh a ll d efer its e x p la n a tio n to S e c tio n 12.7. T h e s e c o n d a n d m o r e g e n e ra l te c h n iq u e fo r a c c o m p lis h in g F M d e m o d u la tio n is th a t o f first p la c in g th e a m p litu d e -lim ite d F M s ig n a l th ro u g h a d iffe re n tia tin g n e t w o rk w h ich p ro d u c e s a n e n v e lo p e m o d u la tio n p ro p o r tio n a l to th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n cy o f th e F M sig n a l, a n d th e n p la c in g th e re s u lta n t a m p litu d e -v a ry in g , S in c e c o jt) = w 0 + A w f(t), o n c e is e x tr a c te d , fre q u e n c y -m o d u la te d s ig n a l th ro u g h a n a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r w h ich e x tr a c ts a sig n a l p ro p o r tio n a l to w^t). f i t ) m a y b e o b ta in e d e ith e r b y s u b tr a c tin g th e co0-te rm o r by re m o v in g it by p la c in g a>,(f) th ro u g h a h ig h -p a ss (c a p a c itiv e ) c o u p lin g n e tw o rk . 1 2 .2 -2 . d ia g ra m . A b lo c k d ia g ra m o f th is b a s ic fre q u e n cy d e m o d u la to r (o r d is c r im in a to r , a s it is a ls o c a lle d ) is sh o w n in F ig . M o r e th a n 9 9 . 9 % o f a ll th e fre q u e n cy d e m o d u la to r s in e x is te n c e to d a y e m p lo y s o m e v a r ia tio n o f th e d e m o d u la tio n te c h n iq u e illu s tra te d b y th e b lo c k
Differentiation network
Envelope dem odulator
Fig. 12.2 2 Block diagram of the basic frequency dem odulator.
T o see m o r e q u a n tita tiv e ly h o w th e d e m o d u la to r o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -2 p e rfo rm s, let us d e te rm in e a n e x p r e s s io n fo r its o u tp u t w hen e a c h o f the s ig n a ls g iv en by E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 1 ) is a p p lie d a t its in p u t. W ith u(r) a p p lie d , th e o u tp u t o f th e d iffe re n tia tio n n e tw o rk is g iv en by
e n velope p ro p o rtio n al tocoi(f)
vb(t) = - K DA [w 0 + A w f(t)] sin
oj0 t + A w
f'
f(6 )d d
( 12.2- 2)
w ith th e re su lt th a t th e o u tp u t o f th e e n v e lo p e d e m o d u la to r h a s th e d esire d fo rm v0(t) A K d K

m [w 0
+ A w f(t)} A K DK Mw i(t),
( 1 2 .2 - 3 )
w h ere K D is th e c o n s ta n t o f th e d iffe re n tia tio n n e tw o rk a n d K M is th e c o n s ta n t o f th e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r . O n th e o th e r h a n d , w ith r sq(r) a p p lie d , th e o u tp u t o f th e d iffe re n tia tio n n e tw o rk is g iv e n by vb(t) = K
dB [ w 0
+ A w f(t)]F w 0t + A co | / ( f l) d j,
(1 2 .2 -4 )+
+ This form is obtained by applying the chain rule when differentiating u5q(i).
12.2
579
w h ere F { 6 ) = dF(6)/dO . A p lo t o f F '(9 ) vs. 6 is sh o w n in F ig . 12.2 -3 . H e re we o b se rv e th a t B K d [ co0 + A to/(f)] e n v e lo p e -m o d u la te s a h ig h -fre cm e n cy tr a in o f p o s itiv e an d n e g a tiv e im p u lse s o f a r e a 2 ; h e n c e , if th e e n v e lo p e d e m o d u la to r e x tr a c ts th e e n v e lo p e , i 0(f) is a g a in g iv e n b y v0(t) = + A o )f(t)]. ( 1 2 .2 - 5 ) g iv en in
T h e v a lu e o f K M in th is c a s e is in g e n e r a l, b u t
n o t a lw a y s, d iffe re n t fro m K M
E q . (1 1 .2 - 3 ) , s in c e m o s t a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r s a re w a v e fo rm d ep en d e n t. I t is n o w a p p a r e n t t h a t t o im p le m e n t th e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -2 we re q u ire a d iffe r e n tia tio n n e tw o r k a n d a n a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r ; h e n c e in th e re m a in d e r o f th is s e c tio n a n d in th e n e x t few s e c tio n s th e p h y sic a l im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e se b lo c k s w ill b e c o n sid e re d . S p e c ific a lly , in th e re m a in d e r o f his s e c tio n w e sh a ll c o n s id e r th e t h e o r e t ic a l r e s tr ic tio n s im p o s e d o n th e in p u t F M s ig n a l w h e n e a c h o f th e th re e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r s d iscu sse d in C h a p te r 10 is e m p lo y e d in th e fre q u e n cy d e m o d u la to r o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -2 . In p a r tic u la r , we sh a ll o b ta in a c u rv e o f th e m a x i m u m p e rm is sib le d e v ia tio n r a tio D = A<w/a>0 a s a fu n c tio n o f m o d u la tio n in d ex / ? = Aco/com fo r w h ic h th e o r e tic a lly u n d is to r te d d e m o d u la tio n o f th e in p u t F M sig n al is p o s sib le . W e sh a ll th e n , in s u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s , c o n s id e r th e th re e d iffe re n t w ay s in w h ich th e d iffe re n tia tio n n e tw o rk c a n b e re a liz e d o r c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te d . F o r each o f W e sh a ll th e th re e c a s e s w e s h a ll first o b t a in th e th e o r e tic a l lim its o n th e o p e r a tio n o f th e d iffe re n tia to r a n d th e n p ro c e e d t o im p le m e n t it w ith a p h y sic a l n e tw o rk . in C h a p te r 1 0 to o b t a in a c o m p le te fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r . N o te th a t, s in c e th e re a re th re e b a s ic m e th o d s fo r e n v e lo p e d e m o d u la tio n an d th re e b a s ic w ay s t o m a k e a d iffe re n tia tin g c ir c u it, th e re a re n in e d iffe re n t fre q u e n cy d e m o d u la to r s o f th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -2 . W e sh a ll e x p lo re o n ly th e m o s t p r a c tic a l o f th e se a n d le a v e th e stu d y o f th e r e m a in d e r to th e in te re ste d re ad e r. th e n c o m b in e th e d iffe r e n tia to r w ith o n e o f th e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r s d iscu sse d
580
FM DEMODULATORS
12.2
Synchronous Detection
T o a c c o m p lis h th e s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n o f a d iffe re n tia te d F M s ig n a l w e m u ltip ly vb(t) g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 2 ) o r E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 4 ) b y th e u n d iffe re n tia te d F M re fe re n c e sig n a l F , sin [co0 t + A o ) j ' f ( 6 ) d 6 ] , a s sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -4 , a n d p a s s th e r e s u lta n t s ig n a l
Fig. 12.2-4 Synchronous d etector for an F M signal.

th r o u g h a lo w -p a ss filter. W h e r e vb(t) is g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 2 ) a n d th e in p u t F M sig n a l is s in u s o id a l, th e m u ltip lie r o u tp u t o f th e s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r h a s th e fo rm v jt) = + A K dK
m [ o) 0
+ A cof(t)]
A K d K m[co0 + A co / (f)]co s J^2ct>0 f + 2Aco w h e re K u = K V J 2 .
f(9 )d 0
( 12.2- 6 )
T h e m u ltip lie r o u tp u t c o n ta in s a lo w -fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t
vmj(f ) a n d a h ig h -fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t vm2{t), a s is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -5 . I f th e s p e c tr a o f th e s e tw o te rm s d o n o t o v e r la p , th e n vmi(t) m a y b e e x tr a c te d b y th e lo w -p a ss filte r sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 - 4 to y ield v(t) = A K dK K .M |

m [ u) 0
+ A co/ (i)]* M < ),
( 1 2 .2 - 7 )
IK,, M | /
BW2+ 2 u im
K.2 (W) |
A
K.(ai)=J[M*)l,
2ui0
ui
li.M - iF I M l) ]
Fig. 12.2-5 Spectrum of ujt) plotted vs. w.
12.2
581
w h ere h L(t) is th e im p u lse re s p o n s e o f th e lo w -p a ss filter. I f th e filte r is su fficie n tly fla t a t H l(0 ) = 1 o v e r th e b a n d o f fre q u e n c ie s 0 < w < w m, th e n E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 7 ) s im p li fies to th e d esire d fo rm v0(t) = A K DK M[w 0 + A a>f(t)]. ( 1 2 .2 - 8 )
T h e a b ility to s e p a ra te vml(t) fro m vm2(t) b y filte rin g p la ce s a th e o r e tic a l lim it o n th e m a x im u m v a lu e s o f Aa> a n d wm re la tiv e to a>0 w h ic h c a n b e d e m o d u la te d b y fo l lo w in g th e d iffe re n tia tio n n e tw o rk b y a s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r. A s we s h a ll n o w sh o w , th e se lim its c a n b e e x p re ss e d a s a p lo t o f th e m a x im u m p e rm is sib le d e v ia tio n r a tio D = A w /w 0 v e rsu s ft = A w /w m. W e sh a ll o b ta in a s im ila r p lo t fo r th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r a n d th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r w h ic h w ill in d ic a te th a t s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c tio n p e rm its th e la rg e s t p o s s ib le d e v ia tio n r a tio fo r a n y g iv e n v a lu e o f p. T o d e te r m in e u n d e r w h a t c o n d itio n s th e s p e c tr a l c o m p o n e n ts o f V J oj) d o n o t o v e r la p , we n o te t h a t th e u p p e r s p e c tr a l c o m p o n e n t Vm2(w ) is th e F o u r ie r tra n s fo rm o f th e p r o d u c t o f w 0 + A w f(t ) (w h ich is b a n d -lim ite d to wm) a n d a n F M s ig n a l c e n tered a t 2 w 0 w ith a fre q u e n c y d e v ia tio n A u)2 = 2 A w , a m o d u la tio n in d e x p 2 = 2fi, a n d a b a n d w id th B W 2. B W 2 + 2ft)m. f p ro v id e d th a t BW , + 2a>m < 2<o0 . o r e q u iv a le n tly . Aw 1 D = ^ -------- = Z)max. w0 1 BW 2 P + 2 Aw2 F o r a n y v a lu e o f P a c o n s e r v a tiv e e s tim a te o f B W 2/2 Aa>2 c a n b e o b ta in e d fro m F ig . 1 1 . 1 - 4 ; th u s D max, th e m a x im u m d e v ia tio n r a tio fo r w h ich s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c tio n (o r a n y fo rm o f d e te c tio n , fo r th a t m a tte r ) is p o s sib le , m a y b e p lo tte d a s a fu n c tio n o f p. F o r e x a m p le , D max = 0 .6 2 5 . if p = 5, th e n p2 = = 10 and B W 2/Aco2 = 1.4. T h e r e fo r e , As ( 1 2 .2 - 1 0 ) S in c e m u ltip lic a tio n in th e tim e d o m a in c o r r e s p o n d s to c o n v o lu tio n in th e fre q u e n c y d o m a in , th e s p e c tru m o f Vm2(w ) h a s a b a n d w id th o f T h e r e fo r e , s e p a r a tio n o f vml(t) fro m vm2(t) by filte rin g is p o s s ib le
( 1 2 .2 - 9 )
A p lo t o f >max vs. P fo r th e s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -6 . P - * oo, D max - 1 ; h e n c e th e c u rv e h a s a k n o w n lim itin g v alu e.
I f th e in p u t F M
s ig n a l h a s a m o d u la tio n in d e x P a n d a d e v ia tio n r a t io D w h ich d e te r m in e a p o in t ly in g u n d e r th e c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -6 , th e n it is p o s s ib le to d e m o d u la te it w ith a fre q u e n cy d e m o d u la to r e m p lo y in g a s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r. H o w e v e r, if th e p o in t lie s c lo s e to th e c u rv e , th e c o m p le x ity o f th e filte r a t th e o u tp u t o f th e s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r w ill in c re a s e s ig n ific a n tly .
t C onvolution of tw o band-lim ited spectra produces a spectrum which is also band-lim ited, with a bandw idth equal to the sum of the tw o original bandw idths.
582
FM DEMODULATORS
12.2
Fig. 12.2-6 P lo t of Dm ax vs. (i for which synchronous dem odulation o f an F M signal is possible.
F o r th e c a s e w h e re vb(t) g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 4 ) is a p p lie d t o th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r , th e e ffe ct o f m u ltip ly in g F '[ w 0 T(t)] b y s in (o0x{t) is th e c o n v e r s io n o f th e tra in o f a lte r n a tin g p o s itiv e a n d n e g a tiv e im p u lse s in t o a tr a in o f a ll p o s itiv e im p u lse s. H o w e v e r, s in c e th is fu ll-w a v e r e c tific a tio n c a n b e p e rfo rm e d in a m o r e s tr a ig h t fo rw a rd fa s h io n w ith d io d e n e tw o rk s , s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n is n o t e m p lo y e d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith h a r d -lim ite d F M sig n als. T o d e v e lo p th e re fe re n c e s ig n a l fo r th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r , th e in p u t F M s ig n a l m a y b e p la c e d th r o u g h a n e tw o rk w h ic h sh ifts its p h a se b y n /2 . A n o th e r m e th o d , - th e o n e m o s t o fte n used in p r a c tic e , is t o s h ift th e o u tp u t o f th e d iffe re n tia tio n n e tw o rk b y n / 2 a n d u se th e u n d iffe re n tia te d in p u t F M s ig n a l d ir e c tly a s th e re fe re n ce .
A v era g e E n velop e D e te c tio n

W h e n vb(t) g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 2 ) is p la c e d th ro u g h a n a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r o f th e fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 -6 , va(t) m a y b e w ritte n a s th e p ro d u c t o f vb(t) a n d a sw itc h in g fu n c tio n S FM(f) w h ic h is a u n it a m p litu d e s q u a re w av e s im ila r to th e o n e sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .1 - 7 e x c e p t t h a t it is p e rio d ic in r (t) r a th e r th a n t. T h u s S FM(i) m a y b e e x p a n d e d in a F o u r ie r s e rie s, w ith th e re s u lt t h a t va(t) m a y b e w ritte n a s fo llo w s (cf. E q . 1 0 .1 - 1 1 ) :
*>a j(0 a 2 ( 0
'( a * ' K A * ' v(t) = [a>o + Aa>/(f)] + f - [ c o 0 + A a>/(r)]sin cuot ( 0 K + h ig h e r h a r m o n ic A M - F M sig n a ls. ( 1 2 .2 - 1 1 )
I f uo l(i) c a n b e e x tr a c te d fro m va2(t) b y th e o u tp u t filte r o f F ig . 1 0 .1 - 6 , th e n
v0(t) = ~
+ A co f(t)]* hL(t).
( 1 2 .2 - 1 2 )
In a d d itio n , i f th e lo w -p a ss filte r p a sse s / ( f) in a n u n d is to rte d fa s h io n , v0(t) sim p lifie s to th e d esire d fo rm
v0(t) = K MK DA[a>0 + Aa>/(f)], where K M = HL(0)/n.
(12.2-13)
12.2
583
In th is c a s e , in o rd e r to s e p a ra te va l(t) fro m va2(t ) by filte rin g , th e s p e c tru m o f th e a m p litu d e -m o d u la te d F M w av e c e n te re d a t a>0 w ith a b a n d w id th B W t + 2tom (w h ere B W , is th e b a n d w id th o f th e in p u t F M s ig n a l) m u st n o t o v e r la p w ith th e lo w fre q u e n cy s p e c tru m o f / ( t), w h ic h e x te n d s to com. T o e n s u re th is s e p a r a tio n , we re q u ire th a t
2wm + - y r ^ "o>
o r e q u iv a le n tly ,
BW ,
(1 2 .2 - 1 4 )
j L
DW j + 2&
oj
(1 2 .2 - 1 5 )
W ith th e aid o f F ig . 1 1 .1 -4 , Z)max m a y b e p lo tte d a s a fu n c tio n o f /?, a s sh o w n in F ig . 12.2 7. B y c o m p a r in g F ig . 1 2 .2 - 7 w ith F ig . 1 2 .2 - 6 (w h ich is r e p lo tte d w ith d a sh ed lin e s in F ig . 1 2 .2 -7 ) , w e o b s e r v e th a t, s in c e th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r rip p le te rm w as c e n te re d a t 2a>0 w h ile th e a v e ra g e d e te c to r r ip p le te rm is c e n te re d a t o n ly a>0 , th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r is le ss re s tr ic tiv e o n th e p a ra m e te r s o f th e in p u t F M sig n a l th a n is th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r . H o w e v e r, if th e p a ra m e te r s o f th e in p u t F M sig n a l d e te r m in e a p o in t w h ic h lie s u n d e r th e c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -6 , a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c tio n m a y b e e m p lo y e d in s te a d o f th e m o r e c o m p le x s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c tio n .
Fig. 1 2 .2 -7 Riot of Dm ax vs. / >for which demodulation o f an F M signal is possible with an average envelope detector. W h e n vb{t) g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 4 ) is p la c e d th ro u g h th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r o f F ig . 1 0 .1 -6 , D a(i) h a s th e fo rm vJLt) = K ^ w h e re F'p(d) is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -8 . im p u lse s fro m F '(6 ).
ojo
+ A (o f(t)]F 'p[oj0T (t)l
( 1 2 .2 - 1 6 )
E q u a t io n ( 1 2 .2 - 1 6 ) is a d ir e c t re s u lt o f th e fa c t
th a t th e h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r in th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r re m o v e s th e n e g a tiv e
584
FM DEMODULATORS
12.2
I t is a p p a r e n t th a t F p[oj0 x(t)\ m a y b e e x p a n d e d in a F o u r ie r se rie s in oj0 z(r), w h e re th e a v e ra g e v a lu e o f th e s e r ie s is g iv e n b y 1/jt; th u s th e lo w -fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t o f v j t ) h a s .th e fo rm ( K DB /n )[a > 0 + Aco/(f)]. lo w -p a ss filte r, th e n I f th is c o m p o n e n t o f v j t ) c a n be s e p a ra te d fro m th e fu n d a m e n ta l A M - F M s ig n a l c o m p o n e n t o f va(t) b y th e o u tp u t
v0(t) = ^ K n or
>
+ A co/(f)]* M O
( 1 2 .2 - 1 7 )
v j t ) = K dK mB [ 0) o + A cof ( 0 1
( 1 2 .2 - 1 8 )
w h ere K u = H L(0 )/n fo r th e c a s e w h ere h L(t) p asse s/ (/ ) u n d is to r te d . I t is in te re s tin g to n o te th a t K M fo r th e a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is th e s a m e fo r b o th im p u ls e lik e a n d s in u s o id a l in p u ts. A g a in in th is c a s e , to e n s u re th e v a lid ity o f E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 1 7 ) o r E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 1 8 ) , th e s p e c tru m o f f ( t ) m u st n o t o v e r la p w ith th e s p e c tru m o f th e c o m p o n e n t o f v j t ) c e n te re d a t co0 . T h is re q u ire m e n t is, o f c o u r s e , id e n tic a l w ith th a t w h ic h e n s u re s th e s e p a r a tio n o f r a l(f) fro m va(t) g iv e n in E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 1 1 ) ; h e n c e fo r a n u n filte re d F M sig n a l o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -7 a g a in d e m o d u la to r . I f a fu ll-w av e re c tifie r re p la c e s th e h a lf-w a v e re c tifie r o f F ig . 1 0 .1 - 7 , th e o u tp u t a m p litu d e is, o f c o u r s e , in c re a s e d b y a fa c to r o f 2. M o r e im p o r ta n t, h o w e v e r, a s th e in te re ste d re a d e r s h o u ld v erify , th e Z)max-vs.-/? -curve b e c o m e s id e n tic a l to th e o n e o b ta in e d w ith a s y n c h r o n o u s d e te c to r . T h e b a s ic re a s o n fo r th is is th a t w ith fu ll-w av e r e c tific a tio n th e c o m p o n e n t o f v j t ) c e n te re d a b o u t a>0 is re d u c e d to zero . P e a k E n v elo p e D e te c tio n A p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r e ith e r g r e a tly d is to r ts a tra in o f n a r ro w p u lses o r fu n c tio n s e ss e n tia lly a s a n a v e ra g e d e te c to r w hen s u c h p tilse s a r e a p p lie d a t its i n p u t ; h e n c e it is s e ld o m e m p lo y e d in th e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la tio n o f u n filte re d s q u a re -w a v e F M sig n als. th e c u rv e d e te r m in e s th e m a x im u m v a lu e o f th e d e v ia tio n r a t io fo r a n y
giv e n p fo r w h ich a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c tio n m a y be e m p lo y e d in th e fre q u e n cy
1 2.2
585
O n th e o th e r h a n d , w h e n th e lim ite d F M s ig n a l is b a n d -lim ite d a n d h a s th e fo rm g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .2 - l a ) , th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r m a y b e e m p lo y e d . H o w e v e r, w hen it is e m p lo y e d , a s w e r e c a ll fro m S e c tio n s 10.3 an d 1 0 .5 , th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n cy m u st b e m u c h g r e a te r th a n u>m, u su a lly b y a f a c to r o f 1 0 0 o r m o re , fo r its c o r r e c t o p e r a tio n (i.e., to k e e p th e rip p le s m a ll a n d to p re v e n t fa ilu re -to -fo llo w d is to rtio n ). F o r th e c a s e o f F M s ig n a ls it is th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n cy o>,(f) ra th e r th a n th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y w h ich g iv e s rise t o rip p le a t th e d e te c to r o u t p u t ; h e n c e , w h en th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is e m p lo y e d in th e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r , we m u st re q u ire K ( f)L n = w 0 o r e q u iv a le n tly , A w > 1 0 0 o ;m, ( 1 2 .2 - 1 9 )
< 100 + p'
12. 2- 20)
A p lo t o f D max = /?/(100 + /?) is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -9 a lo n g w ith th e p lo t o f F ig . 1 2 .2 - 6 (d ash e d lin es) o n th e s a m e set o f c o o r d in a te s . A g a in w e o b s e r v e th a t th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r is fa r less r e s tric tiv e o n th e p a r a m e te r s o f th e in p u t F M s ig n a l th a n is th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r. S in c e D mi% -* 1 a s ft - * oo fo r a ll th re e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r s , it m a k e s little o r n o d iffe re n c e t h e o r e tic a lly w h ic h e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is used w h ere th e m o d u la tio n in d e x is h ig h . S im p lic ity o f c o n s t r u c tio n in p r a c tic a l c ir c u its u su ally d ic ta te s th e use o f th e p e a k o r a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r in p la c e o f th e s y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r.
D 1.0
0.8
S y n c h ro n o u s d e te c to r
0.6
0.4
0.2 / /
< Peak envelope detector 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 P
Fig. 12.2 9
Plot of Dm ax vs.
for the peak envelope detector.
N o te th a t, if th e F M sig n a l h a s b e e n d is to rte d s o m e w h e re in th e sy ste m p rio r to th e d e m o d u la to r , fo r e x a m p le b y a lim ite r, a n d th e n filtered to re c la im r(f), D max m u st b e lo w e r th a n th e to p c u rv e o f F ig . 1 1 .2 -3 . H o w e v e r, s in c e th is filte rin g c u rv e is
586
FM DEMODULATORS
12.3
m o r e re s tr ic tiv e th a n th e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r lim itin g c u rv e s o n >max g iv e n in F ig s . 1 2 .2 - 6 a n d 1 2 .2 - 7 , D is n o r m a lly lim ite d b y th e b a n d p a s s filte rs in th e sy ste m a n d n o t b y th e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r in th e d is c r im in a to r . T o p u t th in g s in to p r o p e r p e rs p e c tiv e , o n e s h o u ld r e c a ll th a t o r d in a r y e n t e r ta in m e n t-ty p e F M b r o a d c a s tin g h a s 1 0 .7 M H z.
A f = 7 5 k H z a n d f m = 1 5 k H z a n d u se s a n I F o f
T h u s a w e ll-d e sig n e d p e a k d e te c to r
H e n c e D max = 0 .0 0 7 0 a n d ft = 5.
w ill n e v e r p o s e a p r o b le m fo r s u c h a s y s te m , s in c e D max c a n n e v e r o c c u r w ith /? less th a n 5 ; h o w e v e r, E q . ( 1 2 .2 - 2 0 ) is sa tis fie d d o w n to P = 0 .7 . O n ly in s p e c ia l w id e b a n d s y s te m s w ill th e r e s tr ic tio n s o f th is s e c tio n b e c o m e im p o rta n t.
1 2 3 DIRECT DIFFERENTIATION THE CLARKE-HESS FREQUENCY D EM O DULATOR

T h r e e m e th o d s e x is t b y w h ic h th e d iffe re n tia tio n o f a s ig n a l m a y b e a c c o m p lis h e d : 1. D ir e c t d iffe re n tia tio n . 2. F r e q u e n c y -d o m a in d iffe re n tia tio n . 3. T im e -d e la y d iffe re n tia tio n . In th is s e c tio n a n d in s u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s e a c h o f th e s e d iffe re n tia tio n m e th o d s is in v e stig a te d th e o r e tic a lly , im p le m e n te d p r a c tic a lly , a n d c o m b in e d w ith a p r a c tic a l e n v e lo p e d e te c to r to y ie ld a fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r (o r d is c r im in a to r ) o f th e b a s ic fo rm sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .2 -2 . In th is s e c tio n w e c o n s id e r th e d ir e c t d iffe re n tia to r. A d ir e c t d iffe r e n tia to r is a d e v ic e w h ic h p e rfo rm s th e o p e r a tio n o f d iffe re n tia tio n e x a c tly a n d th u s p la c e s n o th e o r e tic a l lim ita tio n s o n th e sig n a l a t its in p u t. W h e n su ch a ,d e v ic e is e m p lo y e d in a fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r , a ll th e lim ita tio n s o n th e in c o m in g F M s ig n a l a r is e fr o m th e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r . A n e x a m p le o f a d ir e c t d iffe re n tia to r w o u ld b e a c ir c u it, e m p lo y in g a s in g le c a p a c ito r C , fo r w h ic h th e in p u t is th e c a p a c it o r v o lta g e a n d th e o u tp u t is th e c a p a c it o r c u rre n t. A fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r e m p lo y in g a c a p a c it o r a s a d ir e c t d iffe r e n tia to r a n d e m p lo y in g a n a v e r a g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r o f th e fo r m sh o w n in F ig . 1 0 .2 - 5 is illu s tra te d in F ig . 1 2 .3 -1 . A m o d e l fo r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .3 -1 in w h ic h b o th D a n d th e e m itte rb a s e ju n c t i o n o f Q a r e m o d e le d b y id e a l d io d e s in se rie s w ith b a tte r ie s o f v a lu e V0 is s h o w n in F ig . 1 2 .3 -2 . F o r p r o p e r c ir c u it o p e r a tio n , F0 m u st b e s m a ll in c o m p a r is o n w ith th e m a x im u m v a lu e o f vfa) (a s w e s a w in S e c t io n 1 0 .2 ); i.e., g e r m a n iu m d io d e s a n d tr a n s is to r s s h o u ld b e e m p lo y e d . H e n c e in th e fo llo w in g a n a ly s e s w e a s su m e V0 * c i r c u i t ; th u s th e c a p a c it o r v o lta g e is g iv e n b y 0. W ith V0 x 0 , th e tw o id e a l d io d e s in p a r a lle l a r e in d is tin g u is h a b le fr o m a s h o r t
M 0 = f(0 - V cc,
w ith th e re s u lt th a t th e c a p a c it o r c u r r e n t h a s th e fo rm
( 1 2 .3 - 1 )
(12.3-2)
12 .3
THE CLARKE-HESS FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR
587
- Differentiator
Half-wave
' Low-pass filter
Fig. 1 2 3 -1
detector.
F requency d em o d u lato r em ploying a direct differentiator and an average envelope
T h e c a p a c it o r c u r r e n t is a d ir e c t d e r iv a tiv e o f v,{t) w ith th e d iffe re n tia tio n c o n s ta n t K d = C. e x a c t. rx (In p r a c tic e , a fin ite g e n e r a to r im p e d a n c e te rm a n d a fin ite d io d e an d tr a n s is to r lo ss te rm c o m b in e a s r L to m a k e th e d iffe re n tia tio n a p p r o x im a te in ste a d o f I f co0 C r T < 0 .1 , .th en th e o p e r a tio n is w ith in 1 % o f p u re d iffe re n tia tio n . 5 0 0 a n d ca0 = 1 0 7 rp s, th e n C m u st b e less th a n 2 0 0 p F .) I f i' ( t )
= i it),
If
w h e re v(t) is giv en b y E q . ( 1 2 .2 - l a ) , th en
i,-(f) =
AC[u>i(t)] sin
co0t + A co
f ( 0 ) dO
(12.3 3)
O n ly th e p o s itiv e h a lf o f i,(t) flo w s in to D 2 ; h e n c e i^ t) is a h a lf-w a v e re c tifie d v e rsio n o f i,(i). T h e a v e ra g e v a lu e o f th is re c tifie d w a v e fo rm is e x tra c te d b y p la c in g a iE(t) th ro u g h th e R 0 C 0 lo w -p a s s filte r. C o n s e q u e n tly , i f D = A co/co0 a n d fi = Aco/com fo r t;(i) d e te r m in e a p o in t b e lo w th e c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -7 a n d th e lo w -p a ss R 0 C 0 filte r e x tr a c ts th e lo w -fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t o f a i(i), th e n i> 0(i) m a y be w ritte n a s fo llo w s (cf. E q . 12 .2 - 12 ):
v(t) = ------------------------
xA C a iiU ) * h L(t)
(1 2 .3 -4 )
588
FM DEMODULATORS
12.3
where hL{t) is the impulse response of the low-pass filter. For the case where the filter passes a>t{ t) = a>0 + A<of(t) in an undistorted fashion (the filter is flat for 0 < (o < a)m), Eq. (12.3-4) simplifies to the desired form
vj(t) =
ocACRq
co,(t)
aA C R 0
[<u0 + A co/(t)].
(12.3-5)
A plot of v0 versus a> f is shown in Fig. 12.3-3 for this case. From the figure we observe that the output voltage is linearly related to aj^t) up to the frequency for which v = Vc c + V0 Vc c and Q saturates. For any given cofa), the slope of the characteristic shown in Fig. 12.3-3 must be chosen sufficiently small so that Q does not saturate. For example, if A = 10 V, ifw,(t) = 108[1 + ^/(t)] rad/sec, if C = 50 pF, and if Vcc = 15 V, then R 0 must be chosen less than
n V cc , aACu>i_
(3.14) (15) = 628 Q. (50 x 10 J2) (1.5 x 108)(10)
Fig. 123-3
P lo t o f the discrim inator characteristic for the frequency dem odulator o f Fig.
12.3-1.
Clarke-Hess Frequency Demodulator! The circuit shown in Fig. 12.3-2 functions best when A cwis a reasonable fraction of co0 . However, when Aw g)0, significant advantages over the circuit of Fig. 12.3-2 result when a balancing branch, which reduces v to zero when a)t = co0 , is added to the basic frequency demodulator. A circuit containing such a branch is shown in Fig. 12.3-4. The balancing branch in the circuit subtracts a term proportional to the input envelope from v(t). In particular, if V0 * 0, a term of value otARJnR (cf. Eq. 10.2-11) is subtracted from the output, with the result that v(t) takes the form
., <xACR0 f 1 1 v0(t) = U 0 + A(of {t) - .
(12.3-6)
f K . K . Clarke and D . T. Hess, Dem odulator for Frequency M odulated Signals, U .S. Patent 3292093, Decem ber 13,1966.
12.3
THE CLARKE-HESS FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR
589
H o w e v e r, if 1/ R C is a d ju s te d to e q u a l a)0 , th e n va(t) sim p lifie s to t,0(t ) = ( ^ ^ ) A / (i). ( 1 2 .3 - 7 )
T h e tra n s fe r fu n c tio n o f v(t) g iv e n by E q . ( 1 2 .3 - 7 ) vs. Aco/(f) is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .3 -5 . H e re w e o b s e r v e t h a t v0 is lin e a r ly r e la te d to A a )f(t) p ro v id e d th a t n e ith e r Q i n o r Q 2 s a tu ra te s . T h e a d v a n ta g e s o f b a la n c in g o u t th e c a r r ie r c o m p o n e n t fro m th e o u tp u t by c h o o s in g R C = l/co0 a re n u m e ro u s. F ir s t , th e b a la n c in g s u p p re sse s s m a ll a m p litu d e
590
FM DEMODULATORS
12.3
v a r ia tio n s w h ic h m ig h t s n e a k b y th e lim ite r. F o r e x a m p le , if A = ^4o[l + (0]> w h e re |e(f)| 1 is a s m a ll d is tu r b a n c e o n th e e n v e lo p e A , th e n a t th e o u tp u t o f th e
c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .3 -4
.(*) =
71
( 1 2 .3 - 8 )
H e re w e see t h a t a c o r r e s p o n d in g s m a ll d is tu r b a n c e a p p e a r s a t th e o u tp u t w h ic h d e c re a s e s in d ir e c t p r o p o r tio n to / (f). O n th e o th e r h a n d , w ith A = A 0 [ l + e(i)], th e o u tp u t o f th e sin g le -e n d e d c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .3 -1 is g iv e n by
V0(t) = a '4 C R o [co0 + A / ( f ) + a>0e(t) + A u>f(t)e(t)]
( x A qC R qC O q
1 + f { t ) + e(t) w0
( 1 2 .3 - 9 )
In th is c a s e th e o u tp u t d is tu r b a n c e is in d e p e n d e n t o f f ( t ) a n d , i f Aco/a>0 is s m a ll, th e d is tu r b a n c e m ig h t e a sily d o m in a te / (f). F o r th is r e a s o n a lo n e , a lm o s t a ll h ig h -q u a lity F M d e m o d u la to r s a r e b a la n c e d in s o m e fa s h io n o r a n o th e r . [N o t e th a t s u b tr a c tin g a c o n s t a n t w h ic h is in d e p e n d e n t o f A fr o m th e o u tp u t d o e s n o t p r o d u c e th e sa m e e ffe ct a s b a la n c in g , e v en th o u g h vg(t) = 0 fo r co,(r) = o 0 .] T h e b a la n c in g b r a n c h a ls o p ro v id e s a m e a n s o f d e v e lo p in g a n e r r o r s ig n a l fo r th e a u t o m a t ic fre q u e n c y c o n t r o l (A F C ) in a n F M re c e iv e r o r th e fre q u e n c y s ta b iliz in g c ir c u it o f a n F M g e n e r a to r . I f 1/ R C is a d ju s te d to e q u a l a>0 (w h ich is u su a lly th e c e n te r fre q u e n cy o f th e I F s trip in a n F M re c e iv e r) a n d th e F M s ig n a l p a s sin g th ro u g h th e I F s tr ip d rifts in fre q u e n c y b y Sto , th e n th e o u tp u t o f th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .3 - 4 is g iv e n by 17,(0 = ~ ^ ^ -[A<of{t) + to].
71
( 1 2 .3 - 1 0 )
I f v(t) is p la ce d th ro u g h a s u fficie n tly lo w -p a s s filte r to re m o v e th e f ( t ) c o m p o n e n t, i.e., th e d e m o d u la te d s ig n a l, th e n th e filte r o u tp u t c o n ta in s a d c s ig n a l d ir e c tly p r o p o r tio n a l to th e fre q u e n c y d rift. T h is s ig n a l c a n th e n b e a m p lifie d a n d a p p lie d a s a fre q u e n c y c o n t r o l t o th e lo c a l o s c illa t o r (w h ic h in th is c a s e is a n F M g e n e r a to r ) to re tu r n th e m ix e r o u tp u t sig n a l to th e c e n te r o f th e I F strip . T h ir d , b a la n c in g p e rm its u s t o in c r e a s e g r e a tly th e se n sitiv ity o f t?(r) t o / (f). A s c a n b e see n fr o m F ig . 1 2 .3 -5 , th e s lo p e o f th e A cof(t)-v0(t) c h a r a c t e r is t ic c a n b e in c re a s e d to th e p o in t w h e re v a r ia tio n s in / (t) b e tw e e n + 1 a n d re s p o n d in g v a r ia tio n s in v0{t) b e tw e e n + 1 cau se c o r Vc c a n d Vc c ; th a t is, a s lo p e o f Vc c /Aco
is p o s sib le . O n th e o th e r h a n d , w ith o u t b a la n c in g , th e c h a r a c te r is t ic o f F ig . 12 .3 3
1 2.3
THE C LA R K E-H ESS FREQ U EN C Y DEM ODULATOR
591
p re v a ils.
T h is c h a r a c t e r is t ic c a n h a v e a m a x im u m slo p e (w ith o u t s a tu r a tin g th e
tr a n s is to r ) o f Jcc_ _
m a x
Kc
W0 +
T h u s w ith b a la n c in g th e s e n s itiv ity m a y b e in c r e a s e d b y a f a c to r o f

co0 + Aa> _ A oj co Aci>
w h ich is q u ite s ig n ific a n t fo r m o s t p r a c tic a l c ir c u its in w h ich a>0 Acu.
Example 12.3-1
C h o o s e v a lu e s f o r th e v a rio u s c o m p o n e n ts in th e c ir c u it o f F ig .
1 2 .3 -4 su ch th a t th e c ir c u it p ro d u c e s a 2 V p e a k -to -p e a k o u tp u t w h en d riv e n b y a n F M s ig n a l o f th e fo rm r,(f) = (1 0 V ) c o s [ 1 0 7i + 1 0 5
c o s 2 x 1 0 4 r],
T h e a v a ila b le p o w e r su p p lie s a re + Vc c =
12 V. Acu = 1 0 srad/sec, a n d a>m = 2 x 104
Solution. W e first n o te th a t a>0 = 1 0 7 rad / sec,
rad / se c; th u s / ? = 5 a n d D = 1/100. T h e r e fo r e , s in c e re q u irin g a n e la b o r a t e o u tp u t lo w -p a ss filter.
D a n d ftd e te r m in e a p o in t w ell
b e lo w th e c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -6 , we o b s e r v e th a t d e m o d u la tio n is p o s s ib le w ith o u t W e n e x t s e le c t tw o g e r m a n iu m tr a n s is to r s a n d tw o g e r m a n iu m d io d e s w ith fre q u e n c y lim its w ell a b o v e 1 0 M H z . In a d d itio n , w e s e le c t R = 5 k2 a s a c o m p r o m ise b e tw e e n a la rg e o u tp u t s ig n a l a n d a n in c re a s e d v a lu e o f F0. A s w e saw in S e c tio n 10.2, a s m a ll v a lu e fo r R in c re a s e s th e e ffe ctiv e size o f F0 . O n th e o th e r h a n d , a la rg e v alu e o f R d e c re a s e s th e s e n sitiv ity o f th e d e m o d u la to r . W ith / ? = 5 k f l a n d a > 0 = 1 0 7 rad/sec w e o b ta in C = 1/co0 R = 2 0 p F . T o o b ta in a 2 V p e a k -to -p e a k o u tp u t sig n a l, th e s lo p e o f th e c h a r a c te r is tic o f F ig . 12.3 5 m u st b e a d ju s te d to e q u a l (1 V )/10? ra d / se c; th u s R 0 m u st h a v e th e v a lu e
R0 =
10
. 1V = 157 kQ. rad/sec a A C
In a d d itio n , to p a s s th e m o d u la tio n in fo r m a tio n , R 0 C 0 m u st b e le ss th a n o r e q u a l to l/com. I f w e c h o o s e R 0 C 0 = l/com, th e n C 0 = 3 1 8 p F . (A c tu a lly , fo r th is v a lu e o f R 0 C 0 th e o u tp u t b a s e b a n d s ig n a l su ffers a 3 d B a tte n u a tio n . T o a v o id th is a tte n u a tio n C 0 m u st b e r e d u c e d ; th is le ad s to a n in c r e a s e in o u tp u t rip p le .) F in a lly , a c h o ic e o f C c = 2 0 0 0 p F e n s u re s th a t th e c o u p lin g c a p a c ito r is an e ffe ctiv e s h o r t c ir c u it in c o m p a r is o n w ith R a t th e c a r r ie r fre q u e n c y (,Y C - = .R/100). I f a n F M s q u a re w av e is a p p lie d to th e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .3 -4 , th e c ir c u it fu n c tio n s in e x a c tly th e sa m e fa s h io n a s it d id fo r a s in u s o id a l F M
592
FM DEMODULATORS
12.3
sig n a l, p ro v id e d t h a t R C is r e a d ju s te d s o th a t R C = 7t/2ft>0 . ( 1 2 .3 - 1 1 )
A s w as p o in te d o u t in S e c t io n 1 2 .2 , w h e n a n F M s q u a re w av e is p la c e d th ro u g h a d iffe re n tia to r a n d a n a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r , th e o u tp u t is id e n tic a l w ith th a t p ro d u c e d b y a s in u s o id a l F M s ig n a l w ith th e s a m e a m p litu d e . H e n c e th e c o n tr ib u tio n to v0(t) fro m th e u p p e r b r a n c h o f th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .3 - 4 is u n c h a n g e d w h e n a n F M s q u a re w av e is a p p lie d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , w h e n a n F M s q u a r e w av e o f a m p litu d e B is a p p lie d t o th e b a la n c in g b r a n c h o f th e d e m o d u la to r , a c o m p o n e n t o f v a lu e B R 0/ 2 R is s u b tra c te d fr o m v0, a s th e re a d e r s h o u ld v erify . T h u s , w ith a n F M s q u a re w av e a p p lie d to th e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r o f F ig . 1 2 .3 -4 , v0(t ) is g iv e n b y
V(t) =
w h ich re d u c e s to
| \ o 0 + A cof(t) -
( 1 2 .3 - 1 2 )
v(t) =
ocBCRn -A co/ (t)

71
( 1 2 .3 - 1 3 )
p ro v id e d th a t R C = n /2co 0. C le a r ly , v0(t) g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .3 - 1 3 ) is id e n tic a l w ith
v(t ) g iv e n by E q . (1 2 - 3 - 7 ) fo r th e c a s e w h e re th e F M s q u a re w av e a n d th e s in u s o id a l
F M sig n a l h a v e th e s a m e a m p litu d e . W ith a s q u a re -w a v e in p u t to th e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r o f F ig . 1 2 .3 - 4 , a m u c h la rg e r rip p le c o m p o n e n t a p p e a rs a t th e o u tp u t th a n w ith a c o r r e s p o n d in g s in u s o id a l in p u t. T h is is a d ir e c t re s u lt o f th e n a r r o w c u r r e n t p u lse s o f a r e a 2 B C w h ic h flow th r o u g h th e u p p e r b r a n c h o f th e fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r in t o th e o u tp u t c a p a c ito r C 0. I n p a r tic u la r , th e rip p le o n v(t) fr o m th is c o m p o n e n t a lo n e h a s a v a lu e o f 2 B C / C 0 . O f c o u rs e , th is rip p le c a n b e re m o v e d b y s u b s e q u e n t s ta g e s o f f ilt e r in g ; h o w e v e r, it still a d d s d ir e c tly t o t7(f)- T h i s d ir e c t a d d itio n lim its th e m a x im u m a m p litu d e o f th e s ig n a l c o m p o n e n t o f v(t), s in c e th e s ig n a l p lu s th e rip p le m u s t n o t s a tu r a te th e tr a n s is to r s o f th e d e m o d u la to r . In p a r tic u la r , th e m a x im u m s ig n a l c o m p o n e n t o f v j t ) m u st b e k e p t le ss th a n Vc c + V0 2 B C / C 0 . In th e p r a c t ic a l c ir c u it th e fin ite v a lu e o f r x c a u s e d b y th e g e n e r a to r a n d tr a n s is to r d io d e im p e d a n c e s w ill c a u s e th e d iffe r e n tia to r b r a n c h c u r r e n t p u lse s t o t a k e th e s h a p e o f d e c a y in g e x p o n e n tia l p u ls e s o f in itia l a m p litu d e 2 B / r t r a th e r th a n im p u ls e s o f in fin ite a m p litu d e . I n e ith e r c a s e th e p u ls e a r e a w ill b e 2 B C . In th e p r a c t ic a l c a s e o n e m u s t m a k e s u re t h a t 5 rxC is s m a lle r t h a n a h a lf-p e r io d o f th e h ig h e s t in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n c y f 0 + A/ in o r d e r t h a t th e p u ls e c a u s e d b y o n e s te p is c o m p le te d b e fo r e th e n e x t s te p o c c u r s . T h is re q u ire s th a t
C - l(K/o + Af ) r z
(12.3-14)
1 2 .4
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN DIFFERENTIATION
593
12.4 FR E Q U E N C Y -D O M A IN D IF F E R E N T IA T IO N T H E S L O P E D E M O D U L A T O R
A fre q u e n c y -d o m a in d iffe r e n tia to r is a lin e a r n e tw o rk w h o s e tra n s fe r fu n c tio n H (jo i) h a s a lin e a r ly s lo p in g m a g n itu d e o v e r th e b a n d o f fre q u e n c ie s o c c u p ie d b y th e in p u t F M sig n a l. S u c h a n e tw o rk , a s w as sh o w n in S e c tio n 1 1 .3 , fu n c tio n s a s a d iffe re n tia to r a n d c o n v e r ts v a r ia tio n s in th e in s ta n ta n e o u s fre q u e n c y a t its in p u t to e n v e lo p e v a r ia tio n s a t its o u tp u t. F o r e x a m p le , i f th e n e tw o rk h a s th e tra n s fe r fu n c tio n sh o w n in F ig . 1 1 .3 - 2 a n d if v{t) g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 . 2 - l a ) is a p p lie d a t its in p u t, th e n e t w o rk o u tp u t is g iv e n b y (cf. E q . 1 1 .3 -2 0 )
,,, io) i vb(t) = A ----------------------------c o s
co0 t + Aco
f { B ) d 6 + 9(o)0 )
( 1 2 .4 - 1 )
H e n c e a t th e o u tp u t o f th e a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r fo llo w in g th e fre q u e n c y -d o m a in d iffe re n tia to r w e o b t a in v0(t) = A K d K

m [(o 0
o jj + Aco/(f -
i 0 )],
( 1 2 .4 - 2 )
w h ere K D = \/u>a is th e slo p e o f th e |/i(jo>)|-vs.-a> c h a r a c te r is tic a n d K M is th e c o n s ta n t o f th e e n v e lo p e d e m o d u la to r . I t is a p p a r e n t th a t a fre q u e n c y -d o m a in d iffe re n tia to r fo llo w e d b y a n a m p litu d e d e m o d u la to r d o e s in d ee d p ro d u c e a sig n a l p r o p o r tio n a l to / ( f) [to b e m o r e p re c is e , / (f f 0 )]. H o w e v e r, b e c a u s e m o s t p r a c tic a l filte rs h a v e lin e a r c h a r a c te r is tic s o n ly o v e r a n a rro w b a n d o f fre q u e n c ie s, a fre q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r e m p lo y in g a fre q u e n c y -d o m a in d iffe re n tia to r is b e st su ited fo r F M s ig n a ls fo r w h ic h th e d e v ia tio n r a tio is sm all. T h is fre q u e n cy r e s tr ic tio n a ls o p re v e n ts th e d e m o d u la tio n o f a n F M s q u a re w ave (w h ich h a s fre q u e n c y c o m p o n e n ts in th e v ic in ity o f w 0 , 3 w 0 , 5a>0 , e tc .) u n less the s q u a re w av e is first filte re d to e x t r a c t its fu n d a m e n ta l F M c o m p o n e n t. T h is filte rin g , in s o m e c a se s , c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d b y th e d iffe r e n tia tio n n e tw o rk itself. T h e sim p le s t p r a c tic a l im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e fre q u e n c y -d o m a in d iffe re n tia to r is a p a ra lle l R L C c ir c u it w h ic h is tu n e d s o th a t th e in p u t F M s ig n a l is c e n te re d o n th e s lo p in g p o r tio n o f th e tra n s fe r fu n c tio n . F ig u r e 1 2 .4 -1 illu s tr a te s su c h a c irc u it fo llo w e d by a p e a k e n v e lo p e d e te c to r to fo rm a s lo p e d e m o d u la to r .
Fig. 12.4-1 Single-ended slope frequency demodulator.
59 4
FM DEMODULATORS
I f w e a s su m e in itia lly th a t R 0 R and C 0
12.4
C s o th a t th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r d o e s
n o t lo a d th e tu n e d c ir c u it, th a t A co a n d com h a v e a p p r o p r ia te v a lu e s, in c o m p a r is o n w ith th e p a r a m e te r s o f th e tu n e d c ir c u it, fo r th e q u a s i- s ta tic a p p r o x im a tio n o f E q . ( 1 1 .3 - 3 ) t o b e v a lid (w e s h a ll c h e c k th e s e a s su m p tio n s ), th a t ((f) = /t c o s [co0 t + Aco f 'f ( 0 ) d O ] , a n d th a t D a n d /? fo r th e in p u t F M sig n a l d e te r m in e a p o in t b e lo w th e c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .2 - 8 , th e n th e e n v e lo p e v a r ia tio n in v(t), w h ic h a p p e a rs a s v0(t), is g iv en by
v J L t) = h\Zn[jcom
= / ,| Z n [ ; 0 + y A / ( i)] | , w h ere Z u (p) is th e in p u t im p e d a n c e o f th e p a ra lle l R L C c irc u it. d e p ic ts th is tr a n s fe r c h a r a c te r is t ic w h ic h re la te s co,(t) an d v jt ). ( 1 2 .4 - 3 ) F ig u r e 1 2 .4 -2
Fig. 12.4-2 Transfer characteristic relating to (f) an d t^ i).

T o d esig n a s lo p e d e m o d u la to r w e m u st s e le c t v a lu e s fo r th e c e n te r fre q u e n c y coc a n d th e b a n d w id th B W o f th e tu n e d c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .4 -1 . In g e n e r a l, w e c h o o s e th e s e p a r a m e te r s t o a c h ie v e th e la rg e s t p o s s ib le o u tp u t s ig n a l w h ic h is lin e a rly re la te d to a>,(f)- T o see h o w th is c h o ic e c a n b e st b e a c c o m p lis h e d , w e e x p a n d |Z, in a T a y lo r se rie s in w a b o u t a>0 :
|ZuO'co)| =
\ Z i i ( j o j 0 )\
+ IZ n O iU o M ~ " o )
fflo ) 2 ,
+ l ^ n 0 ^ o ) l ------- 2\----------l ^ n O ^ o ) '
1-7
1-7
-------------
"
w o)3
(-
t 1
( 1 2 .4 - 4 )
I t is a p p a r e n t th a t m a x im u m lin e a r ity is a c h ie v e d i f coc is c h o s e n s u c h t h a t b a n d w id th is th e n c h o s e n a s n a r ro w a s p o s s ib le to m a x im iz e
\ Z u ( j o ) 0 )\"
an d a s m a n y s u b s e q u e n t d e riv a tiv e s o f |ZX1(y'a>)||lu=cuo a s p o s s ib le a re z e ro .

IZ îja jQ ^'.
The
[A sm a ll
b a n d w id th s te e p e n s th e s k ir ts o f |Zu (;'a))| a n d th u s in c re a se s its s lo p e .]
H o w e v e r, a
sm a ll b a n d w id th a ls a in c r e a s e s th e size o f th e first n o n z e r o d e r iv a tiv e o f| Z ( , ( jo>)\ | C ) = a)0,
1 2 .4
FREQ UEN C Y-D O M A IN D IFFERENTIATION
595
th e re b y in c i e a sin g th e n o n lin e a r d is to r tio n fo r a fixed A co. T h e p e rm is sib le d is to r tio n p u ts a lim it o n th e m in im u m v a lu e o f th e b a n d w id th . If Q T fo r th e p a ra lle l R L C c ir c u it is g r e a te r th a n 10, th e n |Z, , 0 ) ! c a n b e c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te d b y (cf. E q . 2 .2 - 9 ) \Z(jco)\ = ^ _ ==== a w h ere a = 1/2R C = B W / 2 a n d foc = f/v / L C . F o r th is c a se , ( 1 2 .4 - 5 )
t + t< o -
iZ u(M ,)r =
0(1 + Q 2)3
Rn
1/2
R ( m 2 - 1) Z\ lO ^ o ) ! ~2T, , r*2\5/2' |5/2 a 2( l + n 2
(12.46)
Zlt(ja > o r =
3 R (2 i2 3 -
3C1)
a (1 + fi
2\7/2
w h ere Q = (w 0 coc)/ a. I t is a p p a r e n t th a t |Z, i(ju>0 )\" = 0 p ro v id e d th a t Q 2 = j o r, e q u iv a le n tly , th a t wt = w 0 oi/y/2. (1 2 .4 - 7)
T h e p lu s te rm o f E q . ( 1 2 .4 - 7 ) c o r r e s p o n d s to o p e r a tio n o n th e lo w er s k irt o f |Z, (jio)\, w h ile th e m in u s te rm c o r r e s p o n d s to o p e r a tio n o n th e u p p er sk irt. w ith E q . ( 1 2 .4 - 7 ) s a tisfie d , W ith Q 2 = j , n o n e o f th e h ig h e r d e riv a tiv e s o f\ Z l i0'a))|< u= (O O m ay b e set e q u a l to z e ro . In a d d itio n ,
2R
| Z n(M >)| = V i , \Z = + 3^3
| Z n ( jw 0)l
_ +
6R
/2\3
h e n c e , va(t) m a y b e w ritte n (o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e q u a s i-s ta tic a p p r o x im a tio n is v a lid ) as v0(t) = I A Z n [ j o ) 0 + j Aco/(f)]| r2 l l A o jf(t) !>. ( 1 2 .4 - 8 )
N o w , if 2A j/3a < 0 .0 4 o r, e q u iv a le n tly , B W > 1 0 0 Acu/3, th e n th e th ird te rm o f E q . (1 2 .4 8) is less th a n 1 " o f t h e s e c o n d te rm fo r a l l/ ( f ) , a n d th u s v(t) v a rie s r e a s o n a b ly lin e a rly w ith / (f). S p e c ific a lly , if th e b a n d w id th -is c h o s e n a t its m in im u m v a lu e
596
FM DEMODULATORS
12.4
B W = 1 0 0 Aw/3, th e n v0(t) is g iv e n by v0(t) = | l + - ~ = . 25^ 2j ( 1 2 .4 - 9 )
A s w e s a w in S e c t io n 1 1 .3 th e q u a s i-s ta tic a p p r o x im a tio n is v a lid fo r th e s in g le tu n e d c ir c u it p ro v id e d t h a t (cf. E q . 1 1 .3 -1 7 ) 1 1Aco\2
fi\ ' <<L

F o r th e c ir c u it ju s t c o n s id e r e d , (A oj/a)2 = 0 .0 0 3 6 ; h e n c e , fo r a n y v a lu e o f /? g r e a te r th a n 0 .3 6 , 1 /Aw\2 _
/ ( ) < '
a n a c c u r a te e x p r e s s io n fo r v0(t).
th e v a lid ity o f q u a s i-s ta tic a p p r o x im a tio n is e n su re d , a n d th u s E q . ( 1 2 .4 - 9 ) p ro v id e s O n c e w 0 , A w , a n d com fo r th e in p u t F M s ig n a l a re k n o w n , th e p a r a m e te r s o f th e tu n e d c ir c u it c a n b e se le c te d . F o r e x a m p le , i f w 0 = 27t(10.7 M H z ), A w = 27c(75 k H z ), a n d w m = 27t(15 k H z ) (c o m m e r c ia l F M ) , th e n B W = 1 0 0 Aw/3 = a wc = w0 H ---- 7= = y /2 BW w0 H --------- 7= = 2 ^ (1 1 .2 3 M H z ), 2y J2 M H z) and
w ith th e re s u lt t h a t Q T = a> J B W = 7 .5 . If, in a d d itio n , R = lO k Q a n d I x = 1 m A , th e n C = 1/(BW )/? = 6 7 p F , L = l/w c 2 C = 12 //H, an d vJLt) = (8 .1 5 V ) + (0 .2 3 V )/ (i) (P = Aw/wm = 5 e n s u re s th e v a lid ity o f th e q u a s i-s ta tic a p p r o x im a tio n ).
Balanced Slope Demodulator

A s w as p o in te d o u t in S e c tio n 1 2 .3 , sin g le -e n d e d d e m o d u la to r s a r e v ir tu a lly n e v e r u sed i f Aw/w0 is s m a ll, b e c a u s e o f th e ir h ig h s e n sitiv ity t o e n v e lo p e v a r ia tio n s o n th e in p u t sig n a l. C o n s e q u e n tly , to m a k e th e s lo p e d e m o d u la to r le ss s e n sitiv e to e n v e lo p e v a r ia tio n s a t its in p u t, a b a la n c in g p a th m u s t b e in tro d u c e d . A b a la n c e d s lo p e d e m o d u l a to r w h ic h n o t o n ly p ro d u c e s z e r o o u tp u t fo r w, = w 0 b u t a ls o h a s a n in c re a se d lin e a r o p e r a tin g ra n g e is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .4 -3 . F o r th is c ir c u it, b a la n c in g is a c h ie v e d b y ta k in g th e d iffe re n c e o f th e o u tp u t v o lta g e s o f tw o s in g le -e n d e d s lo p e d e m o d u la to r s , o n e tu n e d a b o v e w 0 a n d th e o th e r tu n e d b e lo w w 0 b y a s im ila r a m o u n t. I f a g a in w e a s s u m e t h a t th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r s d o n o t lo a d th e tu n e d c ir c u its , t h a t th e q u a s i- s t a t ic a p p r o x im a tio n is .valid fo r d e te r m in in g th e v o lta g e a c r o s s e a c h tu n e d c ir c u it, a n d th a t i,(t) is g iv e n b y
/',(/) = / , cos
w0i + Aw
f(0) dd ,
(12,4-10)
1 2 .4
597
Fig. 12.4-3 Balanced slope dem odulator.
th e n fo r th e d e m o d u la to r sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .4 -3 v(t) = i i( t ) vo2(t) IZ u i j w + j Acof{t)]\2 )
= M l z u [ M > + j Aco/(f)]|) -
ll\Z T [jw 0+ jAtiifm,
(12.4 11)
w h e re \ZT(jio)\ = \Zl l (jw)\1 \Zl l (jw)\2 a n d Z i i (p ) l a n d Z l i (p )2 a re th e in p u t im p e d a n c e s o f th e p a ra lle l and R 2L 2C 2 c ir c u its re sp e ctiv e ly . T h e tran sfer c h a r a c te r is tic n o w r e la tin g a>,(f) a n d v0(t) is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .4 -4 . F r o m F ig . 12.4 4 th e r e a s o n fo r th e in c re a se d lin e a r ity b e c o m e s a p p a re n t. If the tw o in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r is t ic s sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .4 - 4 a re c o r r e c tly a d ju s te d , they c o m b in e in su ch a w ay as to fo rm a ^(O-vs.-w î) c h a r a c te r is tic w h ich h a s oud
Fig. 12.4-4 T ra n sfe r c h a ra c te ris tic re la tin g to (f) a n d v0(t) for th e circ u it o f Fig. 12.4-3.
598
FM DEMODULATORS
c j0 .
12.4
s y m m e try a b o u t
T h u s i f |Z^j'co)! is e x p a n d e d in a T a y lo r se rie s in a > a b o u t a>0 ,
th e e v en te rm s v a n i s h : \ZT( M = \ZT(jco0)\'(co co0 ) + \ZT(jo j0)\J 3!t o)3
( 1 2 .4 - 1 2 )
T h e r e fo r e ,
ojc1
a n d coc2 c a n n o w b e c h o s e n s u c h t h a t | Z j { j o j 0)\'" = 0 [s in c e IZ jijw o )]"
is a lre a d y z e r o ], w ith th e re s u lt th a t th e first te rm in tr o d u c in g a n o n lin e a r ity i n \ZT( j a > )\ , a n d in tu rn va(t), in v o lv e s th e fifth d e r iv a tiv e o f \ZT(jto)\ | (U=(Uo. I f Q t f o r b o t h th e tu n e d c ir c u its o f F i g . 1 2 .4 - 3 is g r e a te r th a n 10, th e n \ZT(juj)\ m a y b e c lo s e ly a p p r o x im a te d b y \ZT{j(o) ( 1 2 .4 - 1 3 )
w h e re
= l / 2 R 1C 1 = B W ^
a n d a 2 = 1/2R 2C 2 = B W 2/2.
F o r th is c a s e , o d d
sy m m e try in \ZT(jaj)\ a b o u t co0 is o b ta in e d by c h o o s in g R , = R 2 = R , tx1 = a 2 = a = B W / 2, ft)cl = co0 + co, a n d coc2 = co0 Sa>. In a d d itio n (a s th e re a d e r sh o u ld verify ), \ Z j{jta 0)\"' = 0 if 5a> is c h o s e n a s
( 1 2 .4 - 1 4 )
W ith th is c h o ic e fo r Sa>, th e T a y lo r se rie s e x p a n s io n fo r \ZT(jai)\ re d u c e s to co co0 a a n d in tu rn , , 4 I tR 625 \ a ( 1 2 .4 - 1 5 )
3 T A c o f(t ) a
54 625 ) 5 + ( 1 2 .4 - 1 6 )
F o r th is c a s e , if
Aco/a. < 0 .5 8 5 , th e n th e s e c o n d te r m o f E q . ( 1 2 .4 - 1 6 ) is le ss th a n 1 %
o f th e first te rm fo r a ll v a lu e s o f / ( i ) ; th u s v0(t) v a rie s in d ir e c t p r o p o r tio n to f ( t ) . H o w e v e r, a v a lu e o f Aco/a a s la r g e a s 0 .5 8 5 p u ts a s tr a in o n th e q u a s i-s ta tic a p p r o x im a tio n fo r v a lu e s o f fi le s s th a n 7 (cf. E q . 1 1 .3 -1 7 ) . T h e r e fo r e , Aco/a is u su a lly c h o s e n t o b e j , a v a lu e w h ic h e n s u re s th e v a lid ity o f E q . ( 1 1 .3 - 1 7 ) w ith P a s lo w a s 5. W it h Aco/a = j (o r B W = 4 Aco), v(t) g iv e n b y E q . ( 1 2 .4 - 1 6 ) sim p lifie s to
(1 2 .4 -1 7 )
12.4
599
H e n c e , i f /, = 1 m A a n d R = l O k i i , v0(t) = (3.1 V ) / ( i ) ; th u s th e b a la n c e d slo p e d e m o d u la to r , in a d d itio n t o its o th e r a d v a n ta g e s , p ro v id e s a c o e ffic ie n t fo r t h e / ( i ) te rm in its o u tp u t w h ic h is m o r e th a n 13 tim e s a s la rg e a s th e c o r r e s p o n d in g c o e ffic ie n t fo r th e sin g le -e n d e d s lo p e d e m o d u la to r . H e re a g a in , p a r a m e te r s fo r th e tu n e d c ir c u its o f th e b a la n c e d s lo p e d e m o d u la to r m a y b e c h o s e n o n c e co0 , Aco, a n d com a re sp e cifie d . U s in g th e c o m m e r c ia l F M v aiu es, we o b ta in B W = 4A a> = 2 7 c (3 0 0 k H z ), a> = 2 7 r(l8 4 k H z ), cocl = 27 t(1 0 .8 8 4 M H z ), an d cuc2 = 2 tt(1 0 .5 1 6 M H z ) ; hence Q Tl = 3 6 .3 , Q T2 = 3 5 .2 , C x = C 2 = 53 p F , L j = 4 .0 4 /H, a n d L 2 = 4 .5 5 iH . A p o s s ib le p h y s ic a l c ir c u it fo r re a liz in g th e b a la n c e d slo p e d e m o d u la to r is sh o w n in F ig . 1 2 .4 -5 . F o r th is c ir c u it th e first d iffe re n tia l p a ir n o t o n ly p ro v id e s th e tw o id e n tic a l c u r r e n t d riv esi,-(i), b u t a ls o a c ts a s a lim ite r. (A c tu a lly th e c u rr e n ts a t th e c o lle c t o r s o f Q x a n d Q 2 a r e 180 o u t o f p h a s e w ith e a c h o th e r. T h e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r s , h o w e v e r, a re n o t s e n sitiv e to th is p h a se in v e rsio n .) T h e d io d e s in th e d e te c to r s a re
Fig. 12.4-5 Practical embodiment o f balanced slope demodulator.
600
FM DEMODULATORS
12.4
m a d e o f g e r m a n iu m to m in im iz e th e ir e ffe ctiv e V0 ; h o w e v e r, if th e d io d e s a r e m a tc h e d , th e F0 -te rm is b a la n c e d o u t a t th e o u tp u t. F in a lly , th e s e c o n d d iffe re n tia l p a ir a c c e p ts th e d iffe re n tia l in p u t a n d p ro v id e s a sin g le -e n d e d o u tp u t. T h e re s is to rs a r e ad d e d in se rie s w ith th e e m itte r s o f th is d iffe re n tia l p a ir t o in c r e a s e th e lin e a r o p e r a tin g ra n g e an d re d u c e th e lo a d in g o f th e d iffe re n tia l p a ir o n th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to rs . T h e m o d u la te d in p u t t o th is c ir c u it is th e tr a n s fo r m e r -c o u p le d v o lta g e v{t) a p p e a r in g a t th e b a s e o f Q ,.
Envelope Detector Loading

In m a n y a p p lic a tio n s it is n o t d e s ir a b le to m a k e th e o u tp u t r e s is ta n c e R 0 o f th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r in th e s lo p e d e m o d u la to r so la rg e th a t it d o e s n o t lo a d th e tu n e d c irc u it. H o w e v e r, p ro v id e d th a t C 0 lo o k s lik e a n o p e n c ir c u it in c o m p a r is o n w ith R 0 o v e r th e b a n d o f fre q u e n c ie s o c c u p ie d b y / (f), t h a t is, 0 < com, th e lo a d in g o f th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is re a d ily a c c o u n te d fo r. In p a r tic u la r , w ith C 0 a n o p e n c ir c u it to / (f), th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r fu n c tio n s in a s ta tic fa s h io n a n d its p rim a r y e ffe ct is to lo w e r th e Q T o f th e tu n e d c ir c u it b y re fle c tin g a r e s is to r o f v a lu e R 0/ 2 in p a ra lle l w ith th e p a ra lle l R L C c ir c u it. F o r e x a m p le , i f th e tu n e d c ir c u it h a s a p a ra lle l r e s is ta n c e o f 2 0 k Q a n d R 0 = 4 0 k f i , th e lo a d in g o f th e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r m a y b e a c c o u n te d fo r by d e c re a s in g th e t o t a l p a ra lle l r e s is ta n c e R T = R||(R0/2) t o l O k i l is th e n used in a ll th e e x p r e s s io n s p re v io u s ly d eriv ed . T h is v a lu e o f R T
Series-Tuned Balanced Slope Demodulator

S e rie s re s o n a n t c ir c u its c a n a ls o b e u sed to o b ta in a slo p e d e m o d u la to r . F o r th is d u a l a rr a n g e m e n t a c o m m o n v o lta g e m u st d riv e th e tw o s e rie s -tu n e d c ir c u its , a n d th e d iffe re n c e o f th e e n v e lo p e s o f th e ir c u r r e n ts m u st b e used to p ro v id e a n o u tp u t. A c ir c u it fo r a c c o m p lis h in g th is is illu s tra te d in F ig . 1 2 .4 -6 . F o r th is d e m o d u la to r a n a v e ra g e e n v e lo p e d e te c to r is used in s te a d o f th e p e a k e n v e lo p e d e t e c t o r ; th u s th e r e s tr ic tio n s o n D a n d /? o f th e in p u t F M s ig n a l a re c o n s id e r a b ly re la x e d . S p e c ific a lly , D a n d P m u st d e te r m in e a p o in t u n d e r th e c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -7 in s te a d o f d e te r m in in g a p o in t u n d e r th e m o r e r e s tric tiv e c u rv e o f F ig . 1 2 .2 -9 . F o r th e c ir c u it o f F ig . 1 2 .4 -6 , i f V0 % 0 fo r th e d io d e s a n d tr a n s is to r s , th e n v(t) a p p e a rs d ir e c tly a c r o s s th e s e rie s -tu n e d c ir c u its , w ith th e re s u lt th a t th e e n v e lo p e o f i',(r) is g iv e n by V iW ^ U to o + jA cof(t)]\ l a n d th e e n v e lo p e o f i2(t) is g iv e n by V ilY n U co o + j Aoj/(f)]|2 , w h e re Y n { p ) { a n d Yl l (p )2 a r e th e a d m itta n c e s o f th e se rie s r , L , C , a n d r 2L 2C 2 F o r e a c h tu n e d c ir c u it, th e se rie s r e s is ta n c e in c lu d e s
re s o n a n t c ir c u its re sp e ctiv e ly .
a n y .in p u t r e s is ta n c e o f th e tr a n s is to r -d io d e c o m b in a tio n s . C o n s e q u e n tly , i f th e b a n d -
12.4
601
w idth of the R 0~C 0 low -pass filter is greater th a n com, then v0(t) is given by atj-Fj.Ro
71
otj-V^Ro
(12.4-18)
w here | YT(jo>)\ = | y, i(joj)\ = \ l (yoj)|, I Yt l(jco'fi2. (A subscript T is used to differ en tiate the tran sisto r ctT from the a of the tuned circuit.) It is a p p aren t th a t Eq. (12.4-18) is o f the sam e form as Eq. (12.4-11); hence the sam e consid eratio n s em ployed in choosing param eter values for the tuned circuits of Fig. 12.4 3 apply to the tuned circuits o f Fig. 12.4 6. In particular, if Q T > 10 for b o th o f the tu n ed circuits o f Fig. 12.4-6, then
v(t) =
< * tKRo 1+
1 j~oj,(Q - coc,
1 C O ,(0 - w c
1 +
(12.4-19)
where
602
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
H ence, if we again choose a! = a 2 = a, r , = r 2 = r,aicl = co0 + Sa>, a> c2 = a> 0 S oj, and doj = ^ / f a , then provided th at Aco/a is kep t less th an v0(t) reduces to , 4 a r F,/? 0 3 Acof(t) v(t) = 1 /- 5nr \ 5 a (12. 4- 20)
As with the C lark e-H ess d e m o d u lato r discussed in Section 12.3, R 0 should be chosen sufficiently large to m axim ize (t),'-but n o t so large th a t either tran sisto r in the circuit of Fig. 12.4-6 satu rates o n the peaks of /(t). A lthough we have assum ed F0 % 0 in this analysis, the expression for v0(t) given by Eq. (12.4-20) is n o t appreciably affected if V0 is a few tenths of a volt. This insensitivity is a direct result of the balanced n a tu re of the c irc u it; thus, to aid in this balancing, every effort should be m ade to m atch the input characteristics of the tra n sistors an d diodes of Fig. 12.4-6. If this is n o t done, som e variations in center fre quency with in p u t am plitude will result.
Crystal Slope Demodulator
In place of the tw o tuned circuits of Fig. 12.4-6, two crystal reso n ato rs m ay be inserted, one w ith its series resonance slightly above < o0 and the o th er w ith its series resonance slightly below c o0. T he result is a slope d em o d u lato r w ith an extrem ely stable center frequency an d an o u tp u t voltage which is extrem ely sensitive to sm all deviations a b o u t co0. S m ith f has rep o rted such a discrim inator in which, instead of separate crystals, three sections of a single q u a rtz crystal are m echanically coupled. H e presents results for a d etector w ith a center frequency o f 15 M H z and a linear bandw idth of 3 kHz. His device is rep o rted to be generally useful in the 5-40 M H z range and to have po s sible useful b an d w id th s o f u p to 0.2 % o f the center frequency. A single crystal used w ith a balancing b ran ch is often em ployed as the dis c rim in ato r in the frequency stabilizing situation described in Section 11.9. In such situations it is n o rm ally m ore satisfactory to operate the crystal in the vicinity of the zero in its im pedance function rath e r th a n near its parallel resonant frequency. (Sec tion 6.7 discusses the cry stals im pedance function in som e detail.) 12.5 TIME-DELAY DIFFERENTIATOR, TIME-DELAY DEMODULATOR, FOSTER-SEELEY DEMODULATOR, AND RATIO DETECTOR A tim e-delay differentiator is a linear netw ork which im plem ents the fundam ental definition o f a derivative, dv(t) v ( t ) - v ( t - t 0) : = h m --------------------- . dt <o-o to -.en (12.5-1)
T he block d iag ram for such a netw ork is show n in Fig. 12.5-1. In this diagram we t Warren L. Smith, The Monolithic FM Discriminator: A New Piezoelectric Device, IEEE Trans, on Communication Technology, Coro-16, No. 3, pp. 460-463 (June 1968).
12.5
TIME-DELAY DIFFERENTIATOR AND DEMODULATOR
603
v(f) o
* 0
Amplifier
v - 0
Delay
line to
l0 small compared with variations in v(t)
Fig. 12.5-1 Block diagram of a time-delay differentiator. observe that a delayed version of v(t) is subtracted from i>(r) and the resultant signal is am plified by l / r 0. In general, t0 m ust be chosen equal to zero to realize the exact derivative of v(t); how ever, as a practical m atter, so long as i0 is small in com parison w ith the tim e interval durin g which variations in v(t) occur, the derivative of v(t) is ap proxim ated quite accurately. It is ap p aren t th a t t 0 should n o t be chosen any sm aller th an necessary, since such a choice requires an ad d itio n al am plifier gain (1j t 0) to bring the signal up to a useful level. Therefore, we shall now determ ine the m axim um value of t0 which perm its the netw ork to function as a differentiator (i.e., to convert variations in instantaneous frequency into envelope variations) for the case where i(i) has the form (12.5-2) In the next section we shall again determ ine the m axim um perm issible size of f0 where v{t) is a square-w ave FM signal given by Eq. (1 2.2-lb). O nce the m axim um size of f0 is determ ined, we shall im plem ent the block diagram of Fig. 12.5 -1 with practical circuits and then interconnect them with the various am plitude dem odulators to form frequency dem odulators. F o r the purpose of analysis we shall consider the m ore general time-delay differentiator, show n in Fig. 12.5-2, from which the am plifier has been om itted and the
v(/)
o-
v(/) o
Delay network
00
(0 - time delay = carrier phase shift
Fig. 12.5-2 General time-delay differentiator.
604
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
Fig. 12.5-3 Magnitude and phase characteristic of the delay network of Fig. 12.5-2. provision for a phase shift of 0o at co0 in the delay netw ork has been included. Figure 12.5- 3 illustrates the m agnitude and phase characteristic of the delay netw ork of Fig. 12.5-2. N ote that, if 60 = - (o0t0, then the phase characteristic passes through the origin an d the norm al delay line show n in Fig. 12.5-1 results. If we apply v(t) given by Eq. (12.5-2) to the tim e-delay differentiator show n in Fig. 12.5-2, then w ith the aid o f Eq. (11.3-3) we can w rite vb(t ) = A cos [ o v + Aco
f ( 0 ) dd~^ A cos
+ Acu
f(Q) d6 + 60
E n velope te rm : g(!)
= 2 A sin in i^ A o >
m d O - 9 oj
x sin |co0f + Ao) J" f(6)d6 jjÂco

H ig h -fre q u e n c y te rm
f(8) d6 0o
(12.5-3)
The second expression in Eq. (12.5-3) is o b tain ed w ith the aid o f the trigonom etric identity x + y . x - y cos x cos y = 2 sin ~ sin - .
Since vb(t) will be placed th ro u g h an envelope detector, only the envelope g(r) of vb(t) need be considered in determ ining the m axim um perm issible value for t0. M ore specifically, the m axim um value o f tQ is th a t value which still perm its g(f) given by g(i) = 2 A sin ^ aco J to vary in direct p ro p o rtio n to
/(f).
f m d o - e ,
(1 2 .5 -4 )
12.5
605
T he envelope g(t) m ay be arranged in a form in which its dependence on f is m ore explicit by defining
k(t) = Aa> f mde

'i-ro
Aco r
~Y
J m d o
A? r
I 2 J
to
f(0 )d 0 .
(12.5-5)
Now by taking the Fourier transform of .Eq. (12.5-5) we obtain
^ Aa>F(a>) 1 K(w) = r .-(1 2 jo) = F(co)e

2 Aa}to sin (cofp/2)
wto/2 (12.5-6)
= F(a>)H D(ja>),
where K(ctj) and F(a > ) are the F o u rier transform s of k(t) and f i t ) respectively and
jaito/2 H D(ja>) = e
Acyt0 sin {(ot0/2) 2 o)t0/ 2
A plot of \H D(ja>)\ and arg H D (jcj) vs. a> is show n in Fig. 12.5-4. from which we observe th at \H D (jio)\ is essentially co n stan t at Acoi0/2 for a> < 2 /i0 ; hence, if a>m < 2/t0 , w here com is the lim it on the spectrum of F(a>), then K M = F(H d(oj) or equivalently, m (12.5-8) ^ e - J o /2 F (4 (12.5-7)
Fig. 12.5-4 Plot o f the magnitude and phase characteristic o f H ^joS).
606
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
T hus we see th a t k(t) is p ro p o rtio n al to a delayed versionf of /( f ) provided th at t0 < . W ith k(t) given by Eq. (12.5-8), g(f) simplifies to g(t) = 2 A sin Acof , / Atofp 2 J \ fp\ 21 Q0 2_ (12.5-10) (12.5-9)
T he transfer characteristic relating g(f) and (Acof0/2) f ( t - f0/2) is show n in Fig. 12.5-5, from w hich we observe th a t only if
Fig. 12.5-5 Transfer characteristic relating g(t) and (Atot0/2)/(f t j 2). Acwt0 for all f
does g(f) vary in p ro p o rtio n to f ( t t0/2) as desired. M ore specifically, if we expand g(f) given by Eq. (12.5-10) in the form git) = 2A sin f c (I)c o s ^ 2 A cosfc(t)sin (12.5-11)
we observe that, if k(t) is k ept less th an 0.2 for all f, then sin k(t) k(t) and cos k(t) % 1 (within 2 %), with the result that g(f) = 2Ak(t) cos 2A sin ^ c o s y - 2 A sin 0o
= A Ao)t0/ | f -
(12.5-12)
T he requirem ent th a t k(t) < 0.2 is equivalent to Acot0 < 0.4, as is readily seen from Eq. (12.5-8). t A slight delay is unimportant in most communication applications.
(1 2 .5 -1 3 )
12.5
TIM E-D ELA '. r' I f C I :r . n H '" jR AND DEM ODULATOR
607
T he desired p ro p o rtio n ality between g(f) an-i f i t as expressed in Eq. (12.5-12), requires th a t b o th Eqs. (12.5-9) and (12.5-13) be satisfied. W hen P > 0.4/2 = 0.2 (which is usually the case in practice), Eq. (12.5-13) is m ore restric tive th an Eq. (12.5- 9) hence for this case the m axim um size of t0 is restricted to 0.4/Aw. In general, a value for 60 m ust also be selected. It is ap p aren t that, if 60 is chosen as 0, 2n, 4n, etc., the com ponent of g(i) p ro p o rtio n al to f ( t 0/2 ) is m axim ized. The difficulty w ith this choice is th a t g(i) is n o t positive (or negative) for all t and thus peak o r average envelope detection is im possible. T o overcom e this difficulty, 90 m ust be chosen such th a t (cf. Eq. 12.5-12) 0O 0o Acui0 cos < 2 sin , 2 2 or equivalently, ta n ^ > A 2 2 Since Aa > t0 < 0.4, Eq. (12.2-33) is satisfied provided th at 0o > 0.4(22.7). (12.5-15)
On A C O tn
(12.5-14)
In m any practical circuits a phase shift at the carrier frequency of 0O = n / 2 is readily o b ta in e d ; th u s this value is usually em ployed, with the result th at Eq. (12.5-12) simplifies to g(i) = + A y / 2 (12.5-16)
C onsequently, if the tim e-delay differentiator (w ith 0o = n /2 ) is follow ed by an envelope d etecto r as show n in Fig. 12.5-6 and if t0 is chosen at its m axim um value o f 0.4/Aco, then the resu ltan t frequency d em o d u lato r o u tp u t is given by vjtt) = A K U^ 2 [ 1 + 0.2f { t - t0/ 2)], (12.5-17)
w here K M is th e am p litu d e d e m o d u la to r co n stan t a n d the and + correspond to 0O = n/2 an d 0Q n/2 respectively.
Fig. 12.5-6 Single-ended tim e-delay frequency dem odulator.
608
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
T he single-ended tim e-delay d em o d u lato r finds wide application in d em o d u lating F M m icrow ave signals. Tw o path s are provided for v(t) through waveguides or transm ission lines o f differing lengths. T he difference in length is adjusted so th a t o n e signal experiences a tim e delay i 0 an d a phase shift 9 0 = oj0t 0 = 2>n/2 = n/2 n (th at is, a phase shift o f n/2 plus an inversion). T he o u tp u t o f the tw o w aveguides (or transm ission lines) is th en com bined an d envelope-detected w ith a crystal d etecto r inserted in th e guide. T he detecto r o u tp u t is th e d em odulated F M signal. A sim ilar schem e should apply to the dem odulation o f frequency-m odulated laser beams. A balanced frequency d em o d u lato r em ploying a tim e-delay differentiator is show n in block d iag ram form in Fig. 12.5-7. In this diagram tw o single-ended tim edelay frequency dem o d u lators, one w ith 60 = n/2 and the o th er w ith 90 = n /2 ,
Fig. 12.5-7 Balanced tim e-delay frequency dem odulator.
are arran g ed in such a way th a t th eir o u tp u ts subtract, with th e result th a t va{t) is given by f 0(t) = y / 2 A K M Aa>t0f ( t - t0/ 2). (12.5-18)
F o r this case, n o t only are all the advantages o f balancing obtained, but also the coefficient of the f ( t f0/ 2)-term is increased by a factor of 2 over the single-ended d em odulator. By n oting th a t a phase shift of n/2 can be obtained th ro u g h a phase shift of ti/2 plus a signal inversion (a phase shift of n), we m ay rearrange the balanced tim e-delay d e m o d u la to r of Fig. 12.5-7 in a form which requires only phase shifts of n/2 at the carrier frequency. (A phase shift of n/2 is m ore readily realized in a physical circuit th a n is a phase shift o f + 7 i/2.) T w o versions of the resultant circuit are show n in Fig. 12.5-8. W hen an actu al piece o f delay line is used to im plem ent the circuit, the single delay-line circuit is the obvious choice. F o r this case, 0 O = to 0l 0 ; hence, for 0o = ~ n / 2 ,
t 0 = To/4,
1 2.5
TIM E-D ELA Y DIFFERENTIATOR AND DEMODULATOR
609
Fig. 12.5-8 A ltern a tiv e fo rm s for th e b a la n c e d tim e-delay d e m o d u la to r.
w here T0 is the carrier period. T hus to construct a delay-line d em o d u lato r at T0 = lOOnsec (/ = 10 M Hz), one requires a m inim um overall delay of 25 nsec. Since an ord in ary coaxial line has a delay of the o rd er of 5 nsec/m , such a detector will be ra th e r cum bersom e if built v/ith this type of line. F ortunately helically w ound delay lines ex istf w ith delays o f up to 30nsec/ar> o r 3 sec/10 m. Thus, with (he use of d istrib u ted lines, delay-line dem odulator,' ire a practical possibility for values of / 0 as low as 800 kHz. The Foster Seeley D em odulator M any existing FM d em o d u lato rs use the nearly constant phase characteristic of a tuned circuit n ear resonance to approxim ate the delay line and thus to realize a delay-line type of dem o d u lato r. In the analysis of such circuits, one should rem em ber th at tw o layers o f ap p ro x im atio n s are being used. In the first layer, one is ap p ro x i m ating an ideal differentiator with a delay line; in the second layer, one is a p p ro x i m ating the delay line by the tuned circuit. In the second approxim ation, one norm ally further neglects the circuit-induced am p litu d e variations.
t See J. M illm a n a n d H . T a u b , P u l s e a n d D i g i t a l C i r c u it s , M c G ra w -H ill, N ew Y ork (1956). C h a p te r 10, S ectio n 1 d e sc rib e s a n u m b e r o f lines w ith d elay s from 140 n sec/m to 30,000 nsec/m .
610
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
Figure 12.5 9 illustrates the widely used Foster-Seeley F M d e m o d u la to r.! As we shall show, in this circuit the tuned transform er introduces a tim e delay t0 and a phase shift of n/2 betw een v(t) an d vb(t). T he voltage vb(t) is then com bined w ith v(t) in a fashion identical with th a t of the block diagram of Fig. 12.5-8 to yield va(t) given by Eq. (12.5-18). Since peak envelope detection is em ployed, K M = 1. Ideal
Fig. 12.5-9 F oster-Seeley d em o d u lato r which physically im plem ents the block diagram of Fig. 12.5-8 (top).
T o obtain a suitable expression for t0 in term s of the param eters of the tuned circuit o f Fig. 12.5-9, let us assum e th at the envelope detectors do n o t load the tuned transform er circuit. (If they do, as was pointed o u t in the previous section, a resistor R 0 m ust be placed in parallel w ith R.) N eglecting detector loading, we can determ ine vb(t) from the m odel of the tuned transform er illustrated in Fig. 12.5-10 (cf. Fig. 2,A-3c). W ith this m odel, vb(t) is related to v(t) by the transfer function H(p) =
M
V(p)
k a il2 p 2 + 2a p + ao
i
(12.5-19)
........ . +
k v { t)
. rvnrx,
(1
> ------ c
>R
C- ^
2i
Ideal
--------------------- - \
<\------ c
Fig. 12.5-10 M odel for the tuned transform er of Fig. 12.5-9. t D. F. F oster and S. H. Seeley,
P roc. IR E ,
25, p. 289 (1937).
12.5
611
w here co0 = l/ ,/ ( T ~ - k 2)LC an d a = 1/2 RC. T he pole-zero diagram o f H(p) is show n in Fig. 12.5-11. N o te, how ever, th a t this pole-zero d iagram is identical with th at of Fig. 3.1-5 (except for the scale factor), for which 90 was found to equal n/2. In additio n , for QT = co0R C > 10 (cf. Eq. 3.1-9), H(jco) may be closely approxim ated as
(12.5 20) 2-v/l + [(cu - <y0)/a]2
H (p )
x Fig. 12.5-11 Pole-zero diagram of
H (p ).
F o r |(&) - a>o)/a| < 0.2, tan 1 [(co w 0)/a] m ay be approxim ated by (o> - a0)/a w ithin 2 % an d ^ / l + [(oj a>0)/a]2 m ay be ap proxim ated by unity w ithin 2 %. Thus, if we operate sufficiently close to co0 , H (ja > ) simplifies to H(jU)) = ^ Z g _J[(ra_ o)/a + it/2]
(12.5-21)
which is the transfer function of a delay netw ork with a delay of i0 = 1/a, with a carrier phase shift o f n/2, an d w ith a scale factor of k Q T/2. By choosing
kQr _ j
(12.5-22)
we o b tain the desired scale factor for the delay netw ork. F o r p ro p er op eratio n , the b andw idth BW o f the FM signal r(f) m ust lie within the range over which H(ju>) app ears as a delay n e tw o rk ; th at is, BW 2a (BW )t0 ^ 0 2 2 (12.5-23)
612
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
H ow ever, since BW /2 is g reater th a n Aw, Eq. (12.5-23) is m ore restrictive th a n Eq. (12.5-13); hence the m axim um size o f f0 [and in tu rn (f)] is lim ited in this case by the physical im plem entation of the delay netw ork. At this p o in t we are in a position to determ ine the param eters o f the tuned transform er once w 0, Aw, and w m are specified. C onsider, for exam ple, w 0 = 27r( 10.7 M Hz), A w = 27i(75kHz), and w m = 27t(15kHz). F o r this case p 5 and, from Fig. 11.1-4, BW = 3.2 A w , thus from Eq. (12.5-23) we see th a t the m axim um value of t0 is tn 1 0.4 0.4 BW " 3.2 Aio = 266 nsec,
o r a = /3.76 M rad/sec. Since Q T = w j l c . = 9, the coefficient o f coupling m ust be adjusted to equal 2 /Q T = 0.222. N ow if/? = 1 0 k ii, then C = - = 13.3 p F 2a R F and 1 L = -T -=17.6 (iVlwlC{ 1 - k 2,
In addition, if A = 5 V, from Eq. (12.5-18) we obtain r 0(r) = (0.886 V )/(r - 133 nsec) ^ (0.886 V ) /( ,). In w riting the expression for v0(t) we im plicitly assum ed th a t the diodes in the envelope d etector were ideal. Even if they are not, so long as their characteristics are m atched, the F0-term they in tro d u ce cancels in the output. A final version for the circuit o f Fig. 12.5-9 is show n in Fig. 12.5-11. In this circuit, v(t ) is developed fro m ji current source drive by tuning the input o f the tra n s form er to cj0 ; th a t is, 1/ y J L C l = oj0 . In addition, the floating voltage source u(i) is developed across th e R F choke by placing a coupling cap acito r from the to p o f the
12.5
613
inpu t-tu n ed circuit to one end o f the R F choke. T he o ther end is grounded to high frequencies th ro u g h C 0. If the prim ary tu n ed circuit for the circuit o f Fig. 12.5-10 has approxim ately the sam e Q T an d th u s the sam e band w idth as the secondary tuned circuit, the bandw idth o f i,(t) is co n cen trated over th e range o f frequencies where the in p u t im pedance o f the tu n ed tran sfo rm er ap p ears resistive. H ence A = w here R in is the in p u t resistance o f the tuned transform er evaluated at co0 and A is the am p litu d e o f v(t). C onsequently, once R in is know n, v(t) can be determ ined directly from i,{t) a n d the previous analysis m ay be em ployed to determ ine v0(t). T he value for R in is readily show n to be given by *.n = * l l t T hus if R = 10 kO , R , = 2.5 kQ , and M = (4 mA) cos â)0f + Aoj J f ( 0 ) dO , then v(t) = (5 V )cos a)0t + Aa)
f(0)d0 .
The Ratio Detector
If one of the diodes of the Foster-Seeley dem o d u lato r is reversed and a large cap acito ! is placed in the circuit as show n in Fig. 12.5-13, the ra tio detector results. J T he ratio d etector perform s the functions o f b o th a dynam ic lim iter and a frequency dem o d u lato r an d is th u s used in m any en tertainm ent-type F M receivers. T he lim iting o p era tion is accom plished a t th e expense of balancing, an d thus the signal com ponent ^ f
t T o show that R in = R , || (K/4) let (, = / , cos a0i with the result th at v ( t ) A c o c J . II' envelope detecto r loading is neglected, then 2ub(i) -- 2 A cos (a0i - n / 2 ) . N ow the input pow er to the tuned transform er is given by P in = A 2/ 2 R in . T his pow er is dissipated in R t a n d R ; th u s P in = P K1 + P R . H ow ever, P R = 4 A 2/ 2 R and P RJ = A 2/ 2 K ; ; therefore,
If envelope d etector loading is n o t neglected, then
R. = R , * ll^ i See S. W. Seeley an d J. Avins, T he R atio D etector, R C A R e v i e w , 8, p. 289 (1947). See also B. D. Loughlin, T he T heory o f A m plitude M odulatio n Rejection in the R atio D etecto r, Proc I R E , 40, pp 289 296 (M arch 1952).
614
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
i-Ji) has half the am plitu d e of the o u p u t of a corresponding Foster-Seeley d em o d u lator in add itio n to a dc com ponent. T o get som e idea of the o peration of the ra tio detector, consider the circuit of Fig. 12.5-13 w ith C 2 rem oved. F o r this case, if we again assum e th a t the loading of the envelope d etectors can be m odeled by placing R 0 in parallel with R, th at operation is such th at the tu n ed transform er transfer function is given by Eq.(12.5-21), and th at kQ r/2 = 1, then the upper an d low er branches of the ratio detector function as single-ended tim e-deJay dem odulators, with the result th a t (cf. Eq. 12.5-16) v'0(t) = A j 2[1 - (Aojt0/ 2 ) f ( t - to/2)], v0(t) = A y / 2 [ l + (A(ot0/ 2 ) f (t - f0/2)], and v2(t) = V0(t) + v0(t) = 2 A S[2. Di (12.5-24)
Fig. 12.5-13 Ratio detector. N ow if C 2 is retu rn ed to th e circuit, it charges u p to a p o in t where the voltage across it has the value c2(f) = l A y J l , (12.5-25)
at which level no ad d itio n al current flows through C 2 and the circuit functions as if C 2 were not th ere; th a t is, v0(t) is still given by Eq. (12.5-24). How ever, in a fashion sim ilar to th a t discussed in Section 12.1, C 2 placed across the secondary of the tuned transform er in series with diodes D x and D 2 perform s the function of a dynam ic lim iter an d keeps the am plitude of v(t) and vb(t) constant at A even if /(t) contains a small am o u n t o f am p litu d e m odulation. H ow ever, the m od u latio n index (m ) cannot be too large; otherw ise, failure-to-follow disto rtio n will result.
12.5
615
In the case o f the ratio d etector it should be noted that the am plitude A of v(t ) is determ ined by the average am plitude of i;(f) flowing into the tuned transform er with C 2 rem oved. T hus, once the average am plitude of /(f) and the param eters of the tuned circuit are know n, A and in tu rn v0(t) can be calculated in a straightforw ard fa sh io n : A = In m any practical ra tio d etector circuits, sm all resistors (small in com parison with R 0) are add ed in series w ith the diodes. These resistors serve two purposes. First, they provide a way of correcting for slight im balances in the diodes and the center tapped tra n sfo rm e r; second, they som ew hat reduce the tendency of the circuit tow ard diagonal clipping.
Time-Delay Demodulator with a Synchronous Detector
T he tim e-delay differentiator m ay be follow ed by a synchronous detecto r to yield an FM d em o d u lato r. Such an arran g em en t is show n in Fig. 12.5-14. F o r this dem o d u la to r th e to p b ran ch is superfluous, since v(t) m ultiplied by Vx sin a > 0 T ( f ) produces
Fig. 1 2 .5 -1 4
F re q u e n c y d e m o d u la to r c o m p risin g a tim e-delay d iffere n tia to r follow ed by a
synchronous detector. a term centered a b o u t 2 co0 which is n o t passed by the low -pass filter. In addition, if a phase shift o f te/2 at w 0 is in co rp o rated into the delay netw ork and v(t) is used as the reference signal, the o u tp u t v0{t) rem ains u n c h an g e d ; thus the simplified circuit of Fig. 12.5-15 p roduces the sam e o u tp u t as the circuit of Fig. 12.5-14. It is a p p a re n t for th e circuit of Fig. 12.5-15 th a t the low -frequency com ponent at the filter input is given by KA2
s in
2k(t),
616
FM DEMODULATORS
12.5
w hich simplifies to
KA2 4 I t0\ &(Dt0f \ t y !
(12.5-26)
provided th a t t0 < 0.2/Aco a n d t0 < 2/com. If the low -pass filter extracts this lowfrequency term (which is possible only if D and determ ine a p o int below the curve of Fig. 12.2-6), then v(t) = - K mA Acot0/ | i - | | , (12.5-27)
where K M = K A /2. E q u atio n (12.5-27) could have been obtained by letting 0o = 0 in Eq. (12.5-12) an d placing the resu ltan t signal through a synchronous detector.
R e fe re n c e : A co s [co0r(i)] = A sin I <o0t(r) ^
Fig. 1 2 .5-15 S im plified tim e-d elay frequency d e m o d u la to r.
T o arrive a t Eq. (12.5-27) we require t 0 < 0.2/Aca instead o f t0 < 0.4/A w as given by Eq. (12.5-13). T his is a direct result of em ploying - Vx sin uj0n t) as the reference signal for the synchronous detector in place o f a m ore com plex signal p ro p o rtio n al to th e high-frequency term of Eq. (12.5-3). F ortunately, the sim pli fication of the reference signal has only this sm all effect. N ote th a t v(t) given by Eq. (12.5-27) contains no dc com ponent dependent on A. T hus the frequency d em o d u lato r o f Fig. 12.5-15 has the sam e insensitivity to am pli tu d e variations as any of the balanced frequency d em odulators previously discussed. In addition, it is easier to im plem ent physically. F igure 12.5-16 illustrates one possible physical im plem entation of the block d iagram o f Fig. 12.5-15. In this circuit, as in the circuit o f Fig. 12.5-9, the transform er w ith a tuned secondary is em ployed to achieve a tim e delay o f t0 = 1/a as well as a phase shift o f n / l a t the carrier frequency. Again the bandw idth of the input F M signal
\it) = Vl cos co0i -t- Aw i f(0)d0
12.5
617
m ust be less than 0.4a (cf. Eq. 12.5-23) and

0.2
10 = - <
to
T he differential p air is used as a m ultiplier, with the result th a t the low-frequency com ponent of the collector current of Q 2 is given by cCjkQ-j'Vxa x(x) 1 Ad)/1 t - r1-) + CCjIk0, 2 R Ea 2a (12.5-28)
f(6)d()
618
FM DEMODULATORS
12.6
w here a T is the tran sisto r alpha, aj(x) is the function of x given by Fig. 4.6-4, x = q V jk T , and I k0 is the quiescent em itter current o f Q3 with v(t) = = 0. If the R 0C 0 low -pass filter extracts the low -frequency com ponent of the collector current of Q2 while elim inating the com ponents centered ab o u t co0 and its harm onics, then v(t) is given by Acu/(i - 1/ 2)
v o (0 K : c ~~ a r ^ o ^ * o
+
2Rm
(12.5-29)
O f course, Eq. (12.5-29) is valid only if the bandw idth of the in p u t F M signal is less than 0.4a an d t0 = 1/a < 0.2/Ato. T he stricter of the tw o conditions determ ines the m axim um value o f t0 and, in turn, the largest am plitude for v(t). B ilo ttif has rep o rted an integrated 10.7 M H z differential-pair detector based on this approach. H e also obtained an experim ental o u tp u t characteristic for his circuit. 12.6 PULSE-COUNT FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR A pulse-count frequency d em o d u lato r is a tim e-delay frequency d em o d u lato r for which the tim e-delay netw ork is a physical delay line, the am plitude d em o d u lato r is an average envelope detector, and the input signal is a hard-lim ited F M square wave vsq(t) as described by Eq. (12.2-lb). T he basic block diagram of a pulse-count d em o d u lato r is show n in Fig. 12.6-1. Figure 12.6-2 illustrates the waveform s of the signals appearing at the various p o ints of the block diagram of Fig. 12.6-1. F ro m Fig. 12.6 -2 we observe th a t a pulse o f d u ra tio n t0 is generated in v j t ) at each positive zero crossing of vsq(t ) and then averaged (or counted) by the low -pass filter to obtain
V0(0-
Intuitively the o p eratio n of ,the pulse-count d em o d u lato r m akes good sense. W hen the in stan tan eo u s frequency is high, the pulses o f va(t) are closely spaced and the average value (the low -frequency com ponent) o f the pulses at the low -pass filter o u tp u t is high. Sim ilarly, as the in stantaneous frequency decreases, the pulses of v jt) becom e m ore widely spaced and the low -pass filter o u tp u t decreases. T hus the low -pass filter provides an o u tp u t w hich is p ro p o rtio n al to in stantaneous frequency.
t A. Bilotti, FM Detection Using a Product Detector, Proc. IEEE, 56, pp. 755-757 (April 1968).
12.6
PULSE-COUNT FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR
619
,(0 n I 1 1 [-*0
1 | I
/ * ,(/-*o) 1 1 1 1 J 1 1
~l 1 1 1
T 1
j
'
'o
*1(0 i
in U- t u *
r t0
n
'
'o(t) [average
______n
i
___________
Fig. 12.6-2 Waveforms for the block diagram of Fig. 12.6-1. F o r slowly varying co,(i) o r f( t), the constant o f p ro p ortionality betw een va(t ) and a)i(t) can readily be determ ined by letting <y,(i) = o> (a constant). F o r this case, va(t) is a periodic train of pulses with an am plitude 2 B, with a d u ratio n f0 , with a period 2n/w, and thus w ith an average value B t0co/n. Therefore,
v (t) = ^nH l(0),
(12.6-1)
w here H L(0) is the dc transfer function of the low -pass filter. A plot of v(t) vs. co is show n in Fig. 12.6-3. H qw ever, the voltage v0(t) is p ro p o rtio n al to co only for T > 2t0. As T is decreased beyond this level, the pulses of vb(t) and va(t) begin to decrease in d u ra tio n w ith decreasing T, w ith the result th a t v0{t) decreases with increasing co (for co > n /t0) as show n in Fig. 12.6-3. [The reader should convince him self of this
620
FM DEMODULATORS
12.6
fact by subtracting v ^ t t0 from v ^ t ) for the case where i 0.] Because of the discontinuity in the v0(t)-vs.-(ot { t) curve, t0 must be chosen sufficiently small so that
f
T /2 <
r0
2* " lW m a x = <W 0 + A (U ,
(1 2 .6 -2 )
or equivalently, to ^
aa )0I + Ato
(12.6-3)
for any given value of to0 A to. The transfer characteristic of Fig. 12.6-3 was obtained on the assumption that / (f) was a constant. W e must now determine how rapidly f ( t ) may vary relative to l/r0 without altering the static transfer characteristic (or equivalently, how small t0 must be relative to a given com in order not to alter the static transfer characteristic). To accomplish this we observe that va(t) and thus v0(t ) for the pulse-count demodu lator and the circuit shown in Fig. 12.6-4 are identical, provided that the linear pulseforming filter in Fig. 12.6-4 has an impulse response h(t) given by
! 0,
1,
t < 0,
0 < t
< t0 ,
(12.6-4)
0,
t > t0 ,
or equivalently a transfer function H(jco) = F[h(t)] of the form
H(jco)
Exact differentiator
= toe- ^ s m ^ 2\
o /2
(12.6-5)
Half-wave rectifier
Linear pulseforming filter
H (ju ))~ ~ h (t)
Fig. 12.6-4 Block diagram of a circuit whose output is identical with that of the circuit of Fig. 12.6-1.
The equivalence is apparent when we note that the exact differentiator produces an alternating train of positive and negative impulses of strength 2 at the respective positive and negative zero crossings of usq ( i). The positive impulses, which get past the half-wave rectifier of Fig. 12.6-4, are converted into rectangular pulses of height 2 and duration t0 by the linear pulse-forming filter.
12.6
PULSE-COUNT FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR
621
T he pulse-form ing filter has a m agnitude and phase response identical with th at show n in Fig. 12.5 4 except th a t |//(0)| equals t0 instead of Aa>t0/2. How ever, this filter is in cascade w ith th e o u tp u t low -pass filter w hich cuts off im m ediately beyond wm [the m axim um frequency co m ponent of / (t)]; hence, if
( 12.6- 6 )
so th a t \H(ju>)\ rem ains essentially co n stan t at t0 over the passband of the ou tp u t low -pass filter, the linear pulse-form ing filter may be replaced by an atte n u a to r of value t0 w ithout affecting v(t). T his su b stitu tio n reduces the circuit of Fig. 12.6 4 to an exact differentiator followed by an average detector and an a tte n u a to r of i0 ; hence with the aid of Eq. (12.2-17) (K D = 1) we can w rite v(t) in the form (12.6-7)
v(t) = [o + A(U/ ( f)] * M O or
provided th a t the o u tp u t filter passes v(t) w ithout distortion. Clearly, then, if t0 is chosen sufficiently sm all so th at both Eqs. (12.6-6) and (12.6-3) are satisfied, the co n stan t of pro p o rtio n ality relating v0(t) and co,(t) is B toH L(0)/n b o th dynam ically an d statically. T hus, once a> 0 , Aa>, and < um are specified for th e in p u t F M signal a n d /? an d D a re found to be below the curve o f Fig. 12.2-7 [so th a t the low -frequency co m p onent of v0(t) can be extracted by the o u tp u t low-pass filter], then t0 m ay be chosen sufficiently sm all so th a t v jt ) is linearly related to ,(() F o r the usual case w here cum co0, Eq. (12.6-3) is m ore restrictive th an Eq. (12.6-6) an d thus we need only concern ourselves with choosing t0 sufficiently sm all so th at the static d em o d u lato r transfer characteristic rem ains linear. O f course, t0 should be chosen no sm aller th an necessary, since the am plitude of v0(t) is directly p ro p o rtio n al to f0. A practical system which perform s the sam e operation as the tim e-delay differ e n tia to r followed by the average envelope detector is the pulse-count frequency d em o d u lato r show n in Fig. 12.6-5. F o r this d em o d u lato r the m onostable m ulti v ib rato r is triggered on the positively sloping edge of vsq(t) and produces a pulse of am plitude V2 and d u ra tio n f0. The low -pass filter then extracts the low -frequency com ponent of the pulse train. T h e static tran sfer characteristic o f v0(t) vs. <y,(i) (which is valid provided th at t0 < 2/om ) is show n in Fig. 12.6-6. F o r this case n o reduction in pulse d u ra tio n occurs until T = Info) decreases to th e p o in t w here th e m onostable m u ltiv ib rato r cannot recover betw een th e en d o f th e pulse o f d u ra tio n f0 an d the beginning o f the next pulse. If th e tim e for com plete recovery o f the m o nostable m u ltiv ib rato r is t R, then the m inim um perm issible size o f T is T = i0 + tR. C onsequently, in o rd e r to obtain
622
FM DEMODULATORS
IH
l ( j o j )\
12.6
HL (0)
Vsq(<)
M onostable m ultivibrator
v ,(i)
Low-pass filter
> ' (
Hdj(o)
Pulse len g th : i Pulse a m p litu d e: V2
Fig. 12.6-5 Pulse-count dem odulator.
Fig. 12.6-6 P lo t o f the transfer characteristic for the pulse-count frequency d em odulator shown in Fig. 12.6-5.
the desired linear relationship betw een v0(t) an d (o,{t), K2toi i L(0 ) v(t) 2n t 0 m ust be ch o je n sufficiently sm all so th a t 2n to + tR < and in <
( 12.6- 10)
Ui(t),
( 12.6- 8 )
2n a)0 + Aa>
(12.6-9)
T he validity o f Eq. (12.6-8) depends, o f course, also on the ability of the low-pass o u tp u t filter to extract the low -frequency com ponent of the pulse train in an un d is to rted fashion. C om m ercial discrim inators of this type are available as separate units. C enter frequencies from 1 H z to 10 M H z are available. Above 10 M H z the pulse d u ra tio n . m ust be less th an lOOnsec and the recovery time m ust be of the order of lO nsec; hence practical circuit considerations im pose lim itations. W hen operated w ithin the previously described lim itation, such circuits are capable of achieving signifi cantly better than 0.1 % linearities w ith frequency deviations approaching the carrier frequency.
1 2.7
MORE EXOTIC FM DETECTORS
623
C om m ercial divide-by-tw o and divide-by-ten netw orks are now available which operate with input frequencies as high as 100 M Hz. W ith such counting net w orks the useful frequency range of the pulse-count discrim inator can be extended considerably in frequency. F o r cases w here D lis reasonably close to the lower curve o f Fig. 12.2-7 the m odu latio n can n o t easily be separated from the carrier ripple w ithout a reasonably com plex low -pass filter. T o rem edy this situation som ew hat, the m onostable m ulti v ib rato r of Fig. 12.6-5 m ay be triggered on every zero crossing of vsq(t) rather than only on positive zero crossings of vsq(t). W ith such triggering the closest carrier fre quency com ponents to the desired m odulation at the input to the low-pass filter result from the F M spectrum centered at 20 rath e r th an at io0 . Therefore, the upper curve of Fig. 12.2-7 provides a bound for D. If the m ono stable m u ltiv ib rato r is triggered on every zero crossing, the o u tp u t voltage of the pulse-count d em o d u lato r is given by
, 12.6- 11)
71
from which we observe th at the o u tp u t level has apparently been increased by a factor of 2. This increase can n o t norm ally be realized, since for this case t0 + tR < ------ - , co 0 + Au> (12.6- 12)
w hich constrains the m axim um perm issible value of t0 to be less th an one-half the previous value.
12.7 M O R E E X O T IC F M D E T E C T O R S T H E PH A S E -L O C K E D L O O P , T H E
FREQUENCY-LOCKED LOOP, AND THE FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR WITH

FEEDBACK
As the final section of this ch ap ter and of the book we present the block diagram s for an d brief resum es of the o p eratio n of three threshold-extending F M dem odulators. All of these circuits are m ore com plex th an the dem odulators discussed p rev io u sly ; however, since all the individual elem ents w ithin each block diagram have been considered in this book, the interested reader should have an adequate basis for understan d in g their operation. because this section m akes no pretense of offering a com plete explanation of these useful b u t n o t yet widely used circuits, we have included a fairly substantial list of references a t the end of the ch ap ter which will supply further inform ation. Even m ore recent inform ation will p ro bably be available from an inspection of recent indexes to pap ers in the I E E E Transactions on Communication Technology or Aero space and Electronic Systems. Figures 12.7-1, 12.7-2, and 12.7-3 show all three circuits in block diagram form. All three circuits co n tain feedback loops, all contain m ultipliers w ithin the loop, and all three take their o u tp u ts after a low -pass filter that is w ithin the loop. If preceded by a lim iter, the a(t ) am plitude term s show n would becom e co n sta n ts;
624
FM DEMODULATORS
12.7
Low-pass loop filter Fig. 12.7 1 Block diagram o f frequency-locked loop.
and though the circuits w ould detect F M signals un co rru p ted by noise, they would lose their ability to rem ove or reduce the effects of noise-induced spikes and hence their ability to extend the F M noise threshold. It is ju st this ability to extend the th reshold th a t justifies the added com plexity of these circuits in various w eak-signal F M situations satellite links, for example. The frequency-locked lo o p com bines an envelope detector and a feedback loop as a circuit to process the o u tp u t from a conventional lim iter-discrim inator circuit. So long as the in p u t signal is large, the envelope detector o u tp u t keens the loop gain high an d hence the lo o p bandw idth wide a n d the discrim inator o u tp u t reaches
M ultiplier a(i)B second-harm onic terms
a(l) cos [ a v + '/'(')]
Input
&
B
sin
[i/z <t>] +
sin [iu0t +
ho(0 Low-pass
loop niter
veo
w0
s1 M
? O utput
HD
$(*)]} *Ao(0
Voltage-controlled oscillator
Fig. 12.7-2 Block diagram of phase-locked loop.
12.7
625
Fig. 12.7-3 Block diagram o f frequency dem o d u lato r with feedback.
the circuit o u tp u t unchanged. W hen the input am plitude d ro p s briefly to a small am plitude (it can be show n th at sudden d ro p s to a sm all am plitude are often caused by the same noise m echanism th at introduces spikes or im pulselike disturbances in the FM signal), the loop gain dro p s and the circuit output is uncoupled from the discrim inator o u tp u t until the disturbance passes. Some of the references listed at the end of the chap ter contain experim ental results as well as m uch m ore com plete discussions o f the circuit operation. As was pointed out previously, one app ro ach to the phase-locked loop is to consider the voltage-controlled oscillator as an FM generator in the return path of a feedback loop. If a(t ) is large, then the loop gain is high and the forw ard path m ust try to perform the inverse of FM generation or it m ust approxim ate an FM detector. W hen a(t ) falls again durin g a noise d isturbance the loop tends to open and the o u tp u t tends to be unaffected by any noise spikes present in the input FM signal. As pointed out below, the phase-locked loop suffers from problem s of initial locking on a signal, from V C O drift, and, if poorly designed, from unw anted loss-of-lock conditions. The frequency d em o d u lato r with feedback includes both a voltage-controlled oscillator and a conventional discrim inator w ithin a feedback loop. Also included within the sam e loop are a low -pass filter and a single-pole IF filter. H essf has shown that as the IF filter bandw idth goes to zero the equations for this circuit reduce to those for the phase-locked loop, whereas when the IF filter becom es wide and the low-pass filter becom es narrow the eq u ations approach those for the frequencylocked loop. A gain an intuitive argum ent for the circuit o p eratio n is th a t, when the am plitude is high, the loop gain is high and the feedback widens the circuit bandw idth and
t D. T. H ess. "E q u iv a le n c e o f F M T h re sh o ld E x te n sio n R eceivers," C om - 16. N o. 5, pp. 9 4 6 748 (O ct. 1968).
IE E E T ra n s, o n C o m m u n i
c a t i o n T e c h n o lo g y .
626
FM DEMODULATORS
12.7
presents the d iscrim in ato r o u tp u t unchanged. W hen a(t) falls, then the loop gain an d circuit b an d w id th fall rapidly and the o u tp u t is uncoupled from the unw anted d isto rtio n s in the in p u t sine wave. Phase-Locked Loop O peration T o see m athem atically how the sim ple phase-locked loop initially becom es locked to the incom ing signal, consider the simplified case where an unm odulated c arrier a t co0 + is tu n ed slowly to w ard th e free-running V C O frequency co 0 . T hen in Fig. 1 2 .7 -2 1 l/(t) is et an d a t t = 0 one m ay assum e the V C O o u tp u t to be cosinusoidal. O n e also assum es th a t the low -pass loop filter rejects additive frequency term s and passes difference term s w ith an atten u a tio n independent o f frequency. U n d er these conditions, < p(t ) = cO j, cos [et - $(i)]> (12.7-1) w here cox co n tain s a(i) (assum ed c o n stan t for the m om ent), B, the filter constant, th e j term from th e m ultiplication, a n d th e m ultiplier c o n s ta n t; < oa is k now n as the lo o p b a n d w id th o r the lo o p hold-in range. N ow Eq. (12.7-1) is a first-order nonlinear differential eq u atio n w hich can be solved, o n the assu m p tio n th a t < f> = 0 at t 0, to yield fat) = ---------- , - e, e cox cosh y/coZ t or 2 ft)2 < /> ) = --------------------7 T = t -
(O,, COS y / E
( ;t
M < a.,
(12.7-2)
ll >
<11 7 - 3>
These tw o eq u atio n s a re p lo tte d in Figs. 12.7-4 a n d 12.7-5 for positive values of c/ctv W hen a> x > |e|, then as tim e passes < j> ap proaches e an d the loop is locked. If e appro ach es zero, then also ap proaches zero. F rom Fig. 12.7-4 it is a p p aren t th a t it takes a b o u t five tim e c o n stan ts equal to 1 J w \ e2 for this locking to occur. N ow , since in th e steady state (j>(t) = e, if e is varied slowly in com parison w ith s/c o l e2, th en th e o u tp u t o f th e phase-locked lo o p produces a n o u tp u t directly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e frequency difference betw een the in p u t an d the V C O frequency. C onsequently, if m = a co j m d d ,
if the m axim um frequency co m ponent o f / ( f ) is com, and if com y / c o \ - Aw2, (12.7-4)
then th e o u tp u t o f th e phase-locked lo o p is directly p ro p o rtio n a l to f ( t ) a n d fre quency d em o d u latio n is accom plished.
1 2 .7
627
Fig. 12.7-4 Plot of (t)/w x vs. t J w 2 e2t for |s/wj < 1. The lock-in range for a first-order phase-locked loop.
628
FM DEM ODULATORS
12.7
T he inequality o f Eq. (12.7-4) im plies th a t m , > Aco a n d th a t co* (om. In a d d i tion, it can be show n th a t, in o rd e r to avoid d isto rtio n in the detected signal, D an d /? m ust fall below the curve of Fig. 12.2-6; hence the phase-locked loop detector suffers from the sam e type of lim itations concerning carrier frequency co0, m o d u la tion frequency u)m, and frequency deviation A w as do the o th er d em o dulators dis cussed in this chapter. W hen |fi| > w a, then </>(r) goes on oscillating with tim e a t a beat frequency d ep endent on ^ J s 2 w \. In this case locking never occurs unless o n e either decreases e o r increases the lo o p b an d w id th a> x. Real phase-locked loops have m ore com plex filters and have pull-in and h o ld -in ranges th at are different. (The h o ld -in range exceeds the pull-in or lock-in range.) H ow ever, in all cases these ranges are a function of the input signal am plitude. T hus, if the am plitude suddenly dips, the circuit m ay lose lo ck ; if this happens, the o u tp u t will be unaffected by the in put frequency disturbances th a t accom pany such suddenly dipping am plitudes.
REFERENCES
L. C alan d rin o an d G . Im m ovilli, C oincidence o f Pulses in A m plitude an d Frequency D eviations, A l t a F r e q u e n z a , 36, English Issue N o. 3 (A ug. 1967). F. C assara, F M D em o d u lato r w ith F eedback, M .S. Project R eport, Polytechnic Institute o f B rooklyn (June 1968). L. H. Enloe, D ecreasing the T hreshold in F M by Frequency F eedback, pp. 18-30 (Jan. 1962).
P roc. IR E .
50,
P. F rutiger, N oise in FM Receivers w ith N egative Frequency F eedback, 54, pp. 1506-1520 (Nov. 1966).
c a tio n T e c h n o lo g y ,
P ro c. IE E E ,
D . T . Hess, Cycle Slipping in F irst O rd er Phase Locked L oops, Com-16, N o . 2, pp. 255-260 (A pril 1968). D . T . Hess, Equivalence o f F M T hreshold E xtension Receivers, Com-16, N o . 5, pp. 746-748 (O ct. 1968).
I E E E T ra n s, o n C o m m u n i
I E E E T ra n s, o n C o m m u n i
c a tio n T e c h n o lo g y ,
E le c tr o n ic s C o n fe r e n c e ,
D . T. Hess an d K . K . C larke, O ptim ization o f the Frequency L ocked L o o p , pp. 528-533 (D ec. 1969).
T im e S e r ie s A n a ly s is ,
P ro c . N a tio n a l
S. O . Rice, N oise in F M Receivers, in New Y ork (1963), C h ap ter 25.
M . R osenblatt, E d., Wiley,

S y s te m s and T e c h n iq u e s,
M . Schw artz, W . R . B ennett, a n d S. Stein, M cG raw -H ill, N ew Y ork (1966), C h ap ter 3.
C o m m u n ic a tio n
M . U nkauf, Q uantized Frequency L ocked L oop FM D em o d u lato r, P h .D . D issertation, Polytechnic Institute o f B rooklyn (June 1969).
PROBLEMS
12.1 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 12.P-1, p lo t the o u tp u t voltage am plitude V2 vs. the input voltage am plitude V , f o r 0 < F, < 50 mV. A t w hat value o f V t is V2 within 95 % o f its
PROBLEMS
a s y m p to tic lim itin g v a lu e ? I f
629
t , = ( 1.6 m V)( 1 + 0 .5 'os o ) mt ) cos co0(, find the m odulation index o f

v jt ).
u>m
<d -
M
= 0 .0 5 , - =
1
=
at0 ,
m 0R C
= 20,
Vcc
= 10 V,
R = ! 0 k ii
y/L^C
Figure 12.P 1
!
> r the
> mA.
circuit show n in Fig. 12.P -2, p lo t the tran sfer c h a ra c te ristic o f V { vs. / , for 0 < / , < A ssum e th a t th e lo a d e d Q re m a in s sufficiently high to justify th e a ssu m p tio n o f a
lin u s o id a o u tp u t voltage.
V
j cos
U)0 l
Figure 12.P-2
630
FM DEMODULATORS
12.3 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 12.P-3, show th at if the loaded Q is high, the am plitude of the o u tp u t voltage V , is related to the am plitude of the input current by the expression f 1 = 2 /,(x),
w h e re / ( x ) is the modified Bessel function o f o rd er one and x = q V J k T . U sing the values for / ( x ) and the asym ptotic expression for I ( x ) given in the A ppendix at the back o f the book, plot V t vs. / , for 0 < / , < 5 mA. D oes this circuit function as a limiter? F o r w hat range of / , ? W hat value of C ensures Q r = 20 if I x 5 mA and o> = 10s rad/sec?
V\
cos
(jJ0 t
Figure 1 2.P 3
12.4 A high-Q single-tuned circuit follows an ideal nonlinear limiter (Fig. 12.1-1) to extract the fundam ental com ponent o f the F M signal. A ssum ing th at the filter functions in a quasi static fashion (Eq. 11.3-2), determ ine the m inim um filter bandw idth (in term s o f Aoj) which ensures n o m ore th an 1 % am plitude m odulation on the o u tp u t signal (m = 0.01). W ith P = 5, determ ine the m axim um deviation ratio which is possible if the tuned circuit m ust suppress the third harm onic com ponent of the limited FM signal to less than 1 % of the fundam ental while keeping the induced AM below 1 %. 12.5 Repeat P roblem 12.4 for the case where the bandpass filter is a m aximally flat double tuned circuit. 12.6 F o r the bandpass lim iter show n in Fig. 12.P-4, r,(i) = V , cos co0 t, which results in r j r ) = V 2 cos co0t. U sing the sine-wave tip analysis in Sections 4.2 and 4.3, plot the lim iter ch arac teristic of V2 vs. V , . If Vi(0 (5 V )[l + a i / ( i ) ] c o s a i 0r and the m odulation is passed by the bandpass filter, determ ine the AM m odulation index of 12.7 F o r the dynam ic lim iter show n in Fig. 12.1-5, C 0 10 f j F, and
L =
10/iH , C = 1000 pF, ft =
R g
= 10kf2,
i,(r) = (1 m A )(l + 0.5 cos 103f)cos | l 0 7t + 104J cos lO30di)J. Find i(i)- W hat is the AM m odulation index o f y(f)? W hat is the o u tp u t AM m odulation index if C is reduced to 1 //F? D oes failure-to-follow d istortion occur?
PROBLEMS
631
0' v
v %2
Bandpass filter tuned to o,

0> 2O
Figure 12.P 4
12.8 F o r the circuit shown in Fig. 12.P-5, r,(r) = (0.5 V)(l + 0.5 cos 2.5 x 10s) cos 107f. Find ((() W hat is its AM m odulation index? If i,(r) = (0.5 V) cos 1107f +
A w >J
cos 1O40 dO
632
FM DEMODUL ATORS
is applied to the circuit of Fig. 12. P 5, find the m aximum value of Aw which ensures less than 1 am plitude m odulation ( m = 0.01, for r 0(/). 12.9 T he C larke-H ess dem o d u lato r show n in Fig. 12.3 A is to be used to dem odulate an FM triangular wave. Show th at in o rd er to balance the d em odulator for this case one must choose R C = jr/4w0. Show also th at when the d em odulator is balanced, the o u tp u t is given by Eq. (12.3-7), where A is now the peak am plitude o f the FM triangular wave.
12.10 F o r the C larke-H ess dem o d u lato r show n in Fig. 12.3-4, R = lOOOfi. C' = lOOpF, R 0 =
15.7
kQ, C 0 = 6300 pF, r cc = 10 V and = (10 V) cos 1107/ + 106 f cos 10*0d0
Find
ijt)-
H ow much carrier ripple appears at the o utput?
12.11 A 10 V peak-to-peak FM square wave with instantaneous frequency co,(r) is applied to
th tc irc u it o f Fig. 12.3-4 with C== lOOpF, R 0 = 15.7 kil. C 0 = 6300 pF, and K v = 1V. a) Find the value of R V'hi.-h balances the dem odulator at ro0 = 107 rad/'sec. b) If r l = 100 i i and w,(i) = ( o c = 107 rad/sec. m ake an accurate sketch o f the current flowing into the o u tp u t R 0 - C 0 filter. D eterm ine the o utput carrie1 ripple. c) Plot the [-vs.-a//) characteristic as w ,(t) is varied between 0 and w 0 . d) If ajj(t) = (107 + 5 x 104 cos 1 0 'il rad/sec, determ ine ti0(i). 12.12 F o r the circuit show n in Fig. 12.P-6, i(t) is given by
i/ U ) /
= (2 V )cos
u)nt + A oj
Crystal
PROBLEMS
633
where w0 = (107 + 176) rad/sec. T he crystal param eters are given by C 0 = 4 pF, L = 250 m H , and r = 125 i l (cf. Section 6.7). P lo t the static dem o d u lato r characteristic v vs. Aco f ( t ) for 500 rad/sec < Aoj/(r) < 500 rad/sec. ( H i n t : Since operation is in the vicinity of the crystals series resonance, the effect o f C 0 can be neglected.) W hat is the m axim um perm issible value of Aco which ensures th at the nonlinearity o f the transfer characteristic does n o t exceed 1 %? W ith this value o f Aa>, with p 5, and with /( f ) = cos w mt , find v 0(t). If R increases by 10%, w hat is the change in the center frequency of the d em o d u lato r? W ould this d e m o du lato r be useful in the system shown in Fig. 11.9-1? W hy?
C = 0.04 pF,
12.13 Verify the condition given in Eq. (12.4-14) and the expansion o f Eq. (12.4-15). 12.14 F o r the balanced dem o d u lato r show n in Fig. 12 .4 -3 ,R , = R 2 = 5 0 k C ia n d R o = 100 kQ. C hoose optim um values for the rem aining unspecified param eters if the circuit is to de m odulate an input F M signal limited to 10 mA peak-to-peak having a carrier frequency co0 = 108 rad/sec, a frequency deviation of Atu = 106 rad/sec, and a m axim um m o d u lation frequency of 105 rad/'sec. F ind v (t) for this choice of param eters. 12.15 A ruby laser beam is m odulated in frequency with a deviation of A/ = 1 G H z and a m axi mum m odulation frequency of f m = 6 M Hz. D raw a diagram of an optim um frequency dem o d u lato r for such a beam. The dem o d u lato r should em ploy only beam splitters (prisms), polished m irrors, and a p h otodiode (or phototransistor). Indicate all effective path lengths, assum ing th at the carrier beam propagates at the speed o f light through the dem o d u lato r medium. If the received beam has an intensity of 30 foot-candles and if the photodiode has a linear sensitivity of 100 /iA/foot-candle and delivers its o u tp u t current to a 600 fi im pedance, determ ine the o u tp u t voltage for the case where /'(f) = cos(2rt x 6 x 106f). 12.16 In the b ottom circuit of Fig. 12.5-8 the delay netw ork is a piece o f helically w ound delay line with a delay o f2 0 n se c /c m and a length of 10cm. If ((f) = (5 V)cosa>f and K M = I, plot the r (,-vs, - w transfer characteristic for 0 < w < 5 x 107. O ver w hat ranges of w is this characteristic linear? D o these ranges of w agree with the results of Section 12.5? 12.17 If the envelope detector in the dem o d u lato r show n in Fig. 12.P-7 is assum ed not to load 75 ii, show that i - J t ) is given by <U) = i[ ti(f) where
t0
I 'iU
2f0)].
= 400 nsec. If, in addition. r,(f) = (5 V) cos | w0f + Ao) J cos

oj
0 J o j,
where u>0 = 3.93 x 10b rad/sec, A w lation nonlinearity less th an 1 %?
106 rad/sec, and
p =
10, find c0(f). Is the d em o d u
12.18 A 10 V peak-to-peak square wave with frequency w is applied to the dem o d u lato r of Fig. 12.P-7. a) Sketch v a( t) for w < n / 2 t 0 an d for a> > n / 2 t 0 . b) Plot the (-vs.-oj characteristic for 0 < w < n / t 0 . C om pare this characteristic with that shown in Fig. 12.6-3. 12.19 A 2 V peak-to-peak FM square wave i ^ r ) triggers the m onostable m ultivibrator shown in Fig. 12.P-8. a) If the instantaneous frequency u),(f) = w (a constant), plot the v a- v s . - w characteristic for 0 < co < 106 rad/sec. At w hat point does the characteristic cease to be linear?
634
FM DEMODULATORS 10cm -
75 i l
VW Delay line Delay: 20nsec/cm Characteristic impedance: 75 il
z a
O utput short
*.(>
Envelope detector
v (0
* = ! Figure 12.P-7
Figure 12.P-8
PROBLEMS
6 35
b) If a>,(r) = (105 + 104 cos 103t) rad/sec, determ ine an expression for v(f). W hat is the m axim um carrier ripple which appears at v j t ) ? 12 20 Repeat Problem 12.19 for the case w here the trigger circuit at the base of Q 2 in Fig. 12.P- 8 is replaced by the trigger circuit show n in Fig. 12.P-9. W hat is the advantage of this more com plicated circuit?
Figure 12.P-9
APPENDIX
M O DIFIED BESSEL FU N C TIO N S
T he m odified Bessel function o f order n an d argum ent x may be defined as the integral function given by (A -l) A functional relationship betw een /(x) an d x may be achieved by integrating Eq. (A 1) num erically (on a co m p u ter o r by hand) for various values o f x. Table A -l presents values of I(x) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3 an d values of x betw een 0 an d 10. Table A -2 presents values of I(x) norm alized to ex for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,4, 5 and values of x betw een 0 an d 20; In ad d itio n , Table A -3 presents values o f 2/(x)//0(x) for the same values o f n an d x. It is q u ite clear th a t /(x) is a m onotonically increasing function o f x. F o r sm all values of x we m ay expand e*cos9 in a M acL auren expansion and keep only the first few term s in the series. W ith this ap p roxim ation inserted in Eq. (A -l) we obtain
and
In a sim ilar fashion we can show that, as x - 0,
By keeping all the term s in the expansion for ^cosS and perform ing a term -by-term integration, we can reduce Eq. (A -l) to an equivalent M acL auren series in x for I(x). T his series expansion is found in all the literature on modified Bessel functions. F o r large values o f x, e*cose has a very sh arp d o m in an t peak in th e vicinity of 0 = 0 an d may therefore be ap p roxim ated by
^xcasO ^ ^x( I ~d2/2).
636
MODIFIED BESSEL FUN CTIONS
637
T able A - l
X
T ab u latio n of
l (x )
vs. x for
n =
0, 1, 2, 3
1 2W
/,(x ) 1.0000 1.0635 1.2661 1.6467 2.2796 3.2898 4.8808 7.3782 11.3020 17.4810 27.2400 42.695 67.234 106.290 168.590 268.160 427.56 683.16 1093.6 1753.5 2815.7 0.00000 0.25789 0.56516 0.98167 1.59060 2.51670 3.9534 . 6.2058 9.7595 15.3890 24.3360 38.588 61.342 97.735 156.040 249.580 399.87 641.62 1030.9 1658.4 2671.0
/.,(*) 0.00000 0.00265 0.02217 0.08077 0.21274 0.47437 0.95975 1.82640 3.33730 5.93010 10.33100 17.743 30.150 50.830 85 175 142.060 236.07 391.17 646.69 1067.20 1758.40
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
0.00000 0.03191 0.13575 0.33783 0.68895 1.27650 2.2452 3.8320 6.4222 10.6420 17.50o0 28.663 46.787 76.220 124.010 201.610 327.59 532.19 864.49 1404.30 2281.50
w ith this ap p ro x im atio n , Eq. (A -l) reduces to /(x) ^ f e ~ x82/2 cos nd dd as I* e ~ 182/2 cos nt) dfl. 2nJ-n 2 7 tJ _ O D (A 3)
E quation (A 3) is directly integrable an d yields
Eor .V > 10, Eq. (A -4) is accurate within 1% for I 0(x).
638
APPENDIX
Table A -2
X
Tabulation of
I u( x ) / e x
vs. x for n = 1,2, 3 ,4 ,5

h i* )/? 1 l 3( x ) / e *
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.0 15. 20.0
1.0 0.64503 0.46576 0.36743 0.30851 0.27005 0.24300 0.22280 0.20700 0.19420 0.18354 0.17448 0.16666 ,*0.15980 0.15374 - 0.14832 0.14343 0.13900 0.13496 0.13125 0.12783 0.12467 0.12173 0.11899 0.11643 0.11402 0.11176 0.10963 0.10761 0.10571 0.10390 0.1021# 0.10054 0.09898 0.09749 0.09607 0.09470 0.09340 0.09214 009094 0.08978
0.0 0.15642 0.20791 0.21904 0.21527 0.20658 0.19683 0.18740 0.17875 0.17096 0.16397 0.15770 0.15205 0.14694 0.14229 0.13804 0.13414 0.13055 0.12722 0.12414 0.12126 0.11858 0.11606 0.11369 0.11146. 0.10936 0.10737 0.10549 0.10370 0.10200 0.10037 0.09883 0.09735 0.09594 0.09458 0.09328 0.09204 0.09084 0.08969 0.08858 0.08750
0.0 0.01935 0.04994 0.07538 0.09324 0.10478 0.11178 0.11572 0.11763 0.11822 0.11795 0.11714 0.11597 0.11459 0.11308 0.11150 0.10990 0.10828 0.10669 0.10512 0.10358 0.10208 0.10063 0.09922 0.09785 0.09652 0.09524 0.09400 0.09280 0.09164 0.09051 0.08943 0.08838 0.08736 0.08637 0.08541 0.08448 0.08358 0.08270 0.08185 0.08103
0.0 0.00160 0.00816 0.01802 0.02879 0.03894 0.04778 0.05515 0.06112 0.06588 0.06961 0.07251 0.07474 0.07642 0.07767 0.07857 0.07919 0.07959 0.07981 0.07988 0.07983 0.07969 0.07947 0.07918 0.07885 0.07847 0.07807 0.07764 0.07718 0.07672 0.07624 0.07575 0.07526 0.07476 0.07426 0.07376 0.07326 0.07277 0.07227 0.07179 0.07130
0.0 0.00010 0.00101 0.00329 0.00687 0.01133 0.01622 0.02117 0.02594 0.03038 0.03442 0.03804 0.04124 0.04405 0.04651 0.04865 0.05050 0.05210 0.05348 0.05467 0.05568 0.05655 0.05728 0.05790 0.05842 0.05886 0.05921 0.05950 0.05972 0.05990 0.06002 0.06011 0.06015 0.06017 0.06016 0.06012 0.06006 0.05998 0.05988 0.05977 0.05964
0.00.00005 0.00010 0.00048 0.00133 0.00270 0.00454 0.00676 0.00924 0.01187 0.01454 0.01719 0.01975 0.02220 0.02452 0.02668 0.02869 0.03056 0.03227 0.03384 0.03528 0.03660 0.03780 0.03890 0.03990 0.04081 0.04163 0.04238 0.04306 0.04367 0.04422 0.04473 0.04518 0.04559 0.04595 0.04628 0.04657 0.04683 0.04706 0.04727 0.04744
MODIFIED BESSEL FUNCTIONS
639
Table A -3
X
T ab u latio n of 2/(x )//0(x) vs. x for 2 /,( x )//0(x) 0.0 0.4850 0.8928 1.1923 1.3955 1.5300 1.6200 1.6822 1.7270 1.7607 1. 768 1.8076 1.8247 1.8390 1.8511 1.8615 1.8705 1.8784 1.8854 1.8916 1.8972 1.9022 1.9068 1.9110 1.9148 1.9183 1.9215 1.9244 1.9272 1.9298 1.9321 1.9344 1.9365 1.9384 1.9403 1.9420 1.9436 1.9452 1.9466 1.9480 1.9493
2 1 2( x ) / 1 0( x )
= 1, 2, 3,4, 5 2/ 3(x )//0(x) 0.0 0.0050 0.0350 0.0981 0.1866 0.2884 0.3933 0.4951 0.5906 0.6785 0.7585 0.8311 0.8969 0.9564 1.0104 1.0595 1.1043 1.1452 1.1827 1.2172 1.2490 1.2784 1.3056 1.3309 1.3545 1.3765 1.3970 1.4163 1.4344 1.4515 1.4675 1.4827 1.4970 1.5105 1.5234 1.5356 1.5472 1.5582 1.5687 1.5788 1.5883 2U
( x ) / I 0( x ) 2/
5(x )//0(x) 0.0 0.0000 0.0004 0.0026 0.0086 0.0200 0.0374 0.0607 0.0893 0.1222 0.1584 0.1970 0.2370 0.2779 0.3189 0.3598 0.4001 0.4396 0.4782 0.5157 0.5520 0.5872 0.6211 0.6538 0.6854 0.7157 0.7450 0.7731 0.8002 0.8262 0.8513 0.8754 0.8987 0.9211 0.9426 0.9634 0.9835 1.0028 1.0215 1.0395 1.0569
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
6 .0
0.0 0.0600 0.2144 0.4103 0.6045 0.7760 0.9200 1.0387 1.1365 1.2175 1.2853 1.3427 1.3918 1.4342 1.4711 1.5036 1.5324 1.5580 1.5810 1.6018 1.6206 1.6377 1.6533 1.6677 1.6809 1.6931 1.7044 1.7149 1.7247 1.7338 1.7424 1.7504 1.7579 1.7650 1.7717 1.7781 1.7840 1.7897 1.7951 1.8002 1.8051
0.0 0.0003 0.0043 0.0179 0.0445 0.0839 0.1335 0.1900 0.2506 0.3129 0.3751 0.4360 0.4949 0.5513 0.6050 0.6560 0.7042 0.7497 0.7926 0.8330 0.8712 0.9072 0.9412 0.9733 1.0036 1.0324 1.0596 1.0854 1.1099 1.1332 1.1554 1.1765 1.1966 1.2158 1.2341 1.2516 1.2683 1.2843 1.2997 1.3144 1.3286
6.5 7.0 7.5

8 .0
8.5 9.0 9.5

1 0 .0
10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0
640
APPENDIX
T o o b tain derivatives of /(x), we differentiate both sides of Eq. (A -l) with respect to x to o b tain dIJtx) 1 r = f cos 0 i ^ cos# cos nO dO dx 2nJ-n
2j_27t J - n
*xco,cos(n + 1)0 0 + ~
f e^ cos0 cos (n 1)0 d9 2nJ.
(A 5)
(x) + i n_!(x) E q u atio n (A -5) is valid for n > 1. F o r n = 0 we obtain in an identical fashion d l 0(x) dx F rom Eq. (A 1) it is a p p a re n t th a t
00
(A -6)
** = I 0(X) + 2
I(x) cos n9.
(A-7)
If we wish to evaluate th e F o u rier series o f exsme, we m ay define (j> = 0 n /2 and observe th at = = + 2 /(c) cos ntj) n= 1
^ I H 7t = I 0(x) + 2 I(x) COS I 0 - y
00
= / 0(x) + 2 X
l)nI 2n(x)cos2n9
+ I ( - l)n+1/ 2B- 1(x )s in (2n - 1)0. n= 1 In a sim ilar fashion we can show th at e ~ xcose = 10(x) + 2
n= 1
(A 8)
( - ir/ (x )c o s nO
(A 9)
by defining < j> = 9 n.
MODIFIED BESSEL FUN CTIONS
641
W e m a y o b ta i n a r e c u r s io n fo r m u la fo r th e m o d ifie d B essel fu n c tio n s b y d iffe re n tia tin g b o th sid e s o f E q . (A -7 ) w ith re s p e c t to 9 :

x;
2 X
n l (x )
sin
n0 =
sin
9 e xco se
= x s in
7 oW + 2 Z In(x ) cos n0
n= 1
o o
= x sin 910{x) + x Z IJ.X ) sin (n + 1)9 n= 1

o o
- x
/(x )sin (n - 1)0.
(A -10)
By e q u a ti n g th e c o e ffic ie n ts o f th e c o r r e s p o n d in g (sin n 0 )-te rm s in th first a n d la st te r m s o f E q . ( A - 10), w e o b ta i n th e d e s ire d re s u lt,

2 n l { x )
= x [ / _ ,(x ) -
/ + ,(x )] .
(All)
A dditional relationships involving Bessel functions can be found in the following references: 1. F. E. Relton,
A p p lie d B e s s e l F u n c tio n s ,
Blackie and Son, Limited (1946), C hapter 3. C am bridge University Press, C am bridge (1922). C am bridge University
2. G . N. W atson.
T h e o r y o f B e s s e l F u n c tio n s ,
3. E. T. W hittaker and G. N. W atson, A Press, C am bridge (1927), Section 17.7.
C o u r s e o f M o d e r n A n a ly s is ,
A dditional tabulations an d relationships of modified Bessel functions may be found in the following references: 1. M. A bram ow itz and I. A. Stegun, Eds., H a n d b o o k o f M a t h e m a t i c a l F u n c t i o n s , N ational Bureau of S tandards, Applied M athem atical Series N o. 55, G overnm ent Printing Office, W ashington D.C. (1964). Reissued by Dover, New Y ork (1965). Section 9.6 and Tables 9.8 through 9.11 deal with m odified Bessel functions. T abulated values as high as / , oo(100) are given. 2. E. Jahnke and F. Emde, T a b l e s o f F u n c t i o n s , fourth edition, Dover, New Y ork (1945). This stan d ard reference w ork tabulates / 0(x) and /,(x ) for values of x up to 9.99. It also contains oth er functions up to /n (6 ), I 0( x ) = J 0{ j x ) , I ^ x ) = j J , ( j x ) , etc. 3. M. O noe, M o d i f i e d Q u o t i e n t s o f B e s s e l F u n c t i o n s , C olum bia U niversity Press, New York (1958). This work tabulates x l 0( x ) / l i ( x ) for values of x up to 20. The reciprocal of this function is within a factor o f tw o of 2 /,( x )/x /0(x), which is the ratio of Gm to g m :
ANSW ERS TO S E L E C T ^ ) PROBLEMS
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS
C HA PTER 1 1.1. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. P , = 4.15 mW , P 2 = 1.65 mW , P } = 0.55 mW t>(r) * 0.28 sin 107i + 7.3 cos 2 x 107f + 0.33 sin 3 x 107f v % - 5 . 9 V, VEBi % 815 mV v0(t) * 118 mV cos 106i
CHAPTER 2
2.1. n = 19.1 ; ,/High = 25.8 k H z ,/Low = 266 H z; V2/ V l = 1/20.9:/ = 0.914 2.7. Bandw idth is 242 kH z 2.8. P load = 4.6 W 2.10. Loaded Q is 16.2
CHAPTER 3
P + (1/2GL)
G
This may be represented physically as the series com bination o f a conductance an inductor 2 L .
71
and
3.3.
3.6. 3.7.
a) lO1 *V e~ 106" 3 cos 107t u(r) b) 100 Ve - 106, 3 sin 107r u ( t) c) 1500V[1 - e ,o6,/3]c o s 107ru(r) T he voltages ap p ear large since unit drives were assu m ed : i.e., an im pulse of one coulom b strength and a step with a one-am pere level. Vo22 = 200 / 2/ v /5 (cf. Ex. 2.4-3); I 2 = 2.67 mA
v jt)
= v/ 2 V cos 12.5 x 105i -
cos 107i
CHAPTER 4 4.2.
4.6. 4.7.
4 .1 1 .
Fundamental is 0.39 mA; third harmonic is 0.145 mA.

G m = 400 A / 2 = 44 A
K ank = 9 .3 V
/V
when
Vdc
= 3V 4.8. / , = 8.45 mA,

12
= 7.8 mA
4.12.
645
/> battery = 27 mW
646
C HA PTER 5 5.2. 5.5

P lk Vc
= 12.5 mW * 690 mV
5.3. 5.6.
Vc * C >
540 mV 63 /i F ; conduction angle ^ 120.
CHA PTER 6 6.1. a) A min = C = 1370p F ; b) |K3M | = |K<co)| 1 V 6.2. b) |K3(a))| = 0.535 V with no change in frequency. 6.3. w 0 = 107 rad/sec, | Vx (a>)\ = 4 V, |/,(w)| = 200 n A 6.5. All three poles originate at 1/2 R C for f i = 0 and move outw ard along radial path s separated by 120 as n is increased. O ne p ath lies on the negative real axis. F o r // = 4 ^ 8 , tw o of the poles cross the im aginary axis a t a>0 = ^ / i / l R C . 6-7. o j 0 = 104 rad/sec, = 1.66 V. (N ote th a t the atten u atio n thro u g h each cathode follower is 0.815.) 6.10. A min = + 9 3 , S F = 20 6.9. A min = 9 , w 0 = 1 / y f i R C 6.11. r = 25 0(1 - 2/A) = 24.75 ft, -0 .2 6 8 rad/sec 6 .1 1 2.36 mA, 1.34 mA 6.13. v0( t ) = 12.5 V cos 4.5 x 106r; T H D = 0.37% C HA PTER 7
'd iffe r e n c e ^ 3'd iffe r e n c e =
450 nA,
6 6 flA ,
'sig n a l 'o s cilla to r
905 nA, = 1 - 7 2 ttlA
ôscillator
1.62 mA
7.5. 7.9.
Gc v 0{ t)
420 m hos = g(f)[860] cos ( , -
w 2) t
CHA PTER 8 8.1. 8.2. b) 5 V at a0 ; 1.5 V at (w0 + w j and a t (w0 - c o j b) 125 m W ; 22.5 mW
8.4.
a) (f) = (5 V) sin cu,f + (10 V) sin
w 2t
8.8. 8.9.
0.495 v j t ) = (750 m V )[l + 0.5/(r)] cos 107f
C HA PTER 9 9.2. 9.5. 9 y.7 t. 48C with no ac, 29C with ac t] =; 0.30, t] = 0.60, q = 0.81 P l ir a n s is to r * 7 W
9.10. ri v 0.77
647
CHAPTER 10
10.1. M r) = 7.5 V - (45 mV) cos 103r
10.3.
t>(r) = Y
[1 + m f ( t ) ] 2 + A B [ 1 t
m f (t)] + y -
* h L(t)
10.8. 10.9.
(40 m V )cos 104i (3.18 V) 1 + 0.707m cos 104/
10.10. u ,-(0 = (100 V )cos 107t; v (t) * 100 V, 0 = 14.4; F R = 0.0157 10.11. F o r large Q r , T H D * 0.47/Q r 10.12. a) v = 62.5 V, l\ = (62.5 V) cos lO 't. ,- = 125, F R = 0.025, <p = 18.2", b) v'o = 125 V, v 0 % 0,u, = (125 V) cos 107i,0 T = 250, FR = 0 0125, <p = 13.2, T H D = 0.0038
10.14. v(t) = (44.2 V) cos 2 x 104f -
TH D
= 0.0075
Vo(t)
= (125 V) + (44.2 V) cos 12 x 104i -
!-f(i) = (125 V) 1 + 0.353 cos 2 x 104 10.15.

R
cos 107r
= 12.5 k n cos 107r
10.17. i;,(r) = -(3 .7 5 V) 1 + 0.471 cos 104r -
v 2( t)
= (3.75 V) + (1.77 V) cos 104i -
v 3(t)
= (0.885 V) cos 104f -
CHAPTER 11
11.2. 11.4. 11.5. 11.7.
B W
= 1.6 x 106 rad/sec
11.3.
A / = 625 kHz
u(t) = (11 V) (5 V) cos 12 x 108r + 2 x 105 j " cos 1040 d 6 - 5 7 .7 dB

va =
(100 mV) sin 1107i + 5 x 106 J
f(9 )d 6
11.10. J q = 107 rad/sec, Aco 104 rad/sec 11.11. a>,(t) = (2.5 x 107 rad/sec) [1 + 0.1 /( i)]
648
11.13. 11.15.

v ,(t)
= 2 V c o s | l 0 7t + 1.25 x 10~3 J c o slO 3# ^

10s
H z [l + i / ( t ) ]
C H A P T E R 12 12.1. 12.5.
V,
BW >
* 0.8 mV, m 0 * 0.02 5.3 Aco, D < 0.027
12.4. 12.7.
B W > 14Aw. D 0.0075,0.075. no
<
0.0028
' 2.10. i;0(f) = (5 /7 2 ) V cos j l 0 4t 12 11. a) 1570 i2, d) (0 = (250 mV) cos 103r 12.12. / ,.() - 0.55 V cos oj J 12.17
v 0( t)
= j - ~ J ( l + 0 .2 cos 105 1)
\ \ /
12.19. b)
v (t )
- (0.58 V) + (0.041 V )cos 1103f -
INDEX
INDEX
Abramowitz, M., 641 AFC, 590 AGC, 308, 331-336, 486, 530 Alignability, 324-327 AM generators: balanced, 382-384 differential amplifier, 374-375 diode bridge, 376-379, 382-384 FET, 380-381 integrated circuit, 395-396 square law, 384-387 tuned circuit, 387-392 See also Diode bridge, FET, Chopper modulation, Multiplier, and/or Modulation AM methods: analog, 354-355 chopper, 355-358 direct, 361-362 high level, 447-450 nonlinear, 359-360 AM on FM signals, 589-590 AM receiver, superheterodyne, 478 AM signals: in capacitively coupled circuits, 168-169, 195-199 in narrowband filters, 72, 76, 88-89 normal, 347 single sideband, 350-352, 457-461, 464 466 suppressed carrier, 349, 357 Amplification, AM, 405-406 Amplifiers: cascode, 324-326 class A, 401-405 class AB, 401 class B, broadband, 401, 421-425 class B linear, 92, 405-408 class C linear, 408-410 class C -R F , 401, 410-415 class D, broadband, 426-432
class D, narrowband, 401, 415-421 differential pair, 114-119, 324-326 feedback, 206, 475-478 FET, 98-104, 131-136 gain controlled, 214, 335-336 maximum signal without distortion, 4,
100 , 110
narrowband-tuned, 6- 8, 314-331, 405-421 power, 401-455 small signal range, 4-5, 110, 118 transistor, 1-8, 104-113 tuned, 6- 8, 314-331, 405-421 Amplitude control, 212-215, 265-266, 308, 331-336 Amplitude limiting, 7-8, 110, 188, 571-577 nonlinear, 207 Amplitude modulation; see specific headings unair AM Amplitude sensitivity, function, 230-231, 264-265 Amplitude stabilization: FM, 530-532 oscillators, 212-215, 262-266 Analog computer, 528 Angelo, E. J., Jr., 13 Armstrong, E. H., 560 Astable multivibrator, 553-556 Attenuator, nonlinear, '<.'13, 265-266 Auto transformer, 49-i Automatic frequency co. ol (AFC), 590 Automatic gain control; see AGC AVC; see AGC Average envelope detection, 461-466 in FM detectors, 582-584, 587 Average envelope detector, 468-478 dual transistor, 473-475 operational amplifier, 475-478 Avins, J., 6 i 3
652
INDEX
Back diode, 505-506 Baghdady, E. J., 523, 526 Bandwidth: FM , 513-515, 565 parallel RLC circuit, 28 peak envelope detector, 485, 494-495 pi network, 441-443 power amplifier coupling network, 433-437 transformer, 21 Barkhausen criterion, 11, 208 Bennett, W. R., 628 Bessel functions: modified in amplifiers, 108-111 approximations, 113, 636 in mixers, 293-300 tabulations, 109, 637-639 theory, 636-641 uses, 3-9, 108-111, 293-300 ordinary, 427, 511-514 plot of, 512 zeros of, 514 Bias shifts, 4-5 in transistor circuits, 149, 169-181 Biasing: clamp circuit, 131-134 constant current, 1-2, 162-169 resistive, 169-181 triode grid, 432-433 Bilotti, A., 618 Binary AM , 410 Boltzmanns constant, 2 Cadmium sulphide, 560 Calandrino, L., 628 Calibration: FM generator, 514 high-Q filter circuits, 88-89 Capacitive coupling, 162-171 to nonlinear devices, 149-180 Capacitive step-down circuits, 38-48 Carrier, pilot, 353" Carrier cancellation, 355, 376-383 Carrier filtering, 459-461 Cascode amplifier, 324-327, 345-346 Cassara, F 628 Chopper modulation, 355-358 Chudobiak, W. J., 421 Clamping circuits, 131-134, 153-180, 188 current-driven, 153-155 inductively biased, 154-156 peak FET, 131-134, 301-302, 304-305
Clarke, K. K 401, 588, 628 Clarke-Hess FM detector, 587-592, 632 Collector saturation in oscillators, 234-236 Colpitts oscillator, 223, 226, 231, 253 Complementary pair transistors, 423 Conduction angle, 93-103, 107 peak envelope detector, 482 Conversion transconductance; see T ransconductance Converters, transistor, 311-314 Convolution, 74, 581 Coupling networks, 16-64, 433-447 Cross modulation, 123, 337-338 Crystal equivalent circuit, 243-247 Crystal filter, 459 Crystal FM detector, 564, 602, 632 Crystal oscillator, 243-255 Current-driven junction, 249 Current inverter, 547-549 Current pulse, peak envelope detector, 480-482 Current-switching circuit, 417-420, 431-432 Dammers, B. G ., 260 Delay line, 603, 634 helical, 609 Delay network: ideal, 604 RLC, 610 Demodulation: amplitude, 457-508 frequency, 571-635 Derivative, definition, 602 Deviation ratio, 511 Diagonal dipping; see Failure-to-follow distortion Differential amplifier; see Differential pair Differential pair: amplifiers, 114-119 amplitude modulator, 365-375 distortion in, 114-119 mixers, 309-310 multiplier, 365-375 oscillator, 236-240, 251-252, 288, 291 R F amplifiers, 324-326 Differentiating network: direct, 586-587 frequency domain, 522, 586, 593 time delay, 586, 602-603 Diode bridge, 376-379 modulator, 376-383
INDEX
653
Diode clamping circuit, 153-162 Diode detector, 468-503 Diode shaping network, 551-553 Diodes: back, 505-506 germanium, 471, 586 hot carrier, 553 silicon, 2, 471, 496, 499 variable capacitance, 541-542 Zener, 557 Distortion: in AM, 361-362 failure-to-follow; see Failure-to-follow distortion in FM detectors, 595-623 phase, 390 total harmonic; see Total harmonic distortion Double-tuned circuits, 328-331 Double-tuned transformers, 433-439 Drain resistance (in FETs), 134-136 Edson, W. A., 244 Efficiency power amplifiers, 402ff Efficiency transformer, 19, 402 Emde, F., 641 Enloe, L. H 628 Envelope detector, 468; see also Average envelope detector, Peak envelope detector Envelope detector loading, 489 in FM demodulators, 600, 610 Equivalent circuits: low pass, 65-81 peak envelope detector, 485 transformer, 51, 56, 62-64 Equivalent linear resistance, 181-194 envelope detector, 481 Exponential characteristic, 104-113 Failure-to-follow distortion, 361, 467, 389-390, 577 in amplitude modulators, 389-390 in broadband peak detector, 500 in peak narrowband detector, 490-494 Federal Communications Commission, 562 Feedback: amplifier, 206, 475-478 detector, 475-478 FM detector with. 623-628 FM generator stabilization, 562-565 F E T : AGC circuit, 266 amplifiers, 98-104, 131-136 clamp-biased circuits, 131-134
distortion in, 98-104 drain resistance, 134-136 mixer, 295-297, 301-305 multiplier, 363-365 oscillator, 241-243, 253-255 switch, 380-381 Filaments, tungsten, 414 Filter: crystal, 459 mechanical, 315-316 pulse-forming, 620 FLL, 623-625 FM demodulation, 571ff FM demodulator: balanced slope, 596-600 balanced time delay, 608-613 balancing in, 589-591 Clarke-Hess, 587-592, 632 crystal, 564, 602, 632 direct differentiation, 586-588 FMFB, 623-626 Foster-Seeley, 609-613 frequency locked loop (FLL), 623-626 ideal, 578 laser, 608, 633 microwave, 608 phase locked loop (PLL), 623-628 pulse count, 634, 635, 618-623 ratio detector, 613-615 series tuned slope, 600-602 simplified time delay, 615-618 slope, 593-602 time delay, 602-623 FM detectors; see FM demodulators FM differential equation, 527-528 quasi-static, 532-533 FM generators: analog, 528-529 Armstrong, 527, 559-562 crystal-controlled, 560 differential pair, 537 FET, 569-570 laser, 560, 562 quasi-static, 534-542 single transistor, 540 square wave, 553-559 time delay, 562 triangular wave, 568, 549 variable capacitance, 541-542 FM noise threshold, 624 FM signals: impulse train, 579, 584 nonsinusoidal, 520-521
654
INDEX
square, 577, 520-521 triangular, 520-521, 542-545, 632 sawtooth modulated, 510 sidebands of, 513 FM spectrum, 511-515 FM FB, 623-625 Foster, D. F., 610 Foster-Seeley detector, 609-613 Fourier-like FM expansion, 516 Fourier series: half-sine wave train, 92 impulse train, 80 narrow-pulse train, 480 periodic signal, 79 rectangular pulse train, 408 sine-wave tips, 93-95, 144-148 square wave, 92 switching function, 355-356, 462 Fourier transform, 72 of AM signal, 72-73, 347-349 of Hilbert transformer, 351 of nonlinear FM , 517 of unit step, 71 Frequency demodulator with feedback (FMFB), 623-625 Frequency depression, 279, 282 Frequency deviation, definition, 510 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM), 73,509 Frequency doubler, 561 Frequency locked loop, 623-625 Frequency modulation, 509-570 \fo r breakdown, see specific topics under FM Frequency stability, 210, 216-222 direct, 216-217 FM generators, 562-565 indirect, 217-222 Frequency tripler, 561 Frutiger, P., 628 Full-wave rectifier, 503 Gain control, 265-266, 308, 331-336; see also AVC Gerber, E. A., 243 Gdhnanium diode, 471, 496, 499 Gilbert, B., 365 Gray, P. E., 13 Groszkowski, J., 244, 279
Haantjej, J., 260 Hafner, E 243 Half-power frequency, 27 Half-wave rectifier, 462, 468-478, 618, 620 operational amplifier, 475-478 Hall effect multiplier, 362-363 Hayashi, C., 273 Hess, D. T., 527, 588, 625, 628 Hilbert transform, 351-353, 457 Hold in range, 626, 628 Hot carrier diodes, 553 Hysteresis, 544-545 IF amplifiers, 314-331 Immovilli, G., 628 Impedance matching, 16-19, 326-327 Impulse response, narrowband filter, 70 Input impedance, variation with frequency: in single-tuned circuits, 321-325 in double-tuned circuits, 330-331 Instantaneous frequency, definition, 510 Instantaneous phase, definition, 509 Intermodulation, 242 Jahnke, E., 641 Joyce, M. V., 401 Junction voltage, 2, 4 Kirchhoffs current law, 480 Klein, G., 551 Large signal transconductance; see Transconductance, large signal Lienard method, 273 Light bulb, 212, 213, 261 Limiters, 6-8, 110, 188, 571-577 differential pair, 573-574, 599, 629-631 diode, 572 dynamic, 575-577, 613-614 tuned circuit, 629-630 Linearization: exponential characteristic, 119, 123-129 mixers, 302-305 Lissajous pattern, 88-89, 362 Load line, 183-190; see also Operating path Local oscillator, 294 frequency modulated, 590
INDEX
655
Loop gain, 206 Loudspeaker, 421

L ow p ass eq u iv alen ts, 65 69
Multivibrator: astable, 553-556 monostable, 622, 634-635 Narrowband amplifiers, 6-7, 65-80, 112-119, 314-331 Narrowband networks, 65-81 Narrowband power amplifiers, 405-420, 432-447 Negative resistance, 205, 270-272 Networks: capacitive step-down, 38-48 coupling, 433-439 low pass equivalent, 65-69 narrowband, general, 65-81 pi, 439-447 transformer-like, 51 transient response, 21-23, 70-72 Neutralization, 321, 327 Noise, 509 Noise figure, 336-337 Noise immunity in FM receivers, 571, 590 Noise threshold in FM systems, 624-629 Onoe, M., 641 Operational amplifier, 262 half-wave rectifier, 475-478 low-pass filter, 478 Operating paths: class A amplifier, 407 class B amplifier, 407 class C amplifier, 410 effect of harmonics on, 438 Oscillators: Colpitts, 223, 226, 231-232 crystal, 243-255, 262 alignment, 251 tuning, 246 differential pair, 236-240, 251-252, 288, 291 Hartley, 223 junction FET, 241-243 large signal model: differential pair, 237ff single transistor, 225ff local, 10, 233, 305-307 Meacham bridge, 212, 261-267 Miller, 253, 255 negative-resistance, 268-272, 292 one-port, 268-272 pentode, 289 phase shift, 212, 283-284 Pierce, 253-254
IF strip, 69
MacLean, W. R., 260 Matching, impedance, 16-19 Maximum modulation frequency, 511 Meacham bridge oscillator, 212, 261-267 Measurements, high Q circuits, 88-89 Mechanical filters, 315-316 Midband range transformer, 17, 21 Miller capacitance, 52 Miller effect, 241 Millman, J., 546, 553, 609 Mixers: differential-pair, 309 FET, 295-297, 310-311 general problems, 294-295, 300-302, 305-306 series resistance in, 302-305 transistor, 8-10, 297-300, 307 Model transformer, 17, 51, 63-64 Modified Bessel functions: in amplifiers, 108-111 approximations, 113, 636 in mixers, 293-300 tabulations, 109, 637-639 theory, 636-641 uses, 3-9, 108-111, 293-300 Modulation, amplitude, 347-399 ;for breakdown, see specific topics under
AM
Modulation, frequency, 509-570; for breakdown, see specific topics under FM Modulation index: AM , 8, 77 FM , 511 Monostable multivibrator, 622, 634-635 Multiplication of frequency deviation, 516 Multiplier: FET, 363-365, 379-381, 384-387 four quadrant, 368-373 frequency, 8 integrated circuit, 365-373 single quadrant, 367 .square law, 354 transconductance, 395 two quadrant, 368-369
656
INDEX
series mode crystal, 248-254 sine wave, 10-12, 205ff single transistor, 222-236, 286-287, 289-290 variable frequency (VCO), 233-234, 624-628 Wien bridge, 212, 261, 267-268 Otte, J., 260 Overtone, crystal, 245 Page, D. F., 421 Parallel resonant circuits, 25-38 Peak envelope detection, 467-468 in FM detectors, 584-586 Peak envelope detector, 532 broadband, 498-503 ideal, 467 narrowband, 478-497 Pentodes: characteristics, 120-123 mixers, 300-301 oscillators, 253-255 transconductance, 121-123 Periodic drives: effect of narrowband filters, 78-85 effect of nonlinear elements, 91-134 Phase deviation, definition, 509 Phase distortion, 390 Phase locked loop (PLL), 459-460, 623-628 Phase modulation, 509-510 Phase plane, 273-279 Phasitron, 527 Pi network, 439-447 Piecewise linear models, 91, 124-126, 151-153 Pierce oscillator, 253-254 PLL, 459-460, 623-628 Pole zero diagram: delay network, 611 double-tuned transformer, 435 oscillator networks, 207, 208, 210, 212 quartz crystal, 245 Power in AM signals, 349 Power amplifiers: class A, 401-405 class AB, 401 class B, broadband, 401, 421-425 class C, linear, 408-410 class C, RF, 401, 410-415, 442-447 class D, broadband, 415-421
class D, narrowband, 426-432 coupling networks, 442-447 modulation of, 387-391, 447-451 switched, broadband, 415-421 switched, narrowband, 426-432 Power gain, 326-327 Power loss in transformers, 17-19 Pull in range, 628 Pulse count FM detector, 618-623, 634-635 Q: to limit output distortion, 82, 85 parallel circuits, 27-28, 31 Quartz crystal, 210, 217 model, 244 oscillators, 243-255 parameters, 245 Quasi-static approximation, 521-526, 596,. 598 Quasi-static frequency modulation, 532-542 Ratio detector, 613-615 Raysistor, 266 Reactance tube, 542 Receiver design, 293-295 Relton, F. E., 641 Resonant frequency, 26-27, 33 Rice, S. O., 628 Ripple, 467 in broadband envelope detector, 500 in FM detectors, 592 in peak envelope detector, 483 Root locus, 207-212, 434-437 Rowe, H. E., 426 Saturating collector, AM modulator, 388-392 Saturation current, transistor or diode, 2, 104, 171 Sawtooth generator, 428 Schmitt trigger, 343-547 Schwartz, M., 628 Seeley, S. W., 610, 613 Semiconductor resistor, 212 Series resistance: effect on clamping operation, 156-159 effect on exponential characteristic, 123-130
INDEX
657
effect on mixer characteristic, 302-305 Signal generator, laboratory, 213 Signals: telephony, 505 s e e a l s o AM signals a n d FM signals Silicon diode, 2, 471, 496, 499 Sine wave tips: with piecewise discontinuities, 92-98 in power amplifiers, 414-415, 454-455 with square law characteristic, 102-104 Single sideband (SSB): amplification, 405 demodulation, 457-461, 464-466 generation, 349-353, 368 spectrum, 350 Small signal operation, 3, 101, 110, 118 Smith, W. L., 602 Smith Chart, 444 446 Source impedance, effect on clamping operation, 156-159 Spectrum: FM signal, 513 SSB, 350 video signal, 465 Spikes Square law characteristics, 98-104, 131-134, 146-148 Square law detector, 500 Square law modulation, 359-360 Squegging, 255-261, 532 Stegun, I. A., 641 Stein, S., 628 Step response: narrowband networks, 70-75 transformer, 21-23 Strauss, L., 551, 553 Superheterodyne, 10, 293-295 Superposition, 90, 149, 153 Suppressed carrier AM, 349, 357 Switch, voltage-controlled, 547-549 Switching function, 355-356, 462 Switching power amplifiers: broadband, 415-421 narrowband, 426-432 Sykes, R. A., 243 Symmetric networks, 66 Synchronous detection, 457-461 in FM detectors, 580-582 Synchronous detector, 615 Taub, H 546, 553, 609
T a y lo r Series o f R L C circu it m ag n itu d e,
594-595, 598 Thermal runaway, 400 Thermal time constant, 213 Thermistor, 212-213 Threshold extension FM receivers, 623-628 Threshold sensor, 543-544 Time-delay FM detector, 602-623 Time-varying controlled source, 534 Total harmonic distortion (THD), 82-85, 192-193 in differential pair oscillator, 236, 240 in transistor oscillator, 227-230 Transconductance: differential pair, 116-119 effect of series resistance, 123-130 FET, 100-101, 133-134 pentodes, 121 small signal, 100, 105, 116, 121 transistor, 105-112, 128-129 Transconductance, conversion, 9, 297-314 bipolar transistor, 9, 297-301 differential-pair, 309-310 FET, 295-297 peak-clamped FET, 304-305 pentode, 301-302, 304-305 Transconductance, large signal: differential pair, 119 exponential characteristic, 7, 11, 110 with series resistance, 129-130 FETs, 100, 122, 134 pentodes, 122-123 resistively coupled transistor circuit, 177-179 square law characteristic, 100, 134 Transconductance multiplier, 395 Transfer function, 65 Transformer: broadband, 16-24 three-winding, 54-59 Transformer-like networks, 38-48 summary, 51 Transient buildup: clamping circuit, 159-162 transistor bias circuit, 165-169 Transient response: narrowband circuits, 71-76 Transistor: as amplifier, 104-113 average detector, 473, 586-592 biasing, 1-2,162-180
658
INDEX
collector modulation of, 387-392 limiters, 573 mixers, 297-300 simple oscillator, 222-227 see also individual topics such as FET, Oscillators, Amplifiers, Biasing, etc. Trapezoidal pattern, 88, 362 Triangular wave frequency modulation, 542-553 Triangular wave pulse train, harmonics in, 454-456 Triode class C amplifier, 411-415 Tuned circuit, nonlinear loading, 181-194 Turn on bias, 425 Turns ratio, transformer, 18-19 Unkauf, M., 628 Vacuum tube: AGC circuits, 332-334 characteristics, 120-123, 334, 413 mixers, 300-301 modulated power amplifiers, 450-451
oscillators, 253-255 power amplifiers, 410-415, 432-439 transconductance, 120-123 Van Suchtelen, H., 260 Varactor, 542 Varicap, 541-542 VCO, 541-542, 624-628 Vestigial sideband, 464-466 Virtual ground, 363, 476 Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), 541-542, 624-628 Watson, G. N., 641 Waveform function, 165 Waveshaping network, sinusoidal, 551-553 Whittaker, E. T., 641 Woodward, P. M., 515 Woodwards theorem, 515 Y parameters, 315-346 Zener diode, 557
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COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

This book is in the

C o n su ltin g E d ito rs DAV ID K. C H EN G LEO N A R D A. G O U LD FR ED K . MANASSE

To our wives , Nona and Carole

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

C hap ter 2 2.1

C h ap ter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Nonlinear Controlled Sources

Chapter 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Chapter 10 Amplitude Modulators

12.1 L im ite r s .................................................................................................................571

Appendix: Modified Bessel F unctions................................................................ 636

BASIC CIRCUIT BIASING

_ [ Es[ev<'^kr]e{v ,qlkl) cos

excosm = I 0(X) + 2 In{x) cos mot,

when n is a positive integer. C om bining Eqs. (1.2-1) an d (1.2-2), we obtain

V <* = ln T 7 n = ln 7^ <7 Ie s I o M <1 Ie s

WIDEBAND AMPLIFIER LIMITS ON "SMALL-SIGNAL OPERATION

<*ic2R L - r r v cos 0)1 /o M

F o r sm all values o f x, how ever, 2 / 1(x )//0(x) x = V^q/kT ; consequently,

u)0= reso n an t frequency

- T 'Q (short circuit at do)

NARROWBAND AMPLIFIERS AND LIMITERS

\Z L(joS)\ ~ (n2 - 1)Qt '

^c i l a^c2 2^i(x ) _ w, I i \ Fi Kj / 0(x)

Fig. 1.6-1 Sine-wave oscillator.

Stable sinusoidal oscillations occur at co0 for

output is required at this point.)

v (/)= (2 6 0 m V ) cos 107/ T = 2 T C , P=98 Ye = 0.7 V

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND TRANSFORMERLIKE COUPLING NETWORKS

BROADBAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING

Fig. 2.1 -1 T ransform er coupling netw ork.

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS

Fig. 2.1 -3 Midband model for transformer coupling network.

BROADBAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS

Fig. 2.1 -5 Pole-zero diagram o f H(p).

BROADBAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING

and P20 in ad d itio n , 20 log \H(ja))\

20 log H m + 20 log |co/p20| (2-1-9)

- 20 log y / l + (w /p10)2 - 20 log y / l + (m / p 20)2,

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS

Fig 2.1 -8 Step response of transform er coupling netw ork.

Fig. 2.1 -9 Step response of b ro ad b an d transform er n e t work.

BROADBAND TRANSFORMER COUPLING

Fig. 2.1-10 E xpansion of leading edge c f Fig. 2.1- 9.

( R S + r! ) (RL + r2)n2 [.R s + rj + n2(R L + r2)]\p2\

20 log |p 10| = 20 log ^ and 201o g W Rb = 2 0 lo g j

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS

Fig. 2.1-12 Capacitive coupling network.

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

Fig. 2.2-1 P arallel RLC circuit.

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS

Fig. 2.2 -3 Simplified circuits for finding p 10 an d p 20.

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

Fig. 2.2^4 Pole-zero diagram of Z , t(p) with

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS

since p = a>0% / T ^ l y 4 Q f a w 0 and a//? =

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

BROADBAND AND NARROWBAND COUPLING NETWORKS