Copyright itute.

com 2006
Free download & print from www.itute.com
Do not reproduce by other means
Mathematical Methods 3,4
Summary sheets
Distance between two points
( ) ( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
y y x x + =
Mid-point |
.
|

\
| + +
=
2
,
2
2 1 2 1
y y x x

Parallel lines,
2 1
m m =
Perpendicular lines,
1
2 1
= m m or
1
2
1
m
m =
Graphs of polynomial functions in
factorised form:
Quadratics e.g. ( )( ) 3 1 + = x x y



1 0 3

e.g. ( )
2
3 = x y



0 3
Cubics e.g. ( )( )( ) 2 1 1 3 + = x x x y




-1 0 1 2

e.g. ( ) ( ) 1 1
2
+ = x x y

1 0 1




e.g. ( )
3
1 + = x y

1 0


Quartics e.g. ( )( )( )( ) 2 1 1 3 + + = x x x x y


3 1 0 1 2



e.g. ( ) ( )( ) 2 1 3
2
+ = x x x y



3 0 1 2

e.g. ( ) ( )
2 2
1 3 + = x x y


3 0 1

e.g. ( ) ( ) 1 2
3
+ = x x y


2 0 1

e.g. ( )
4
2 + = x y



2 0

Examples of power functions:
1
= x y |
.
|

\
|
=
x
y
1


0



2
= x y
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
x
y
0
2
1
x y =
( ) x y =
0

Exponential functions:
x
a y = where 10 , , 2 e a =


10
x
e
x
2
x




1
asymptotic 0

Logarithmic functions:
x y
a
log = where 10 , , 2 e a =

2
x

e
x

10
x

0 1
asymptotic



Trigonometric functions:
x y sin =
1

0 2

1
x y cos =
1

0 2

1
x y tan =


0 2



Modulus functions

<

= =
0 ,
0 ,
x x
x x
x y

Transformations of ( ) x f y =
(1) Vertical dilation (dilation away from the
x-axis, dilation parallel to the y-axis) by
factor k. ( ) x kf y =
(2) Horizontal dilation (dilation away from
the y-axis, dilation parallel to the x-axis) by
factor
n
1
. ( ) nx f y =
(3) Reflection in the x-axis. ( ) x f y =
(4) Reflection in the y-axis. ( ) x f y =
(5) Vertical translation (translation parallel
to the y-axis) by c units.
( ) c x f y = , + up, down.
(6) Horizontal translation (translation
parallel to the x-axis) by b units.
( ) b x f y = , + left, right.
*Always carry out translations last in
sketching graphs.
Example 1 Sketch ( ) 2 1 2 + = x y
2

0 1 2


Example 2 Sketch x y = 1 2 .
Rewrite as ( ) 1 2 = x y .

2

0 1
Relations and functions:
A relation is a set of ordered pairs (points).
If no two ordered pairs have the same first
element, then the relation is a function.
*Use the vertical line test to determine
whether a relation is a function.
*Use the horizontal line test to determine
whether a function is one-to-one or many-to-
one.
*The inverse of a relation is given by its
reflection in the line x y = .
*The inverse of a one-to-one function is a
function and is denoted by
1
f . The inverse
of a many-to-one function is not a function
and therefore cannot be called inverse
function, and
1
f cannot be used to denote
the inverse.
Factorisation of polynomials:
(1) Check for common factors first.
(2) Difference of two squares,
e.g. ( )
2
2
2 4
3 9 = x x ( )( ) 3 3
2 2
+ = x x
( )( )( ) 3 3 3
2
+ + = x x x
(3) Trinomials, by trial and error,
e.g. ( )( ) 1 1 2 1 2
2
+ = x x x x
(4) Difference of two cubes, e.g.
( )( )
2 2 3 3
y xy x y x y x + + =
(5) Sum of two cubes, e.g. = +
3
8 a
( )( )
2 3 3
2 4 2 2 a a a a + + = +
(6) Grouping two and two,
e.g. 1 3 3
2 3
+ + + x x x ( ) ( ) x x x 3 3 1
2 3
+ + + =
( )( ) ( ) 1 3 1 1
2
+ + + + = x x x x x
( )( ) x x x x 3 1 1
2
+ + + =
( )( ) 1 2 1
2
+ + + = x x x ( )
3
1 + = x
(7) Grouping three and one,
e.g. 1 2
2 2
+ y x x
( )
2 2
1 2 y x x + = ( )
2 2
1 y x =
( )( ) y x y x + = 1 1
(8) Completing the square, e.g.
1
2
1
2
1
1
2 2
2 2
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = + x x x x

4
5
4
1
2
+ + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
x x
2
2
2
5
2
1
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = x
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
2
5
2
1
2
5
2
1
x x
(9) Factor theorem,
e.g. ( ) 1 3 3
2 3
+ = x x x x P
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 1 1 3 1 3 1 1
2 3
+ = P
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 1 1 3 1 3 1 1
2 3
= + = P
( ) 1 x is a factor.
Long division:
1 2
2
+ x x
) 1 3 3 1
2 3
+ x x x x
( )
2 3
x x
x x 3 2
2
+
( ) x x 2 2
2
+
1 x
( ) 1 x
0
( ) ( )( ) ( )
3 2
1 1 2 1 = + = x x x x x P

Remainder theorem:
e.g. when ( ) 1 3 3
2 3
+ = x x x x P is
divided by 2 + x , the remainder is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 11 1 2 3 2 3 2 2
2 3
= + = P
When it is divided by 3 2 x , the remainder
is .
8
1
2
3
= |
.
|

\
|
P


Quadratic formula:
Solutions of 0
2
= + + c bx ax are

a
ac b b
x
2
4
2

= .
Graphs of transformed trig. functions
e.g. 1
2
3 cos 2 + |
.
|

\
|
=

x y , rewrite
equation as 1
6
3 cos 2 + |
.
|

\
|
=

x y .
The graph is obtained by reflecting it in the
x-axis, dilating it vertically so that its
amplitude becomes 2, dilating it horizontally
so that its period becomes
3
2
, translating
upwards by 1 and right by
6

.

3

0
6

6
5

1


Solving trig. equations
e.g. Solve
2
3
2 sin = x , 2 0 x .
4 2 0 x ,

2
3
2
, 2
3
,
3
2
,
3
2 + + = x
.
3
4
,
6
7
,
3
,
6

= x
e.g.
2
cos 3
2
sin
x x
= , . 2 0 x
,
2
0
x
3
2
cos
2
sin
=
x
x
, 3
2
tan =
x
,
3 2

=
x
,
3
2
= x .

Exact values for trig. functions:

x
o
x sin x cos x tan x
0 0 0 1 0
30 /6 1/2 3/2 1/3
45 /4 1/2 1/2 1
60 /3 3/2 1/2 3
90 /2 1 0 undef
120 2/3 3/2 1/2 3
135 3/4 1/2 1/2 1
150 5/6 1/2 3/2 1/3
180 0 1 0
210 7/6 1/2 3/2 1/3
225 5/4 1/2 1/2 1
240 4/3 3/2 1/2 3
270 3/2 1 0 undef
300 5/3 3/2 1/2 3
315 7/4 1/2 1/2 1
330 11/6 1/2 3/2 1/3
360 2 0 1 0
Index laws:
( )
mn
n
m n m
n
m
n m n m
a a a
a
a
a a a = = =
+
, ,
( )
m
m n
n
n n n
a
a a
a
b a ab

= = =
1
,
1
,
n
n
a a a a a = = =
1
2
1
0
, , 1

Logarithm laws:
b
a
b a ab b a log log log , log log log = = +
1 log , log
1
log , log log = = = a b
b
a b a
a
b
undef neg undef = = = ) log( , 0 log , 0 1 log

Change of base:
a
x
x
b
b
a
log
log
log = ,
e.g. 8 . 2
2 log
7 log
7 log
2
= =
e
e
.
Exponential equations:
e.g. , 5 2
3
=
x
e 5 . 2
3
=
x
e , 5 . 2 log 3
e
x = ,
5 . 2 log
3
1
e
x =
e.g. 0 2 3 2
2
=
x x
e e ,
( ) ( ) 0 2 3 2
2
=
x x
e e ,
( )( ) 0 2 1 2 = +
x x
e e , since 0 1 2 +
x
e ,
0 2 =
x
e , 2 =
x
e , 2 log
e
x = .

Equations involving log:
e.g. ( ) 0 1 2 1 log = + x
e
, ( ) 1 2 1 log = x
e
,
1
2 1

= e x ,
1
1 2

= e x , |
.
|

\
|
=
e
x
1
1
2
1
.
e.g. ( ) ( ) 1 2 log 1 1 log
10 10
= x x
( ) ( ) 1 1 2 log 1 log
10 10
= + x x
( )( ) 1 1 2 1 log
10
= x x , ( )( ) 10 1 2 1 = x x ,
0 9 3 2
2
= x x , ( )( ) 0 3 3 2 = + x x ,
2
3
= x , 3 . 3 is the only solution because
2
3
= x makes the log equation undefined.

Equation of inverse:
Interchange x and y in the equation to obtain
the equation of the inverse. If possible
express y in terms of x.
e.g. ( ) 1 1 2
2
+ = x y , ( ) 1 1 2
2
+ = y x ,
( ) 1 1 2
2
= x y , ( )
2
1
1
2

=
x
y ,
1
2
1
+

=
x
y .
e.g. 4
1
2
+

=
x
y , 4
1
2
+

=
y
x ,
1
2
4

=
y
x ,
4
2
1

=
x
y ,
1
4
2
+

=
x
y .
e.g. 1 2
1
+ =
x
e y , 1 2
1
+ =
y
e x ,
x e
y
=

1 2
1
,
2
1
1
x
e
y

=

,
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
log 1
x
y
e
, 1
2
1
log + |
.
|

\
|
=
x
y
e
.

e.g. ( ) 1 2 1 log = x y
e
,
( ) 1 2 1 log = y x
e
,
( ) ( ) 1 2 1 log + = x y
e
,
( ) 1
2 1
+
=
x
e y
( ) 1
1 2
+
=
x
e y ,
( )
( )
1
1
2
1
+
=
x
e y .
The binomial theorem:
e.g. Expand ( )
4
1 2 x
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 3
1
4 0 4
0
4
1 2 1 2 + = x C x C
( ) ( )
2 2
2
4
1 2 + x C ( ) ( )
3 1
3
4
1 2 + x C
( ) ( ) ...... 1 2
4 0
4
4
= + x C
e.g. Find the coefficient of x
2
in the
expansion of ( )
5
3 2 x .
The required term is ( ) ( )
3 2
3
5
3 2 x C
( )( )
2 2
1080 27 4 10 x x = = .
the coefficient of x
2
is 1080.

Differentiation rules:
( ) x f y = ( ) x f
dx
dy
' =
n
ax
1 n
anx
( )
n
c x a + ( )
1
+
n
c x an
( )
n
c bx a + ( )
1
+
n
c bx abn
x asin
x a cos
( ) c x a + sin ( ) c x a + cos
( ) c bx a + sin ( ) c bx ab + cos
x a cos
x asin
( ) c x a + cos ( ) c x a + sin
( ) c bx a + cos ( ) c bx ab + sin
x a tan
x a
2
sec
( ) c x a + tan
( ) c x a +
2
sec
( ) c bx a + tan
( ) c bx ab +
2
sec
x
ae
x
ae
c x
ae
+

c x
ae
+

c bx
ae
+

c bx
abe
+

x a
e
log
x
a

bx a
e
log
x
a

( ) c x a
e
+ log
c x
a
+

( ) c x b a
e
+ log
c x
a
+

( ) c bx a
e
+ log
c bx
ab
+

Differentiation rules:
The product rule: For the multiplication of
two functions, ( ) ( ) x v x u y = , e.g.
x x y 2 sin
2
= , let
2
x u = , x v 2 sin = ,
dx
dv
u
dx
du
v
dx
dy
+ =
( )( ) ( )( ) x x x x 2 cos 2 2 2 sin
2
+ =
( ) x x x x 2 cos 2 sin 2 + =
The quotient rule: For the division of
functions,
( )
( ) x v
x u
y = , e.g.
x
x
y
e
log
= ,
2
v
dx
dv
u
dx
du
v
dx
dy

=
( ) ( )( )
2
1 log
1
x
x
x
x
e
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
log 1
x
x
e

= .
The chain rule: For composite functions,
( ) ) (x u f y = , e.g.
x
e y
cos
= .
Let x u cos = ,
u
e y = ,
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
=
( )( ) x e
u
sin

= x e
x
sin
cos
= .
Finding stationary points: Let 0 =
dx
dy
and
solve for x and then y, the coordinates of the
stationary point.
Nature of stationary point at a x = :
Local
max.
Local
min.
Inflection
point
a x <

0 >
dx
dy
0 <
dx
dy
0 >
dx
dy
, ( ) 0 <
a x =

0 =
dx
dy
0 =
dx
dy
0 =
dx
dy

a x >

0 <
dx
dy
0 >
dx
dy
0 >
dx
dy
, ( ) 0 <
Equation of tangent and normal at a x = :
1) Find the y coordinate if it is not given.
2) Gradient of tangent
dx
dy
m
T
= at a x = .
3) Use ( )
1 1
x x m y y
T
= to find equation
of tangent.
4) Find gradient of normal
T
N
m
m
1
= .
5) Use ( )
1 1
x x m y y
N
= to find equation
of the normal.
Linear approximation:
To find the approx. value of a function, use
( ) ( ) ( ) a f h a f h a f + + , e.g. find the
approx. value of 1 . 25 . Let ( ) x x f = ,
then ( )
x
x f
2
1
= . Let 25 = a and 1 . 0 = h ,
then ( ) 1 . 25 = + h a f , ( ) 5 25 = = a f ,
( ) 1 . 0
25 2
1
= = a f .
01 . 5 1 . 0 1 . 0 5 1 . 25 = +


The approx. change in a function is
( ) ( ) ( ) a f h a f h a f = + = ,
e.g. find the approx. change in x cos when x
changes from
2

to 1.6. Let ( ) x x f cos = ,

then ( ) x x f sin = . Let
2

= a , then
( ) 1
2
sin = =

a f and 03 . 0
2
6 . 1 = =

h
Change in ( ) 03 . 0 1 03 . 0 cos = = =

a f h x
Rate of change:
dx
dy
is the rate of change of
y with respect to x.
dt
dx
v = , velocity is the
rate of change of position x with respect to
time t.
dt
dv
a = , acceleration a is the rate of
change of velocity v with respect to t.

Average rate of change: Given ( ) x f y = ,
when a x = , ( ) a f y = , when b x = ,
( ) b f y = , the average rate of change of y
with respect to x
x
y

=
( ) ( )
a b
a f b f

= .

Deducing the graph of gradient function
from the graph of a function
f(x)


0 x


o

f(x)
o o

0 o x



Deducing the graph of function from the
graph of anti-derivative function

f(x)dx+ c



0 x


o

f(x)
o o

0 o x






Anti-differentiation (indefinite integrals):
( ) x f ( )dx x f

n
ax for 1 n
1
1
+
+
n
x
n
a

( )
n
c x a + , 1 n
( )
1
1
+
+
+
n
c x
n
a

( )
n
c bx a + , 1 n
( )
( )
1
1
+
+
+
n
c bx
b n
a

x
a

x a
e
log , 0 > x
( ) x a
e
log , 0 < x
c x
a
+

( ) c x a
e
+ log
c bx
a
+
( ) c bx
b
a
e
+ log
x
ae
x
ae
c x
ae
+

c x
ae
+

c bx
ae
+

c bx
e
b
a
+

x asin
x acos
( ) c x a + sin ( ) c x a + cos
( ) c bx a + sin
( ) c bx
b
a
+ cos
x acos
x asin
( ) c x a + cos ( ) c x a + sin
( ) c bx a + cos
( ) c bx
b
a
+ sin

Definite integrals:
e.g.

|
.
|

\
|

2
0 3
cos

dx x
2
0
3
sin

|
.
|

\
|
= x
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
3
0 sin
3 2
sin

|
.
|

\
|
=
3
sin
6
sin

2
3 1 +
= .
Properties of definite integrals:
1) ( )

b
a
dx x kf ( )

=
b
a
dx x f k
2) ( ) ( ) | |

b
a
dx x g x f ( )

=
b
a
dx x f ( )

b
a
dx x g
3) ( )

b
a
dx x f ( )

=
c
a
dx x f ( )

+
b
c
dx x f ,
where b c a < < . 4) ( )

b
a
dx x f ( )

=
a
b
dx x f
4) ( ) ( )

=
a
b
b
a
dx x f dx x f , 5) ( ) . 0 =

a
a
dx x f
Area under curve:

( ) x f y = ( )

=
b
a
dx x f A
a 0 b
( ) x f y =

a c 0 b
( )

=
c
a
dx x f A ( )

+
b
c
dx x f
Estimate area by left (or right) rectangles

Left Right

a b a b
Area between two curves:
( ) x g y =
( ) x f y =
a 0 b



Firstly find the x-coordinates of the
intersecting points, a, b, then evaluate
( ) ( ) | |

=
b
a
dx x g x f A . Always the function
above minus the function below.
For three intersecting points:

( ) x f y =
( ) x g y =
a b 0 c

( ) ( ) | |

=
b
a
dx x g x f A ( ) ( ) | |

+
c
b
dx x f x g
Discrete probability distributions:
In general, in the form of a table,
x
1
x
2
x
3
x ......
( ) x X = Pr
1
p
2
p
3
p ......
,... , ,
3 2 1
p p p have values from 0 to 1 and
1 ...
3 2 1
= + + + p p p .
( ) ...
3 3 2 2 1 1
+ + + = = p x p x p x X E
( )
2
3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
1
... + + + = p x p x p x X Var
( ) ( ) X Var X sd = =
If random variable b aX Y + = ,
( ) ( ) b X aE Y E + = , ( ) ( ) X Var a Y Var =
2

and ( ) ( ) X sd a Y sd = .
95% probability interval : ( ) 2 , 2 +
Conditional prob: ( )
( )
( ) B
B A
B A
Pr
Pr
Pr

= .
Binomial distributions are examples of
discrete prob. distributions. Sampling with
replacement has a binomial distribution.
Number of trials = n. In a single trial, prob.
of success = p, prob. of failure = q = 1- p.
The random variable X is the number of
successes in the n trials. The binomial dist.
is ( )
x n x
x
n
q p C x X

= = Pr , ,... 2 , 1 , 0 = x with
np = and ( ) p np npq = = 1 .
** Effects of increasing n on the graph of a
binomial distribution. (1) more points
(2) lower probability for each x value
(3) becoming symmetrical , bell shape.
** Effects of changing p on the graph of a
binomial distribution. (1) bell shape when
5 . 0 = p (2) positively skewed if 5 . 0 < p
(3) negatively skewed if 5 . 0 > p
5 . 0 = p 5 . 0 < p 5 . 0 > p



Graphics calculator :
( ) ( ) a p n binompdf a X , , Pr = =
( ) ( ) a p n binomcdf a X , , Pr =
( ) ( ) 1 , , Pr = < a p n binomcdf a X
( ) ( ) 1 , , 1 Pr = a p n binomcdf a X
( ) ( ) a p n binomcdf a X , , 1 Pr = >
( ) ( ) b p n binomcdf b X a , , Pr =
( ) 1 , , a p n binomcdf
Probability density functions ( ) x f for
| | b a x , . y ( ) x f y =


a c b x
For ( ) x f to be a probability density
function, ( ) 0 > x f and
( ) ( ) . 1 Pr = = < <

b
a
dx x f b X a
( ) ( )

= <
c
a
dx x f c X Pr , ( ) ( )

= >
b
c
dx x f c X Pr
Normal distributions are continuous prob.
distributions. The graph of a normal dist. has
a bell shape and the area under the graph
represents probability. Total area = 1.
( )
2
1 1
, N , ( )
2
2 2
, N .

1 2
2 1
<

0
1

2
X
( )
2
1 1
, N , ( )
2
2 2
, N .
1
2 1
<
2


0 X
The standard normal distribution:
has 0 = and 1 = . ( ) 1 , 0 N


2



0 Z
Graphics calculator: Finding probability,
( ) ( ) , , , 99 Pr a E normalcdf a X = <
( ) ( ) , , 99 , Pr E a normalcdf a X = >
( ) ( ) , , , Pr b a normalcdf b X a = < <
Finding quantile, e.g. given ( ) 7 . 0 Pr = < x X
( ) , , 7 . 0 invNorn x = .
Given ( ) 7 . 0 Pr = > x X , then
( ) 3 . 0 7 . 0 1 Pr = = < x X and
( ) , , 3 . 0 invNorm x = .
To find and/or , use

=
X
Z to
convert X to Z first, e.g. find given 2 =
and ( ) 8 . 0 4 Pr = < X . 8 . 0
2
4
Pr = |
.
|

\
|
<

Z ,
( ) 8416 . 0 8 . 0
2
4
= =

invNorm

,
3168 . 2 = .