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Pascal Debus
H (tt0 )
nd eigenvalue and eigenstates (diagonalize H ) but: most problems cannot be solved exactly nd approximate solution.
+ 2
1.1
Step 0: Step 1
nothing to do multiply by m |
(0)
Assume:
H = H0 + V with H0 the Hamiltonian that I can solve (free Hamiltonian) and the perturbation V small and a dimensionless bookkeeping par. 0 1 H H0 full H
(0) (0) (0) (0) (1) (0) m H0 En m + m V En m =0 (0) (0) = Em En (0) (1) (0) (0) (1) m |n + m V m En mn = 0
to get |n
(1) |n =
(1)
m V m =
m
(0)
En Em
(0)
(0)
We know
(0) (0) |n , En
from normalization
!
with
(0) (0) (0) H0 |n = En |n (0) (0) (0) (1) (1) (0) n |n = 1 = n n + n |n + n |n + O 2 1 0
with
(0) (0) n m = mn
pdebus@student.ethz.ch
step 2
(0)
(0)
1.2
V k
(0) (0)
(0) Ek En
(1) (1) (2) En k |n = En kn (0) Assume En is -fold degenerate i.e. (0) (0) (0) H0 |n = En |n , i
for k = n 1i
(0) (2) (0) = V n En = n m=n 2 Vnm m=n (2) (0) n
(0) n (0) En
(0) m
(0) m
(0) Em
x
(0) (0) n |nj = ij i
En Em
(0)
(0)
|(0) = n
i=1
(0) cni |n i
is
an eigenstate E ()
of
H0
with
evaluation
En
(0)
En1 En
(0)
En2 . . . Enk
|k
(0)
(2) k |n +0
(0)
=
k=n (1) (0) |k
(0) (0)
V k
(0)
En Ek
(0)
En
(1)
k |n
(0)
(1)
= 0, H0
= 1, H
En Ek
(0)
(0)
Typically V lifts degeneracy at least partially since often [H0 , V ] = 0 Pick one of the evals Enk with H |nk = Enk |nk
plug in |n
= Z1/2 |n
x such that
N
n n M = 1
(0)
then
N
= 1 = Zn n |n = Zn
have to nd good linear combination, i.e. coe cnk i . Main idea as before:
(1) |nk = |(0) nk + |nk
2 (1) (1) |n O 3 2 n
with
(2) |n
=
k=n m=n
(0) |k
dim(H0 )
... 1 2
(0)
an |
=1
(0)
En Ek
(0) |n
(0) 2 Vkn
Em En
(0)
(0)
Vkn Vnn En En
(0) (0)
and
(0) cnk i |n i
k=n
En Ek
(0)
i=1
multiply by nj |.
dim H0
(0)
then
(0)
E
=1
(0)
(0) (0) En an n | j
| H | =
m,n
c m cn m | H |m =
m,n
c m cn En m n
mn 2
=0 for n=
=0 for n=
=
n
cn
En E0
n
cn
= E0
+
i=1
(0) (0) (1) (0) (0) (1) (0) (0) En |ni En V n n cnk i n n |ni j j j j k k
Vji ij
V12 V22 . . .
(1) Enk
...
(1)
...
dx A
2 2bx2
= A
2b
1.3
dx ebx
(0) i
(0) i
b m 2 + = | H | E0 2m 8b
bmin =
m 2 2
k=i E0 | H |
min
Vik = 0
1.5
1.4
Useful to get good estimate of ground-state energy E0 of complicated systems. Claim E0 if | normalized. Let | H | = | H | |
V (x) V0 const. | = cn |n ( x) = e
i
H |n = En |n =1 cn
2
2m(E V0 )x
S (x)
Ansatz into Schr odinger: i 1 2 S + (S ) + V (x) E = 0 2m 2m equivalent to but more complicated than Schr odinger. Note for V (x) V0 S = 2m (E V0 ) x and S =0 rst term vanishes for V (x) V0 Let S (x) = S0 (x) + S1 (x) + O( 2 ) plug in into dierential equation for S 1 2 (S ) + V (x) E = 0 2m 0 S0 = 2m (E V (x)) p(x) 1 S0 S1 S0 = 0 2 i S0 i p (x) S1 = = 2 S0 2 p(x) solve these dierential equation
x
2.2
Spin-orbit term
naive derivation (1) Electron with spin magnetic dipole moment = e g s m2 e = r2 T 2 s= mr2 T g (from Dirac)
(classical limit)
B=
wrong by factor 2 (Thomas precession) . . . correct result HSO = To describe spin |n, , s = 1 , ms 2 = n
m ms
Ze2 1 L S, 2mc2 r3
( B)
= n
(r, ) ms
S0 = S1 =
i
i ln p(x) 2
Note : HSO mixes states with same , but dierent m , m use degenerate perturbation theory with 2 (2 + 1) 2 (2 + 1) matrix + A p(x) e
i
p( x )
dx p(x )
spin
n, , m , ms | HSO |n, , m , ms diagonalize recall degenerate perturbation theory nd good linear combination that diagonalize this matrix by looking for symmetry use total angular momentum J L+S
2
2.1
H= new variables
2m2
2 1
for 2 2 + V (r1 r2 )
=0 j= 1 2 , for
1 =0 j= 2 . Use states
2m2
|n, , j, mj
R=
m2 r1 + m2 r2 m1 + m2 r = r1 r2
|n, , j, mj =
m ,ms
|n, , m , ms n, , m , ms n, , j, mj
Clebsch-Gordan
M = m1 + m2 m1 m2 m= m1 + m2
2
use J 2 = L2 + 2 L S + S 2 1 2 LS = J L2 S 2 2
H=
2M
with eigenvalues En ,
2
ESO for =0
4 = n, , j, mj | HSO |n, , j, mj
( + 1) ,
23
j (j + 1) , mj
=0 n=1 n=2
=1
1 {2} 1S 2 1 {2} 2S 2
=2
degeneracy
2S 3 {2} 1 {2} 2S 2 2
Fine structure partially lifts the degeneracy but for instance 2S1/2 and 2P1/2 are still degenrate.
ESO =
2.5
1 +1 1
j= + j=
1 2 1 2
Hyperne structure e eect of proton spin sp p = 2m gp sp , where the expep rimental value for gp is given by gp = 5.59 (not 2, sicne the proton is not a fundamental particle)) p induces B-eld and e feels the B-Field B. EHfs Z 4 4 We introduce the total spin F P = Se + Sp = ADD 21cm line PICTURE The Lamb shift (needs QED) leads to a modication of the Coulomb potential which splits 2S1/2 and 2P1/2 with ELamb (Z)4 (log Z)1 1 0 = Singulett Triplett me mp
2.3
Darwin term
Sloppy consideration electron position uctuates by r c mc electron feels average potential V (r + r) = V (r) + 1 r r V 2
correct result is
2
HD = only for = 0!
8m2 c2
2 V =
2 Ze2 (r ) 2m2 c2
ED = n, , j, mj | HD |n, , j, mj (Z) = En n
2 0
3
2
H=
i=1
Ze2 p2 2m ri
+
i>j
e2 |ri rj |
2.4
e-e-interaction
1 : r1 s1
3.1
valid for l = 0, i.e. j = 1/2 and j = l 1/2. (0) Fien structure suppressed (Z)2 rel. to En only depends on j (not independtly on l and s) Notation for states:nLj n = 1, 2, . . . L = S (l = 0), P (l = 1), D(l = 2), ; F (l = 3) 1 J = l total anuglar momentum 2
Identical Particles
Consider N identical particles with Hamiltonian H (1, . . . , N and wave fucntion (1, . . . , N with 1 = r1 , s1 , . . . (position, spin, other quantum numbers...) Classical mechanics: We can always distinguish these N particles. A B A B
Quatum mechanics: We cannot keep track of individual particles if their wave functions ovelap. Dene an Operator Pij interchanging i j Pij (1, . . . , i, . . . , j, . . . N ) = (1, . . . , j, . . . , i, . . . N )
2 Pij =1
bosonic case: 1 1 (p(1)) . . . N (p(N )) S (1 . . . N ) = N ! P SN fermionic case: 1 A (1 . . . N ) = (1)P 1 (p(1)) . . . N (p(N )) N ! P SN A can be written as Slatter determinant: 1 A (1 . . . N ) = N! 1 (1) . = det . . N (1) .. . 1 (N ) . . . N (N )
Eigenvalues 1
As a cosnequence of indistinguishability H must be invariant under i j : [H, P ij = 0 There are N ! permutations of elements 1 . . . N which fall into 2 classes, even and odd. even sgn(p) = +1, (1)p : even number of interchanges odd sgn(p) = 1, (1) : odd number of interchanges We have [H, P ] = 0 P is a unitary Operator since | = P |P = |P P | P P = 1 For any oberservable A we have [A, P ] = 0 (identical particles cannot be distinguished by measurement)
p
Pauli Exclusion Principle Two identical fermions with the same quantum numbers (including spin) cannot be at the same position since the wave function vanishes for ri = rj , si = sj .
3.2
Thomas-Fermi approximation
P |A|P = P AP | = P P A| = |
( semi-classical): Assume each e feels average potential (r) (spherically symmetric) V = Ze2 other electrons e(r) r
2 combinations are important: 1. totally symmetric: | S with P | S = | S Completely symmetric linear combination of all N ! combinations 2. totally anti-symmetric (1)P | A Example N = 3 |
S
Poisson equation: 2 = 4 with r > 0 and the total charge density from other electrons and nucleus: = e(r) + Ze2 (r) Let n be the number of states in a certain energy range: n = 0 if the energy E = n=
2 (2 )3 p2 2m
with
P |
1 = ( (1, 2, 3) + (2, 1, 3) + (1, 3, 2) 3! + (2, 3, 1) + (3, 1, 2) + (3, 2, 1)) 1 = ( (1, 2, 3) + (2, 3, 1) + (3, 1, 2) 3! (2, 3, 1) (3, 2, 1) (1, 3, 2))
e > 0
if E < 0
2me
=
0
8 nd p = (2 )3
3
2me
p2 dp =
0
8 (2me)3/2 3(2 )2
Spin-Statistics Theorem Particles with integer spin (bosons) are described by symmetric wave functions, particles with half-integer spin are called fermions are described by anti-symmetric wave-functions. (Proof needs relativistic QM) Look at N non-interacting identical particles (1 . . . N ) = N i=1 i (i) 6
Plug this into Poisson Equation which leads to a dierential equation for 2 = 32e2 1 d2 r(r) = (2me)3/2 2 r dr 3(2 )3
Ze r
Solve numerically with boundary conditions: (r) r 0 and normalize 4 = (r)r2 dr = Z : R const aZ 1/3
for
3.3
3.4.1
Assume (1 . . . N ) = 1 (1) . . . N (N ) as solution to: Improve ansatz for (1 . . . N ) = H (1, . . . , N ) = E (1, . . . , N ) with
N 1 N!
H=
i=1
Ze2 p2 2m ri
+
i>j
e2 |ri rj |
N (1) N (N ) fully compatible with Pauli. As we proceeded with Hartree, plug into Hamiltonian and minimize. We will see that only the potential terms changes: d3 ri
j =i
d3 rj
e-e-interaction
Now let i be distinct and orthogonal (partially taking into account Pauli principle) and normalized. We want to nd stationary states with respect to variation in i taking into account the normalization condition via Lagrange multilpiers i .
e2 |ri rj |
To understand the exchange term, consider N = 2: 1 (1, 2) = (1 (1)2 (2) 1 (2)2 (1)) 2! Write down all terms for the interaction: | H =
i
d3 r i (r) d3 r
i<j
2m
Ze2 r
1 | |ri rj | d3 r1
d3 r2 ( 1 (r1 )2 (r2 )1 (r1 )2 (r2 ) + 1 2
i (r)
+ +
i
d3 r i (r)j (r )
e2 i (r)j (r ) |r r |
d3 r|i (r)|2 1
i
3.5
A single electron in an atom feels an eective potential Ve (from nucleus and other electrons, still spherically symmetric). i = Rnl(r) Ylm (, )ms where the Rnl is dierent from Hydrogen. General rules: n small, stronger binding l small, electron is closer to the nucleus
2m
Ze2 r d3 r
Vi (r) =
j =i
where the last term is the interaction of the ith e with the potential caused by all other j = i e and i is the ionization energy of the ith electron. Solve numerically with iterative procedure start with guess (0) (0) for i and plug into potential term to obtain Vi , plug into (0) the Hamiltonian and solve for i .
3.4
of
Lagrange
For each n: l 0 1 2 3 name S P D F deg 2(2l+1) 2 4 6 10 K-Shell n=1 l=0 2 H,He L-Shell n=2 l=0 2 Li, Be l=1 6 B-Ne M-Shell n=3 l=0 2 Na-Mg l=1 6 Al-Ar N-Shell n=4 l=0 2 n=3 l=2 10 n=4 l=1 6
where the i is the ionization energy of the i-th electron, assuming others are not aected.
The conguration of electrons determines the chemical properties of elements. What is the Hunds rules (empirically) [Notation: 2s+1 LJ ] 7
Exanple: Carbon (1s)2 (2s)2 (2p)2 For each of the 2 2p-electrons we can take: ml = 1, 0, 1 ms = 1 2 6 possibilities for both, so in 65 total 2 = 15 possibilities. 0, 2 symmetric 1 anti- symmetric 1 0 symmetric anti- symmetric
= L= S=
n
cn exp
(0) En t
(0) (0) En |n + m
anti-symmetric: deg 1 1 3 5 5 15
i i
(0) (0) En t |n
=
n,m
cm exp
Vmn exp
1. Make spin maximal spin part more symmetric, orbital part more anti-symmetric electron further away from each other less repulsion (for C, S=1) 2. Make L maximal electrons on average for the away from each other less repulsion (no impact for C) 3. ESO = const(j (j + 1) l(l + 1) s(s + 1)) const> 0 if subshell no more than half lled J = |L S | const< 0 if subshell more than half lled J = |L + S |
j) c( n
(0) E (0) Em )
1 c(1) n = (i ) m
= (i )
(0)
c f = (i )1 Vf i eif i t cf (t) = (i )
(1) t
(1)
Vf i eif i t dt
t0
We now want to know the time evolution | (t) = U (t, t0 )| (t0 ) We know: i | (t) = H (t)| (t) which results in a more t complicated relation between H and U .
Hence, the transition probability for the system to be found (0) in state |f at time t Pif = |cf |2 = which is valid if |cf |2
(1)
1
2
Vf i eif i t dt
t0
+ O(2 )
4.1
Let H (t) = H0 + V (t) with a free part H0 which is timeindependent and solvable and a small perturbation V (t). i | (t) ) = H (t)| (t) = (H0 + V (t)) | (t) | (t) =
n
4.2
Constant perturbation
cn (t) exp
(0) (0) En t |n
|Vf i |2
t0
eif i t dt f i t 2
|cn |2 = 1
n
t () = 8
<
1 2 t
=0
and t () d = 1 with limtinf t () = (). So in the limit we obtain for the transition probability: lim Pif = t
2
such that U satises: i U (t, t0 ) = H (t)U (t, t0 ) with the formal solution: U (t, t0 ) = 1 + 1 i dt H (t )U (t , t0 )
t0 n=0
|Vf i |2
(0) Ef
(0) Ei
f i 2
= (0)
2t
|Vf i |2 (Ef Ei )
(0)
Now solve by iteration: U (t, t0 ) = U (1) |t, t0 = U (2) |t, t0 = = So we arrive at:
t
= 1 + U (0) +
1 i 1 i 1 2!i
dt1 H (t1 )
t0 t t2
dt2 H (t2 )
t0 t t0
dt1 H (t1 )
Consider transitions into continuous spectrum (E ) where E2 (E ) dE is the number of states in energy range E1 E2 . E1 Golden Rule: f i
f
(E )f i dE =
(Ef )|Vf i |
U (n) (t, t0 ) = (i )n
t0
tn
t2
dtn H (tn )
t0 t t
dtn1 H (tn1 )
t0 t
dt1 H (t1
1 (i )n n!
dt1
t0 t0
dtn1
t0
4.3
Periodic perturbations
it + it
where T is the Time-ordering operator: T (H (tn ) . . . H (t1 )) = H (t (1) ) H (t (n) ) t (1) > t (2) > > t (n) Full solution U (t, t0 ) = T e
i
t t0
Let V (t) = V e +V e for t > t0 = 0 The transition probability Pif is given by Pif = 1
2 t 2
dt
t0
V eit + V + eit
H (t ) dt
=
2 t 2 t t + 2 sin 2 sin 2 (f i ) 2 (f i + ) | V | + | V | f i f i 2 2 2 f i + t t f i 2 2
4.5
+ Re(Vf i Vf+ i )F (f i , )
2 2 Behavior for t large (t ). Recall that (sin distribution) interference term vanishes. For the transition rate we have:
if =
Theorem For an adiabatic change Hi Hf , a system that is initially in the n-th eigenstate of Hi will evolve into into the n-th eigenstate of Hf (no level crossings) Proof: Let H (t) = En (t)|n (t) | (t) = cn (t) e(i
n )1
t 0
absorbtion
emmission
4.4
En ( ) d
Consider again the evolution operator | (t) = U (t, t0 )| (t0 ) with the following properties: 1. U (t, t0 ) 2. U (t, t1 )U (t1 , t0 ) = U (t, t0 ) 3. i | (t) = H (t)| (t) t =i | (t) = t
|n (t)
ein
=
n
cn (t)ein |n (t)
n + icn c n |n + cn | n |n
=
n
cn ein H |n
m c m (t) = c m m |
t
m = i
t0
d m ( )|m ( )
cn
|n m |H ei(n m ) En Em
(r) =
i
(r ri )
only 1e
(r r1 )
small where the last sum is an adiabatic approximation for H 0 and also must not have degeneracy. m c m (t) = cm m |
t
1 2m
(pi (r ri ) + (r ri )pi )
i
m = i
t0
m ( ) d m ( )|
If the system is in state m at time t, H remains in this state (t) = cm (t)eim (t) |m (t) = eim (t) eim (t) |m (t) where eim (t) is the geometric phase and eim (t) the dynamic phase. (Berry phase)
=0
Write V (t, r) for a single electron in terms of Fouriertransform j(j) = d3 reikr j(r) = pi ikn p e + eikn i 2m 2m
+ (k, )j(k) (k, )eik t which has the form of section 4.3: V ek t + V ek t
5.1
External classical eld B = A, E = A (in relativity, , A A ) Physics is invariant under gauge tranformations: A A + A A + (r, t) 1 (r, t) c
5.2
Consider an atom in an external (classical) EM eld. Compute the transition amplitude/rate of state 0 into n (n = 0). From Section 4.3 for a single mode (k, ) n0 (k, ) = 2 (En E0 )
Gauge choice: here Coulomb gauge A = 0 Maxwells Equations in free space wave equation for A: A Solution: A= d k (2 )3
3
1 2 A = 0 c2 t2
no (k, ) d
(k, )(k, )e
ikrik t
+ (k, ) (k, )e
ikr+ik t
n0 (k, ) | n |j |0 |
where (k, ) are the coecients of linear combinations and {1, 2} is the polarization k = 0 2 polarizations. q q2 p2 H= + V0 + (pA + Ap) + A2 + q 2m 2mc 2mc2
H0 V (t)
The reverse process induced emission 0n = 2e2 n0 ( c)2 (2c)3 | |2 | 0 |j(k) (k)|n |2
10
5.3
where x + iy sin ei r = x iy = sin ei z cos This is most of the time 0 except if n ,l ,ml |z |n,l,ml = 0 if l = l 1, ml = ml n ,l ,ml |x iy |n,l,ml = 0 if l = l 1, ml = ml 1 (Or use Wigner-Eckart theorem with r as vector operator) Hence the selection rules for E 1 transitions (dipole approximation) are l = 1 m = 0, 1
1 peikk + eikk p 2m
7 1
k for visible light (10 ) r size og atom Bohr radius 1010 m eikr = 1 ik r + (Dipole approximation) Aside: This is equivalent to a term er E = d E with the dipole moment d = er (magnetic moment: B) Proof 1 p2 [rx , H0 ] = rx , 2m 1 = ([rx , p] p + p [rx , p]) 2m with [rx , p] =
y
These rules are notated by beyond-dipole transitions (e.g. E 2 quadrupole transitions.) Further selection rules: S = 0
i xy py
[rx , H0 ] =
since the spin part of the wave function is not aected by r E. It is always true that there is no transition J = 0 J = 0 (Total angular momentum conservation)
emission 0 | er E |n =
Potential scattering
We consider H = H0 + V (r) with lim|r| |r|V (r)=0 which is (in general) not a Coloumb potential. V is restricted to a small region and we want to nd stationary solutions (r, t) = e
i
Et
(r)
for r
Steady incoming beam scattered by the potential (more general treatement in section 7)
Proof 2 Make gauge transformation with (r, t) = A(t) r: A A + = 0 1 1 0= = Ar = E r c c H := e = er E atomic transitions are only possible if n ,l ,ml |r|n,l,ml = 0 given l, ml this imposes constraints on l , ml which leads to selection rules (in dipole approximation) The restrictions can be obtained by looking at properties of spherical harmonics: x + iy ml d Yl (, ) x iy Ylml (, ) z 11
6.1
we are looking for solutions to (H0 + V ) | = E | Ein = Eout = of the form r k (r) in (r) + sc (r) = eikr + f (, ) eikr r
2 2 p2 k = 2m 2m
where we are not interested in (r) for small r (in range of ikr V ) and f (, ) is the scattering amplitude and e r is the outgoing spherical wave Dierential cross section d N = d F
N : #particles scattered into d per time in N d F : ux of incoming particles, number/time/unit area Exercise: For |in |2 = 1 (1 part/volume), F =V = outgoing: j = ... = k er f (, ) |2 2 m r p k = m m
Put everything into () for r l 1 Al sin(kr + l ) kr 2 l eikr 1 = (2l + 1)il sin(kr ) + fk kr 2 r Al ikr i l il Al ikr i l eil e e 2e e e 2 2i 2i l l 1 1 (2l + 1)il eikr ei 2 (2l + 1)il eikr ei 2 + kfl eikr 2i 2i Finally fl = 2l + 1 2il 2l + 1 il (e 1) = e sin(l ) 2ik k
d = |f (, i) |2 d d d d
6.2
Partial-wave analysis
k eikr + f ()
r
f ( ) =
l=0
2l + 1 il e sin(l ) Pl (cos ) k
fl
eikr r
d|f ()|2
k = fk =
Rl (kr)Pl (cos )
l=0
2
1
dcos
l=0 l =0
fk (k )Pl (cos )
l=0
Use
2 2l+1 ll
tot =
l=0
1 kr
2l + 1 sin2 (l ) k2
l
l=0
6.2.1
For V=0, we have Cl = 0, i.e l = 0. Next nd a relation between phase shifts l (k ) and scattering amplitude f () . Aside: Free particle eigenfunctions in spherical coordinates: Elmk (r, , ) = cjl (kr)Ylml (, )|E =
Im(f ( = 0)) = Im
l=0
fl
= Im
l=0
2l + 1 il e sin l k
=
2 k2 2m
l=0
2l + 1 sin2 (l ) k
eikr =
l=0 ml =l
Often an easy way to compute the total cross section by computing Im of forward scattering amplitude.
Partial-wave useful if not too many l contribute. (2l + 1)i jl (kr)Pl (cos )
l
ikr
=
l=0
L = l = bP 12
6.3
Coulomb scattering
In QM the particles are undistinguishable when idential. Two pictures with a particle A and B going to each other. Moreover: Total wave function (spin+space+. . . ) must be either symmetric or antisymmetric under exchange A B , r r. Spatial wave function sym/antysym = eikr eikr + (f () f ( )) eikr r
So far we have assumed rV (r) 0, |r| , but this is not the case for Coulomb scattering. However, exact solution is known (recall Hydrogen atom)
2
2m
Z1 Z2 e2 r
(r) = E (r)
lim | (r)| = 0
Example: Coulomb scattering of two protons (spin 1 2 , fermions t.w.f. antisymmetric). Let us look at unpolarized protons and assume that the potential does not depend on spin. Spin wave function: prob prob.
1 4 3 4
: do not contribute Conuent hypogeometric equation 2 linearly independent solutions: nd the linear combination which is regular at the origin. Result for r mZ1 Z2 e2 = 2k
z (r ) ei(kz+ log 2k(rz))
prob
3 4
k=ke
Unpolarized cross-section: )e
i(kr log 2kr )
2k sin2
(1 + ) i log(sin e (1 i )
2 2
3 1 |fc () + f ( )|2 + |fc () fc ( )|2 4 4 1 = |fc ()|2 + |fc ( )|2 (fc ()fc ( ) + fc ()fc ( )) 2
Z1 =Z2 =1
eikr + f ( ) r
r
e 4E
1 1 + 4 sin 2 cos4
classical
cos2
but gets additional phases, because not rV (r) Crosssection d = |fc ()| = 2 4 d 4k sin
2
Z1 Z2 e2 4E
1 sin4
6.4
2
equation
&
Rutherford scattering formula (classical!) Phases drop out in this case Additional phases can have an eect in scattering of 2 idenA B tical particles. Here 2 2, . Go to the center of mass frame (sec 2.1)
2
Again: Ek =
2
k 2m
2 2
2m
2m = m1 m2 m = m1 + m2 2 reduced mass
2 + Ek gk (r) = (r)
Idea: As in section 4.4 we can turn this formal solution into a series for k (in powers of V ) First: Compute gk : Go to Fourier space gk (r) = We get
2
d3 q (2 )
3e
iqr
gk (q)
2m
2 + Ek gk (r) =
d3 q (2 )
3
2m
q2 +
iqr
2m
k 2 eiqr gk (q)
+ What we need is gk !
= (r) =
d q (2 )
3e
k (r) = eikr
d3 r
m eik|rr | V (r ) (r ) 2 2 |r r |
2m
2
k2
1 = q2
1
Ek
q 2m
2 2
1 |r|
|r r | r 1 gk (r) = 1 (2 ) 2m
2 0 2
dq
0
| d
1
dcos q 2
2m
2
k2
= = :
1 (2 )
2 2
2m
2
1 (2 )
2 0
dq
1 eiqr cos q2
r r cos + O r r rr = r er r =r r
m 2 2
1 ir
dq
q eiqr k2 q2
k (r) = eikr
m 2 2
d3 r
eikre
iker r
V (r )k (r )
dq
0
q 1
6.5
dq
Formal solution: k (r) = eikr + G+ k (r r ) = Es folgt f = m 2 d3 r eiker V (r )k (r) d3 rG+ k (r r )V (r)k (r)
Integral is not well dened! We need a prescription for the poles. We use contour integral, close it in upper half plane q = qR + iq
m
eiqr = eiqR r eq m r
m eik|rr | 2 2 |r r |
q +k
k (r) = eikr +
n=1
with the Kernel We deform the contour at q = k dierent options, giving dierent asympt behaviours for gk (r)! For negative point outside and positive point inside curve: K1 (r, r ) =G+ k (r r )V (r) . . . K1 (r, r ) =
+ gk (r) = 2i
V1
d3 r K1 (r, )Kn1 (r , r)
Vn
m 2 2
1 q m e Resq=k eiqr = ir (q k ) (q + k ) 2 2 r
ikr
For negative point inside and positive point outside curve: m eikr 2 2 r
=
gk (r ) =
d3 ri
i=1 G+ k (r2
r1 )V (r1 )
14
Retaining the rst term we obtain the rst Born approximation k (r) = eikz m 2 2 d3 r V (r )eik(ez er )r e
f (1) (,)
ikr r
General scattering more complicated than in section 6 e.g. production of new particles. Want to use general representation, so | is a general state in Hilbert space (not nec. wave function)
(Assume k along the z-Axis) f (i) is the Fourier Transformation of the potential with respect to q. q k (ez er ) = k k momentum transfer
7.1
Dynamics of scattering
i t |, t = H |, t H = H0 + V r dr V (r )e
2 iqr cos
d
1
dcos
Note: f (1) is real! Compare optical theorem Example: Yukawa Potential V (r) = V0 er r
2m () = 2 V0 q
dr e
0
sin(qr ) =
2m
2
V0 2 + q 2
=i
t (t t ) e
i
H0 (tt
q 2 +q 2
= (t t ) e
H0 (tt
) + (t t ) i H e i H0 (tt ) 0
= (t t ) + H0 G+ 0 (t t )
2
= |f (1) ()|2 =
2mV0
2
1 (2 + 2k 2 (1 cos ))2
= 2
1
dcos 2mV0
2 2
2mV0
2
= 2
2 + 4k 2 2
(i t H0 ) |0 , t = 0 The physical solution is given by | + , t , since G+ (t t ) moves forward in time. (retardation) To make connection with section 6: t E
Coulomb = 2mV0
2 2
but the total cross section diverges! Note limr rV (r) = 0 for Coulomb.
G+ 0 (E ) = 15
dt e
Et
G+ 0 (t) =
i
0
dt e
Et i H0 t
with
+ G+ 0 (t) = G0 (t, t = 0)
Consider again
0 | = | + E H0 + O+ 0 = | + 1 1 V |
0 T | E E i0+
1=
0 0 d | |
| , t evolves with H , but was equal to free state | 0 , t @ t Let be a complete set of quantum number of H0 (including E )
0 | , t | ,t
0 T V
f ()|
d e
0 f ()|
Et
| ,t
dt e
Et
0 | ,t
d f ()|
iH 0
0 d f ()|
| (E ) |
0 (E ) | 0 |
dt e
Et
dt G 0 (t t ) V | , t tt+t
| = lim e+
H i H0
0 0 | = |
with Mller operators Typical scattering experiment: At t prepare state with quantum number of H0
dt e
Et
+ G+ 0 (t) = G0 (E )
V | (E ) =
dt e
Et
V (E )
Q: What is amplitude for this state to end up in (another) eigenstate of H0 with quantum number . A:
+ 0 =
0 | = | + G0 V |
0 0 0 S +
(Lippmann-Schwinger)
Solution:
| = 1 G 0V 1 0 | =
H0
H (0 ) i H0 0
1
1 G 0
(Gpm 0 )
0 |
= ex 1: sheet 6: i
lim U (, 0 ) = U (, )
i i i d U (, 0 ) = e H0 (H H0 ) e H (0 ) e H0 0 d i i = e H0 V e H0 U (, 0 ) = V ( )U (, 0 )
V ( )
0 = 1 + G V |
( ) d
dt1 V (t1 ) +
t1
dt1
7.2
0 0 H0 | = E | H | = E |
S -matrix 16
0 0 S S =
insert S operator
which can be interpreted as an harmonic oscillator. (a a + aa ) with the states Recall QMI: H = 2 |0 a|0 = 0 (a )n |0 n! a = n + 1|n + 1 N |n = n|n
0 0 1 = ( )
|n 2nd term i i
0 e dt1
i
H0 t
V e
H0 t
N = a a
dte
(E E )t
0 0 V
To motivate the interpretation of A as collection of independent harmonic oscillators compute H= 1 d3 r(E2 + B2 ) 1 E= A c d3 k i i = eikrik t eikrik t (2 )3 c c
7.3
eikrik t eikrik t
+ 0 | | = (g (E ) g 1 (E ))V | + 0 | | = |V (g + (E ) g (E ) ,
+ eik rik t eik rik t = GAP d3 k (2 )3 Dene a (k, ) = such that we obtain und p= d3 k (2 )3 ka kl akl
S =
+ 0 | + |V
= ( ) +
d3 r
it( ) ir(kk ) e e c2
So we obtain
0 + S = ( ) 2i (E E ) |V | T
(k, ) 2c
8
8.1
Second quantization: So far for A classical eld: a() =function a(k, ) a(k, ) Operator a(k, ) a(k, ) Operator A, H, P A, H, P Commutation Relations:
[ak , ak ] = [a k , ak ] = 0 3 [ak , a k ] = (2 ) (k k )
From Section 5.1 we have the solution of the MaxwellEquations: A(r, t) = d3 k (2 )3 ()(k)eikrik t
+ () (k)eikr+ik t with = c|k|, the sum being over the polarization and the polarization vector k (k) = 0 Consider the time dependence of a single mode (k, ): qk = (k, )ek t
2 q k = k qk
General d3 k (2 )3
m
ak |n1 , . . . , nm
=
i=1
ni |n1 , ni1 , , nm
[Ai (x, t), Aj (x, t)] = [ i (x, t), i (y, t)] = 0 [Ai (x, t), Aj (y, t)] i (x y)ij Concerning : Actually i d3 k (2 )3 ki kj ij 2 k
tr eik(xy) i ij (x y)
|n1
n1 |H |n1 = =
d3 k (2 )3
a k ak 1 n1
8.2
Fock Space
Hence
n1 |ak |n1
Built up as for single harmonic oscillators with ladder operators. a (k, ) = a k is the creation and a(k, ) = ak the annihilation operator. Start with vacuum state |0 dened by ak |0 = 0 Then |1(k, ) a k |0 is a state with one photon having momentum k and Polarization . General State |n1 (k1 , 1 ), . . . , nm (km , m ) = Note: |n1 (k1 , 1 ), . . . , nj (kj , j ), . . . , nm (km , m ) = Then d3 k (2 )3 1 n1 ! nj + 1|n1 , nj + 1, , nm
n1 nm (a (a k1 ,1 ) km ,m ) |0 n1 ! nm !
n1 nm |H |n1 |nm =
i=1
i n i
V =
q2 2 q pA + A 2 mc 2mc is an operator in Fock space and will be used to compute transition matrix elements V =
0 0 V = |V |
8.3
ak |n1 (k1 , 1 ) d k (2 )3
3
Interaction matter-photons
= n1 (2 ) (k k1 )1 + we get n1 = (a )n1 1 |0 n1 ! k1 1 = = n1
(a k1 ,1 )ak
Eigenstates | 0 =|matter |photons =|A; n1 (k1 , 1 ), . . . , nm (km , Absorption of a photon V = B ; (n 1)(k, )|V |A; n(k, ) = = 18 e mc e m d3 k (2 )3
n1 |(n1 1)(k1 , 1 )
2 n B ; |p (k, )eikr |A n
Emission of a photon V = B ; (n + 1)(k, )|V |A; n(k, ) e = m 2 n + 1 B ; |p (k, )eikr |A n + 1 (classical electron radius)
mc
2 2 = r0
Remark This is non-zero even for n = 0, spontaneous emission Recall classical: (absorption) Tn0 = T =0n (emission) nk Tn0 = nk Now: T +1 0n
However, there are further contributions of order 2 e4 golden rule (sec 4.2/4.3) Transition rate 2 |T |2 cross section
d d
(nal photon). . .
8.5
8.4
S = . . . V V In our case i
2
dt1
dt2
t1 (E E ) i t2 (E E )
t1
dt1
i
dt2 e mc
2
dN e d3 k (2 )
3
(EN EF )ti
e )
(EI EN )t2
d3 k (2 )
ikr+it1
F, P (f , f )| ak p k eikrit1 +ak pk e
|N
F ; 1(kf , f )|(ae (a e =
ik r t
+a e
ikr+t
+a e
ik r+ t
)|I ; 1(ki , i )
e2 2 c2 2 F |(ki , i ) (kf , f )eit(i f ) eik(ki kf ) |I need 1 a (ki , i ) and one a (kf , f ) 2 2mc i f = . . . = F | a kf . . . |N N | . . . aki |I + F | aki . . . |N N | . . . a f |I
k
dt1 e
t1 (E E )
0 0 V
dt1 e
t1 (EI + i EF f )
2e2 F | . . . |F m i f
d = d +
mc
f |i f F I + i
F | p f |N
N
N | p i |I
golden rule (sec 4.2/4.3) Transition rate 2 |T |2 cross section d d (nal photon energy f + a ( f )) divide by ux v = c (section 6.1) nr. states d3 k (2 )
3
F | p i |N N | p f |I | m (EI f EN )
k 2 dk d (2 )
3
2 f d
(2 ) c3
2 f d
d( f )
|I = |F i = f EI EN
(f ) =
(2 ) c3
2 f d 1 2 e4 f 2 ir(ki kf ) = | T | = |i |I |2 f F|e 3 d c m2 c4 i (2 ) c3 (f )
I | i f |I = = 19 1 i
I | x i |N
N
N | p f |I
I | p f |N
N
N | p i |I
2
(EI EN )
+ |2
k 2 = k k =
m2 c2 2 2 k = 2 c2
In analogy to the Schr odinger equation try to dene a probability density (x, t) and probability current density j(x, t) satisfying: + j = 0 t j= ( () ( )) 2mi i = 2mc2 t t
1 = 2 with
ab
ki
1 = 1 + cos2 2
Note: (x, t) is not positive denite and hence cannot be interpretes as a probability density. = (ki , kf )
9.2
=
2 dcos 2r0
Dirac Equation
8 2 r 1 + cos2 = 3 0
, ) equation. Most general linear equatiTry a linear (in t on: i = H = i c + mc2 t i ci i + mc2
Resonances
What if EN EI + i
N
EN t N t
= e
t(EN iN )
2 = i ci i + = mc2 t2
2
i cj j + mc2
(i j + j i )i j i (i + i )i mc2 + 2 m2 c4
|T |2 |
|2 =
9
9.1
2 = t2
c2 i j + m2 c4
2 = 1 (i + i ) = {i , } = 0 (i j + j i ) = {i , j } = 2ij From anticommutation realtions we see that the coecients cannot be numbers
=0
1 , c t
20
(Exercise: dimension four matrices are the simplest possibilities) wave function: = (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 )T an a possible choice for und are i = 0 i i 0 =
such that the new equation holds and where S () is a 4 4 matrix. Start from S ()Dirac equation S () i mc (x) x x = S () i mc (x) x x
1 = i S () () S () (x) S (x )
12
0
0 1 2
= diag(1, 1, 1, 1)
= S ()(i mc)
which is called the Dirac representation No Rewrite the Dirac equation in terms of -matrices: , 0 {0, 1, 2, 3} i = i
0 =
12
0
12
i =
0 i
i 0
or
1 () S () = S
Note: We can use any other representation = U U Take times the Dirac-equation = i ci i + mc2 i t 0 = i c i i + mc2 i t which can be written more compact as: (i mc) = 0 Notation any 4-vector: a = a (i mc1) = 0
A proper Lorentz transformation has 6 parameters (3 rotation and 4 boost parameters) = (anti-symmetric). LT:
= g g
0 1 1
9.3
x x x
Now we can parametrize any 4 4 matrix in terms of the following 16 matrices: {1, 5 , , 5 , } We know (x) S () (x)
LT (x) (x)S 1 () LT
For the Dirac equation (i mc) (x) = 0 (i mc) (x ) = 0 requires transformation (x) (x) = S () (x) 21
Bilinear Covariant
Scalar
pLT (x) (x) 1 S = (x) (x) S
Some properties of u and v u (p, ri )u(p, rj ) = u (p, ri ) 0 u(p, rj ) cp 1 0 =( E+ i ) i, 2 0 1 E + mc cp i j = (E + mc2 )i j E + mc2 = 2mc2 i j mc2 = 2mc2 ij Similar v (p, ri )v (p, rj ) = 2mc2 ij and v u = u v = 0. E + mc2 j cp j E +mc2
P arity
Pseudo scalar
pLT (x)5 (x) 1 5 S = (x) 5 (x) S P arity (x) (x) 0 5 0 = (x)5 (x)
u v
u 1 , 2mc2 v
which is the projection on the positive energy states. = v (p, ri ) v (p, ri ) = c( p + mc)
9.4
4 Componentes (22) - Spin and pos/neg energy. Go to momentum space: + (x) = eikx u(k ) (x) = e+ikx v (k ) positive Energy negative Energy
(k, )( (k, )) 0 = g +
=1
k k k2
(Etpx)
u(p)
(Etpx)
v (p)
9.5
Interpretation of Solutions
1 2
Now we show that the Dirac Equation descibres spin H = p + mc2 = ijk l [xj , pl ]pk = i ijk j pk Since [L, h] = i p = 0 L is not conserved. However, J = L + S must be conservede S = 0. We need to nd S such that [J, H ] = 0, i.e. [S, H ] = i p L=xp
Dirac: We obtain the following matrix equation: ( p mc)u(p) = 0 ( p mc)v (p) = 0 mc p p E c mc Pich normalization vector E + mc2 E + mc2 r u(p, r) = cp r E +mc2 ( p mc) = v (p, r) =
cp E +mc2 E c
[Li , H ] = [ijk xj pk , l pl ]
=0
E+
mc2
r r
Claim: S= 2 = i 1 2 3 = 2 2 0 0
P P commutes with all generators, P 2 is Lorentz-invariant (Casimir operator). What else do we need to know? Consider any p : Little group of p : subgroup of all Poincare transformations that leave p invariant. For p in rest frame p = (m, 0, 0, 0) the little groups are just the rotations. 2 2 Let p = L q , i.e. for any q with q = m > 0 we can nd a Lorentz transformation L, such that p = L(p)q is in rest frame. States in Hilbert space are related: |p = U (L(p))|q Under any LT : |p U ()|p = U ()U (L(p))|q U (L(p))U 1 (L(p))U ()U (L(p))|q U (L(p))U (L1 (p))U ()U (L(p))|q U (L(p))U (L1 (p)L(p))|q
rotation
1 jkl j k l 3!
i 1 j k n n [ , p + mc2 ] 2 2
j k use 1 2 3 i = 1 2 ijk
i 1 j k n [ { , } {j , n } k ]pn 2 2
2 kn 2 jn
i = ijk (j pk k pj ) 2 = i ( p)i Lets look at relation between spin and coordinate transformation more carefully: QM I(Section 10.4): Generators of rotations and Translations J i , P i [P i , P j ] = 0 [J , J ] = i [J , P ] = i
i j i j ijk
It is a rotation since p p q q (for q = (m, 0, 0, 0)) this must be a rotation) Additional labels in |p, s are aected by rotations only:
L(p)
ijk
Pk
= Dss |p, s
Coordinate transformation: x x = Rx + a a state | under a certain representation | | = U (R, a)| in a relative boosts
x = x + a
s(s + 1)
which is called Pauli-Lubanski vector (axial) 1 W = J P 2 is rest frame P = (m, 0, 0, 0) and W = (0, w) [Ki , Kj ] = i ijk Jk [Ki , Kj ] = i ijk Kk 1 m wi = i J P = i J = mJi 2 2 One can classify states according to m2 , s. ( Note: in general we can have m2 = 0, or m2 < 0)
9.6
Lie algebra of generators [P , P ] = 0 [J , J ] = i (g J g J g J + g J ) [P , J ] = i (g P g P ) under Lorentz transformation a state |p transforms under a certain representation |p |p = U ()|p 23
p| v of Dirac equation. We will deConsider expansion in |m rive the Hamiltonian used in section 2(for ne structure) The Dirac equation in presence of the EM-eld is e p p + A c
+e (p + e c mc c A) e e p + c A) ( E c + c mc)
where E e e + mc = p + A c c c e E e p + A = + mc + c c c = p+ e cA
E c
i O 2mc2
which leads to
H + Heven + O With the third and last iteration = eiS we arrive at H O2 O4 +E 2mc2 8m3 c6 1 [O, [O, E ]] i [O, O] +O 2 4 2 4 8m c 8m c m3 = H = mc2 + S = i O 2mc2
+ mc + e c
p+ e cA 2mc
e 2 B e = (E mc ) = E 2mc
First term: O2 1 e e = i (pi + Ai )j (pj + Aj ) 2mc2 2m c c 2 e 1 e p+ A + Bi j = 2m c 2m 1 1 = {i , j } + [i , j ] 2 2 = ij + iijk k Second term: p4 O4 = + . . . (relativistic Correction to kinetic Energy) 3 6 8m c 8m3 c2
are suppresed by
|p| m
e 0 = c p + A c Schr odinger equation: i = i t eiS = i [t eiS ] + eiS i t t = i [t eiS eiS + eiS HeiS
[j j , eV ]
j e(j V V j )=j e[j ,V ]
where i2 i3 H = H + i[S, H ] + [S, [S, H ]] + 2! 3! 2 i i ] ] S [S, S [S, [S, S 2 3! Recall H = mc2 + O + (even: = e) and set S= Compute i[S, H ]: i[S, H ] = i[ i O, mc2 + O + ] 2mc2 i O 2mc2
= [O, ] 2mc2 [ O, O] = OO O O = 2 O2 e [ O, ] = c[ , ] p + A = 2O c O2 O4 [O, [O, E ]] +E 2mc2 8m3 c6 8m2 c4 3 i [O, O] O i O + [O , E ] + 2 4 2 2 2 8m c 2mc 2mc 2mc
O
ADD MISSING
H = mc2 +
10
Second Quantization
24
Classical eld theory quantized eld theory done always for radiation elds (Section 5 to 8)
10.1
|j j |
i
a i i (x)|0
[ai , a j] States
= ij
=
ij
n1 , n2 , . . . , nm | =
n1 (a i)
n1 m (a m)
= |0 = =
i
n 1 ! . . . nm !
For the case if fermions the commutators become anticommutators [, ] [, ] {bi , b h } = ij {bi , bj } =
2 (b i) = 0 {b i , bj }
|i i (x) =
|i i|x = |x
{, } [, ]+
(x) creates a particle localized at x (x) annihilates a particle localized at x Commutation relation: b i |1 = and
(b i ) |0
[ (x), (y )] = [ (x), (y )] = 0 =0
i (x)j (y )[ai , a j] ij i (x)i (y ) = (x y) i
= |n2 = 1, n1 = 1
[ (x), (y )] = =
Many-particle states |n1 . . . nm n1 . . . nm | = 1 1 |x1 , x2 , . . . , xn = (x1 ) . . . (xn )|0 n! Example: Two identical bosons/fermions at x1 and x2 1 ij (x1 , x2 ) = x1 , x2 , ij = 0| (x2 ) (x1 )a i aj |0 2 1 = 0|am an a i aj |0 m (x2 )n (x1 ) 2 nm
ni mj mi nj
ni =0
Counting operator n=
i
ni =
i
b i bi
10.2
Field operators
where we have + for bosons and - for fermions. 1 = (j (x2 )i (x1 ) i (x2 )j (xi )) 2 for xed number n of particles, Hilbert space Hn :
i (x) = x|i
: Hn Hn+1 : Hn Hn1
ci i (x), d3 yi (y ) f (y )
ci = =
F= 25
n=0
Hn = H0 H 1 H 2
10.3
Oberservable are expressed in terms of elds operators in F. Example particle number density: QM: probabilty density (x) = | (x)|2 . Now: (x) = (x) (x) =
ij a i aj i (x)j (x)
d3 k (2 )3
d3 k ikx ik x e e [ak , a k ] (2 )3
Ht
(x)e
Ht
=
ij
T =
d3 x (x)
2 2 2m
(x)
ai i (x) (x) =
ai i (x) (x) = i
d3 k ak eikx (2 )3 d3 k ikx a e (2 )3 k
(x) =
[T , (x)] = Now
d3 y
2m
y (y )y (y ), (x)
d3 k (2 )3
d3 k eix(kk ) a k ak (2 )3 3
(2 ) (kk )
2 (ik )2 2m
k a ak (2 )3 k
Nk
d3 y
2
2 y (x y) (y ) 2m
k2 (2 )3
3
g (2 )3
2m
2 x (x)
k2 a ak U (k1 k2 ) (2 )3 k1 2
V =
4
d3 x1 d3 ki (2 )3 i=1
10.4
Start with a Lagrangian density L for a classical eld theory Compute conjugate momentum eld 26 Impose equal-time (anti-)commutation relation
k1 (2 )3
k2 (2 )3
q a ak q ak4 +q V (q) (2 )3 k2 3
Proof d4 k 2 (k 2 m2 )(k0 ) (2 )4 d4 k 2 2 = (k0 k )(k0 ) (2 )3 d4 k 1 = ( (k0 k ) (k0 + )) (k0 ) (2 )3 2k d3 k 1 = (2 )3 2k Now express ak and a k in terms of and
L=
and we obtain the Klein-Gordon-Equation for our L: m2 = 0 Conjugate momentum eld (x, t) = L (x, t) =
Hamiltonian H= = 1 2 L= d3 x L d3 x
d3 xex(kk ) ei(k k ) (k + k ) (x y)
(2 )3 (kk )
= (2 )3 2k (k k )
d3 x 2 + ()2 + m2 2 ak a k
a k ak + (0)
Second Quantaziation We promote (x) (x) and (x) (x) to operators and impose the following equal time(!) commutation relations: (x, t), (y, t) = [ (x, t), (y, t)] = 0 (x, t), (y, t) = i (x y) where we used commutators (not anti-commutators) since we have a spin 0 bosonic eld. Now as for radiation eld (x, t) = k 1 ikx+ik ak eikxik + a ke (2 )3 2k k 2 + m2 .
3
H = =
1 2
d3 k 1 a ak + (2 )3 2k k
where the (0) corresponds the an innite ground state energy. Normal Ordering:, denoted by : :: anti-commute all a to the left of a : H := subtracted 0|H |0 =
1 Example: spin 2 -eld ( = 1, c = 1)
k 1 a ak k (2 )3 2k k
L L L =0 ( ) (i ) = m (i + m) = 0 =
(x)(i m) (x) =
k 1 ikx+ik ik ak eikxik + ik a ke (2 )3 k
d k 1 (2 )3 k
= Hamiltonian H= 27
L 0 = i = i
L = d3 x
d3 xi
Again, second quantization and imposing of commutation relations: { (x, t), (y, t)} = { (x, t), (y, t)} = 0 { (x, t), (y, t)} = i (x y) where , {1, 2, 3, 4} are the spinor indices. (In the case of fermions use {, } = [, ]+ ) Field operators in momentum representation (x, t) =
Change the integration variable in the second term from k k = d3 k ((k0 0 k + m)0 + (k0 0 k m)0 ) (2 )3 2k
(2k0 (0 )2 ) =2k
k 2k eik(xy) = (x y) (2 )3 2k
k 1 (2 )3 2k
for the Hamiltonian: x b(k, r)u (k, r)eikx + d (k, r)v (k, r)It eikfollows H= :H: d3 k k (2 )3 2k d3 k k (2 )3 2k
b kr bkr dkr dkr r b kr bkr + dkr dkr r
r =1
Remark:b creates E > 0 electron, while d creates an E > 0 positron. This eld satises the Dirac equation since ( k m)u = 0 ( k m)v = 0 The anti-commutation relations of the elds are consistent with
3 {bkr , b k r } = {dkr , dk r } = (2 ) wk rr (k k )
=:
k
k r
(2 )3 2
k
k rr
(2 )3 2k
(2 )3 2
+{d kr , dk r
3
}v (k, r)v (k
, r )eikx eik y
p p + eA i +e A (i + m) + eA L=
eA j
= k (2 )3 2k
r
Recall U = T ()
28