WorkingpaperNo3(2007) DigitalTimestamping

EmergingandNovel Photovoltaic Technologies

WorkingPaperNo3(2007)

EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies

Contents

2007TheAppliedResearchInstituteforProspectiveTechnologies

WorkingPaperNo3(2007)

EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies

Introduction
Energy consumption in Europe is expected to grow by 20% between now and 2020, leading to a 14% increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Renewable energy (hydroelectricity, solar, wind, bioenergy and geothermal power) has an important role to play in reducing emissions of greenhouse gases (such as CO2) and also can make important contributions to improving the security of energy supplies in the EU by reducingtheCommunity'sgrowingdependenceonimportedenergysources.Renewableenergysourcesare expected to be economically competitive with conventional energy sources in the medium to long term. Increasingtheshareofrenewableenergyintheenergybalancealsoenhancessustainability. EU legislations and commitments taken1,2,3,4 sets a clear goal to attain, by 2010, a minimum penetration of 12%(from6%)ofrenewableenergysourcesin the EUalsoaddressingtheKyotoProtocol5requirementsfor reduction of 8% of greenhouse gas emissions. Lithuania also committed to achieve the 12% share of renewable energy in the total energy balance until the year 20106 and to achieve that 7% of consumed electricitywouldbegeneratedfromrenewablesources7. Many initiatives and industry led efforts have already started across the EU to assess the best mix of research and market development supports for acceleration of photovoltaic8 (PV) development. That predicts that with a reasonable set of incentives the photovoltaic market in the EU could grow more than 30%peryearoverthenext20years,from344MWofinstalledcapacityto9600MW. Although, a number of scientific/technical, institutional and market barriers still stand in the way of reachingthepreferredgoalsinPVindustryandthelevelofenergymarketpenetration. Despite of large PV market expansion and many research achievements made over the last couple of decades, their costs are presently still the main obstacle for a worldwide increased utilisation of electric powerprovidedbythiscleanandrenewabletechnology.ThepriceofPVsystemsisstilltoohigh,compared withcompetingelectricitygenerationanddistributionmethods. In order to become competitive with the conventional energy sources, new improved solar cell concepts and costeffective forms of applications and installations of PV modules have to be developed to facilitate furthergrowthofthesector.Theindustryislookingtodrivemodulepricesdownfrom5.75/Wp9,to3/Wp in2010and1.51/Wpin2030.

1 2

Energyforthefuture:renewablessourcesofenergy(WhitePaper),CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities,1997. ProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilonthepromotionoftheuseofenergyfromrenewablesources.23.01.2008 COM(2008)final 3 Energyforthefuture:renewablesourcesofenergyWhitePaperforaCommunityStrategyandActionPlan,EuropeanCommission,1997 4 AEuropeanstrategicenergytechnologyplan(SETPLAN):'Towardsalowcarbonfuture'.Communicationfromthecommissiontothecouncil,the EuropeanParliament,TheEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheregions.{SEC(2007)1508},{SEC(2007)1509}, {SEC(2007)1510},{SEC(2007)1511}.22.11.2007COM(2007)723final 5 KyotoProtocoltotheUNFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.1997,3rdConferenceofthePartiestotheUNFCCC. 6 LietuvosRespublikosSeimo2002m.spalio10d.nutarimasNr.IX1130,,Dlnacionalinsenergetikosstrategijospatvirtinimo. 7 LietuvosRespublikosSeimo2006m.gegus11d.nutarimasNr.443,,DlNacionalinsenergijosvartojimoefektyvumodidinimo20062010met programospatvirtinimo. 8 Photovoltaiccomprisesthetechnologytoconvertsunlightdirectlyintoelectricity.Thetermphotomeanslightandvoltaic,electricity.A photovoltaiccell,alsoknownassolarcell,isasemiconductordevicethatgenerateselectricitywhenlightfallsonit. 9 Wp,orWattpeak,isthecommontermforwhataPVsystemiscapableofproducingunderidealcircumstances.

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EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies

There are two main driving forces proposed by industry10 for decreasing the manufacturing costs: by productionvolumeandbyinnovations(Figure1).

Figure1:Manufacturingcostsdrivenbyproductionvolumeandinnovations The volume is needed to stimulate market partners to lower cost and to take advantage of economyof scale. Consistent with the time needed for any major change in the energy infrastructure, another 20 to 30 years of sustained and aggressive growth will be required for photovoltaics to substitute a significant share of the conventional energy sources. This growth will be only possible if the price is reduced considerably (Figure2).

10

3 PVIndustryForumNewStrategiesfortheBoomingPVMarket,2006

rd

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EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies

Figure2:Projectedcostdevelopmentuntil2040PVcompetitiveness Though the module price decreased throughout the last decade, the price reduction was slower than expected. Certainly in the last years the demand was very high and the construction of many new facilities, which will lead to a better economy of scale in future, is not reflected in a lower price yet. In addition the introduction of new technologies is necessary to really fulfil the promise of lowcost solar energy as well as sound fundamental research and improvements of the process and manufacturing technologies. New developments with respect to material use, device design and new concepts to increase the overall efficiency are needed. The module price is the key element in the total price of an installed solar system as itcostrepresentsaround5060%ofthetotalinstalledcostofaPVsystem. Therefore,thecompetitivenessofPVsystemscouldbeachievedby: Eitherincreasingtheefficiencyofthesolarcells(i.e.increasingtheWp/m2ofcells); Orbydecreasingthemanufacturingcost(i.e.reducingthe/Wp). Obviously, the increase of solar cell efficiency is an important factor for the decrease of cell costs (per generated Wp), because it reduces the costs for feedstock, crystallization and wafering by reducing the material consumption. Although, the increment of the efficiency of the solar cells requires new technologicalapproachesandinputfromresearch.

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EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies

GenerationsofPVCells
Firstgenerationphotovoltaics
First generation photovoltaic modules are based on crystal silicon solar cells and demonstrate efficiencies from 13 to 16 % (in production), with theoretical maximum 30%. Wafer based crystalline (monocrystalline or polycrystalline) silicon is the dominant technology11 (Figure 3) because of wide availability and proven reliability. This technology is well understood as it is founded on the knowledge and technology originally developedfortheelectronicsindustry.Yetmanufacturing is energy intensive, needs numerous processing steps (= high manufacturing costs) and high materials costs (for mSi).

80 Market share (%) 60 40 20 0 mono c-Si multi c-Si

thin film

other

Figure3:Productionbytechnologiesin2003

Secondgenerationphotovoltaics
In an effort to reduce manufacturing costs, photovoltaic cells based on thin film technology called second generation solar cells were developed. Thinfilm modules are made by coating and patterning entire sheets of substrate with micronthin layers of conducting and semiconductor materials followed by encapsulation. This leads to a process that can be highly efficient in materials utilisation, while the stable efficienciesofthese modulesareinthe rangeof5to 15%.The majortechnicalobstacleshampering market penetration by this technology on largescale are as follows: (i) growing of large area thin films of homogeneousparametersatlowcostsand(ii)poorstability. For solar cells of both generations efforts are made mainly in improving performance most notably in efficiency in order to reduce module manufacturing costs per Wp, which will lead to lower system costs. The first generation product is nearing its optimum price/efficiency in cost per delivered Whr. However, the predicted module efficiency increment (up to the 3050% range) after 2030 it is expected to be a result of successful implementation of the socalled third or next generation concepts, allowing very efficient use of availablearea.

Emerginggenerationphotovoltaics
Emerging generation photovoltaics a variety of other PV technologies and conversion concepts are the subject of research in Europe and worldwide. They are all aimed at a module price of 0.5/Wp, resp. system price of1/Wp in 2030, at super high efficiencies (efficiencies above 25% under 1 sun have to be demonstratedonlablevelbefore2015)atsuperhighefficienciesoratnewapplicationpossibilities. Thisrequires fundamental research,becausereachingthetargets requiresathoroughunderstandingof the underlying chemistry, physics, and materials properties. Hence, the new technologies are at various stages of development: from proofofprinciple to pilot production. A key factor in the decrease of the costs of modules is related with the manufacturing processes used. In this context there is considerable interest in

A Vision for PV Technology for 2030 and Beyond. Preliminary Report. Photovoltaic Technology Research Advisory Council (PVTRAC). 2004

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replacing single crystalline or polycrystalline semiconductor layers by nanostructured layers, on the same time searching for methods and experience in different research sectors to find cheap technological solutions. Emerginggeneration cells will be based on a variety of new conversion concepts and principles, andcurrentlycanbeconsideredtobeatthefundamentalresearchstage(Table1).
Table1:Thecharacteristicsofemerginggenerationsolarcells Parameters TypeofSolarCell Descriptionandmaintechnicallimitations Efficiencyin production(%) Lifetime (Years) Bandgap (eV)

Higherefficienciescouldbeachievedbyusingstacksof semiconductorswithdifferentbandgaps(forinstance GaAs,InP,GaInP2/GaAs,GaAs(Sisubstrate), GaInP2/GaAs,InGaP/InGaAs/Ge).Thesearereferredto as"multijunction"cells(alsocalled"cascade"or "tandem"cells).Thistechnologymakesbetteruseofthe incominglightwherebytheconversionefficiencyis improved.Itisthemostpromising(highefficiencies couldbeachieved)andthemostexpensivetechnology.

Multi junction

2136

0.73.4

Figure4:Amultijunctiondeviceisastackofindividual singlejunctioncellsindescendingorderofbandgap(Eg). Thetopcellcapturesthehighenergyphotonsandpasses therestofthephotonsontobeabsorbedbylower bandgapcells

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EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies

Themainmaterialforsolarcellusedislowcost nanocrystallinetitaniumdioxidewithalargeeffective areaandorganicdyesimmersedinanelectrolyte.The advantageofdyecellsisthattheycanbeproducedfrom potentiallyinexpensivematerialsandbysimple productiontechnology.Themajorchallengeistodevelop cellsandmodulesforpowerapplications,asthatposes forthistypeofcellsseveretemperatureconditions. Thoughthestabilityincreasedsignificantly,itstilldoes notmeetthestandardsofothersolarmodules. 11(0.25cm2) and8onreal devices Variable Low (depends onmaterial used)

Dye sensitised photochemic alsolarcells (DSC)12.

Figure5:Dyesensitizedorganicinorganicsolarcell Thesedevicesarebasedonthepropertyofsomeorganic materialstobeconductive:conjugatedpolymers. Amongtheconductivepolymersinvestigated,themost promisingonesarethestructurescontainingfullerene (C60)astheacceptormaterial.Evidentadvantagesof thistechnologyaretheexpectedlowcostmanufacturing andthepossibilitytomakesolarcellsbytailoringthe requiredpropertiesbymodificationsoftheorganic molecules.Challengesaretoincreasesmallareacell efficienciesandstabilityunderoutdoorconditions.

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Variable >5 Low (depends onmaterial used)

Conductive organic polymercells

12 13

PVNET,EuropeanRoadmapforPVR&D,2004. http://www.oechemicals.com/dictionaryMZ.html

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Figure6:Anorganicsolarcellmadeupofseveral layers Thesecellsusequantumconfinementtomodifythe electronicstructureinordertodecouplecurrentand voltageandthusincreasingefficiency.Theeffectis demonstratedusingIII/Vsolarcellshavinglayerswitha thicknessinthenanoscalerange.Thechallengeistofind lowcostsystemsthatcanusethesameprinciple.

Variable Quantum solarcells >5% (depends onmaterial used)

Figure7:Electrontransportthroughastructureof nanoparticles(left)andmoreorderednanotubes (center)isshown.Atright,differentwavelengthsof lightcanbeabsorbedbydifferentsizedquantumdots layeredinarainbowsolarcell.Imagecredit: Kongkanand,etal.2008ACS

Nonanomaterialsarepresentlycommerciallyusedintheapplicationfieldofphotovoltaics.14Thematerials arestillinafundamentalresearch,proofofprincipleandtestphases.Themainchallengesforthe applicationofnanomaterialsintheenergysectoraretheimprovementofefficiencyandreductionofcosts aswellasreliability,safetyandlifetime.Obviously,theincreaseofsolarcellefficiencyisanimportantfactor forthedecreaseofcellcosts(pergeneratedWp),becauseitreducesthecostsforfeedstockand manufacturingbyreducingthematerialconsumption.Theincrementoftheefficiencyofthesolarcells

14

SWOTAnalysisConcerningtheUseofNanomaterialsintheEnergySector.PreparedunderFP6SSAprojectNanoroadSME:Developmentof AdvancedTechnologyRoadmapsinNanomaterialSciencesandIndustrialAdaptationtoSmallandMediumsizedEnterprises(ContractnoNMP4CT 2004505857)

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EmergingandNovelPhotovoltaicTechnologies

requiresnewtechnologicalapproachesandtheinputfromresearch(basedonprinciplesofdevicephysics, efficienciesashighas5060%arepredicted15,16). Newtechnologiescanbecategorisedas:17

-

Optionsprimarilyaimedatverylowcost(whileoptimisingefficiency): Advancedinorganicthinfilmtechnologies(e.g.polysiliconthinfilm,spheralCISapproaches); Organicsolarcells(e.g.Graetzelcell,bulkdonoracceptorheterojunctionsolarcells); Thermophotovoltaicsolarthermalconcentrationsystemsorcogenerationsystems. Optionsprimarilyaimedatveryhighefficiency(whileoptimisingcost): Tailoring the solar spectrum with the active semiconductor layer relying on up and down conversion layers and plasmonic effects. Surface plasmons generated upon interaction between light and metallic nanoparticles have been proposed as a mean to increase the photoconversion efficiency in solar cells by shifting energy in the incoming spectrum towards the wavelength region where the collection efficiency is maximal or by increasing the absorbance by enhancing the local fieldintensity.Theapplicationofsucheffectsinphotovoltaicsisdefinitelystillinaveryearlystage. Novel active layers with reduced dimensionality (quantum wellsquantum wiresquantum dots). Byintroducingquantumwellsorquantumdotsconsistingofalowbandgapsemiconductorwithina host semiconductor with wider bandgap, the current might be increased while retaining (part of) the higher output voltage of the host semiconductor. This approach aims at using the quantum confinementeffecttoobtainamaterialwithahigherbandgap. The collection of excited carriers before they thermalize to the bottom of the concerned energy band (e.g. hot carrier cells). The reduced dimensionality of the QDmaterial tends to reduce the allowable phonon modes by which this thermalization process takes place and increases the probabilityofharvestingthefullenergyoftheexcitedcarrier.

For most of emerging approaches the present emphasis is on basic material development, advanced morphological and optoelectrical characterization and modelling as to predict the behaviour and performanceunderillumination. Nanomaterials with potential for exploitation in active layers with reduced dimensionality are nanocomposites, consisting either of: (i) a nonnanocrystalline matrix of one material filled with either nanoparticlesornanofibersofanothermaterial;or(ii)nanonanocompositeswiththesizeofallconstituent materials grains in the nanometer range (e.g. quantum dots, core shell nanoparticles, carbon nanotube polymer nanonanocomposites, metalceramic nanonanocomposites, oth.). Synthesis and assembly strategies of nanomaterials accommodate precursors from liquid, solid, or gas phase.18 They employ both chemical and physical deposition approaches and similarly rely on either chemical reactivity or physical

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M.C.Beard,K.P.Knutsen,P.Yu,J.M.Luther,Q.Song,W.K.Metzger,R.J.Ellingson,A.J.Nozik.MultipleExcitonGenerationinColloidalSilicon Nanocrystals.NANOLETTERS.ReceivedJune22,2007. 16 NCPVandSolarProgramReviewMeetingProceedings,2003,USA 17 AStrategicResearchAgendaforPhotovoltaicSolarEnergyTechnologyResearchanddevelopmentinsupportofrealizingtheVisionfor PhotovoltaicTechnology.PreparedbyWorkingGroup3Science,TechnologyandApplicationsoftheEUPVTechnologyPlatform.March2007 18 JiaGraceLu,PaichunChang,ZhiyongFan.QuasionedimensionalmetaloxidematerialsSynthesis,propertiesandapplications.Availableonline 23May2006

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compaction to integrate nanostructure building blocks within the final material structure. The methods employed to produce nanostructured materials are numerous (main production processes in use are Chemical Synthesis (solgel, thermal decomposition are used, oth.), Coating techniques (Physical Vapour Deposition or Chemical Vapour Deposition), and Patterning (Electron Beam Lithography; Xray Lithography, Scanning Probe Microscopy), with each method having advantages and disadvantages depending on the desired properties or application.The product quality and application characteristics of nanostructured materials depend strongly on the size distribution, morphology and state of aggregation, i.e. the size and number of primary particles defining the degree of aggregation. Fundamental research by process simulation is needed to provide the understanding of the particle and nanostructure formation mechanisms. Combined with detailed analysis of particle size and morphology and their impact on the function at hand, it is possible to customise nanostructured products, providing distinct performance advantagesforspecificapplications.

StrategicR&DtopicsforemergingPVtechnologies
ThemainissuesforemergingPVtechnologiesare:17

Poorstabilitynotmeetingthestandardsofothersolarmodules; Thepresent35%(exceptmultijunctions)isonlyasteppingstoneformuchhigherefficiencies; Poor understanding of the separation of generated charged carriers, transport processes and the relation between structure and function. This requires better processes and materials based on fundamentalchemicalandphysicalknowledgeandnewdesigns; Thetolerancetoimpuritiesisnotknownyet(thecostrisesexponentiallywithpurityrequirements), therefore,onecannotasureifsuchsolarcellbemadeinastandardenvironment.

Insummaryitcanbestatedthatwithintheperiod20072013,fortheemergingPVtechnologies19(Table2), issues like efficiency improvement, stability and encapsulation and the development of firstgeneration module manufacturing technology will be dominant. For the novel technologies20 (Table 3) the emphasis in the coming years will be rather on nanotechnologyrelated items (nanoparticles, growth and synthesis methods)andthefirstdemonstrationofconceptsbasedontheuseofsuchmaterialswithinfunctionalsolar cells.IthastobeemphasizedthatforpartoftheemergingaswellasforallthenovelPVtechnologiesthese developments require theoretical and experimental tools allowing the understanding, the manufacture and the characterization of the morphological and optoelectrical properties on nanoscale. For the subsequent timeperiods20142020andbeyond2020themostpromisingconceptsaretobeselectedandimplemented

19

ThecategoryEmergingisusedforthosetechnologieswhichhavepassedtheproofofconceptphaseorcanbeconsideredaslongerterm optionsforthetwoestablishedsolarcelltechnologiescrystallineSiandthinfilmsolarcellsforwhichclearlydefineddisruptivedevelopmentsare stilltobemade. 20 ThetermNovelisusedfordevelopmentsandideaswhichcanleadtopotentiallydisruptivetechnologies,butwherethereisnotyetclarityon practicallyachievableconversionefficienciesorcoststructure.

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with an increased emphasis on aspects like cost, upscaling, manufacturing and sustainability when moving toverylarge>10GWp/yearproductionscenarios.
Table2:R&Dissuesforemergingtechnologies Basiccategory Advancedinorganic thinfilmtechnologies Technology SpheralCIS solarcell Aspects Material Device Performance Cost Material 20072013 Deposition technology Parallel interconnection 14% N/A ImprovingpolySi electronicquality, depositionup scaling 14%/monolithic moduleprocess N/A Improvedand stablesensitizers, solidelectrolytes, encapsulationto ensurelifetime> 15years 15% N/A Improvedand stablepolymers, stabilizationof nanomorphology for5years Printing technology Organic multijunctions 15% N/A Cell/module technologyfor variousactive materials Demonstrationof reliability N/A 20142020 Industrial implementation >12%on industriallevel =0.50.8/Wp Industrial implementation >1214%on industriallevel =0.50.8/Wp 20202030and beyond Implementation ofadvanced conceptsofsolar spectrum tailoringinultra thinsolarcellsto reach<0.5/Wp

Thinfilm polycrystalline Sisolarcells

Performance Cost Material

Organicsolarcells

Dyesolarcells

Industrial implementation >10%on industriallevel= 0.50.8/Wp

Implementation ofadvanced conceptsofsolar spectrum tailoringtoreach <0.5/Wp

Bulk heterojunction

Performance Cost Material

Device

Lowcost encapsulation materialsto guarantee stability>15 years Organic multijunctions

Performance Cost Material

Thermophotovoltaics

>10%on industriallevel =0.50.8/Wp Nanostructured emitters

Novelactive layersusing nanotechnology Electrical efficiency>8% <0.1/Wp

Performance Cost

Electrical efficiency>8% <0.2/Wp

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Table3:R&Dissuesfornoveltechnologies Basiccategory Novelactivelayers Technology Aspects 20072013 Deposition technology Nanoparticle synthesis Metallic intermediate bandbulk materials Morphological and optoelectronic characterization Firstfunctional cellsunder1sun orconcentration N/A N/A Basicmaterial development 20142020 Idem 20202030and beyond Upscalingof mostpromising approaches requiringlow costapproaches fordeposition technology, synthesis,cell andmodule technology compatiblewith modulecosts< 0.5/Wp

Quantumwells Material Quantumwires Quantumdots Nanoparticle inclusionin host semiconductor

Device

Labtypecell Selection

Boostingstructuresat theperipheryofthe devise

Updown converters

Performance Cost Material

Device

Performance

Exploitationof plasmonic effects

Cost Material

Device

Performance

Cost

>30% N/A Stabilityof boostinglayer materials First Labtypecell demonstrationon Selection existingsolarcell typesunder1sun orconcentration N/A >10% improvement relativeto baseline N/A N/A Metallic Stabilityof nanoparticle boostinglayer synthesiswith materials controloversize, geometryand functionalization First Labtypecell demonstrationon Selectionof existingsolarcell mostpromising typesunder1sun approaches orconcentration N/A >10% improvement relativeto baseline N/A N/A

Upscalingof mostpromising approaches requiringlow costapproaches forsynthesisof required materials. Depositionor application technologyof peripherallayers withmodule costs<0.5/Wp

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