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History Ancient India Scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal status with men

in all fields of life. However, some others hold contrasting views. Works by anc ient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period Rigvedic verses suggest that the women marrie d at a mature age and were probably free to select their husband. Scriptures suc h as Rig Veda and Upanishads mention several women sages and seers, notably Garg i and Maitreyi. There are very few texts specifically dealing with the role of women; an importa nt exception is the Stri Dharma Paddhati of Tryambakayajvan, an official at Than javur around c.1730. The text compiles strictures on womenly behaviour dating ba ck to the Apastamba sutra (c.4th c. BCE). The opening verse goes: mukhyo dharmaH smr^tiShu vihito bhartr^shushruShANam hi : women are enjoined to be of service to their husbands. Some kingdoms in the ancient India had traditions such as nagarvadhu ("bride of the city"). Women competed to win the coveted title of the nagarvadhu. Amrapali is the most famous example of a nagarvadhu. According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Ved ic period. However, later (approximately 500 B.C.), the status of women began to decline with the Smritis (esp. Manusmriti) and with the Islamic invasion of Bab ur and the Mughal empire and later Christianity curtailing women's freedom and r ights. Although reformatory movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to t he religious order, by and large, the women in India faced confinement and restr ictions. The practice of child marriages is believed to have started from around sixth century. Medieval period The Indian woman's position in the society further deteriorated during the medie val period when Sati among some communities, child marriages and a ban on widow remarriages became part of social life among some communities in India. The Musl im conquest in the Indian subcontinent brought the purdah practice in the Indian society. Among the Rajputs of Rajasthan, the Jauhar was practised. In some part s of India, the Devadasis or the temple women were sexually exploited. Polygamy was widely practised especially among Hindu Kshatriya rulers. In many Muslim fam ilies, women were restricted to Zenana areas. In spite of these conditions, some women excelled in the fields of politics, lit erature, education and religion. Razia Sultana became the only woman monarch to have ever ruled Delhi. The Gond queen Durgavati ruled for fifteen years, before she lost her life in a battle with Mughal emperor Akbar's general Asaf Khan in 1 564. Chand Bibi defended Ahmednagar against the mighty Mughal forces of Akbar in 1590s. Jehangir's wife Nur Jehan effectively wielded imperial power and was rec ognized as the real force behind the Mughal throne. The Mughal princesses Jahana ra and Zebunnissa were well-known poets, and also influenced the ruling administ ration Shivaji's mother, Jijabai was deputed as queen regent, because of her abi lity as a warrior and an administrator. In South India, many women administered villages, towns, divisions and heralded social and religious institutions. The Bhakti movements tried to restore women's status and questioned some of the forms of oppression. Mirabai, a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement figures. Some other female saint-poets from this period include Akka Mahadevi, Rami Janabai and Lal Ded. Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as t he Mahanubhav, Varkari and many others were principle movements within the Hindu

fold to openly advocate social justice and equality between men and women. Shortly after the Bhakti movement, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs also prea ched the message of equality between men and women. He advocated that women be a llowed to lead religious assemblies; to perform and lead congregational hymn sin ging called Kirtan or Bhajan; become members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the battlefield; have equality in marriage, and equality in A mrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus also preached against the discrimination agains t women. Traditions among some communities such as sati, jauhar, and devadasi have been b anned and are largely defunct in modern India. However, some cases of these prac tices are still found in remote parts of India. The purdah is still practised by Indian women among some communities, and child marriage remains prevalent despi te it being an illegal practice, especially under current Indian laws. Sati Sati is an old, largely defunct custom, among some communities in which the widow was immolated alive on her husband's funeral pyre. Although the act was su pposed to be a voluntary on the widow's part, it is believed to have been someti mes forced on the widow. It was abolished by the British in 1829. There have bee n around forty reported cases of sati since independence. In 1987, the Roop Kanw ar case of Rajasthan led to The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act. Jauhar Jauhar refers to the practice of the voluntary immolation of all the wives a nd daughters of defeated warriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent mole station by the enemy. The practice was followed by the wives of defeated Rajput rulers, who are known to place a high premium on honour. Purdah Purdah is the practice among some communities of requiring women to cover th eir bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. It imposes restrict ions on the mobility of women, it curtails their right to interact freely and it is a symbol of the subordination of women. It does not reflect the religious te achings of either Hinduism or Islam, contrary to common belief, although misconc eption has occurred due to the ignorance and prejudices of religious leaders of both faiths. Devadasis Devadasi is a religious practice in some parts of southern India, in which w omen are "married" to a deity or temple. The ritual was well established by the 10th century A.D. In the later period, the illegitimate sexual exploitation of t he devadasi's became a norm in some parts of India. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sarna Oraon tribe followed Sarna Dharam, where Sarna means sacred grove. Their religio n is based on the oral traditions passed from generation-to-generation. The reli gion is deeply ingrained in their culture and traditions, respecting the superio rity of our natural world and its power. It strongly believes in one God, the Su preme Being, the Great Spirit, the Great One, the Creator, the Mighty Spirit, th e one who rules over the entire universe, known as Dharmesh. They strongly belie ve in Lord Dharmeshs appearance in Sal trees. According to Oraon's philosophy, the lord Dharmesh is the most powerful and most important deity. He is responsible for the creation of our universe including o ur ancestors besides acting as our protector. In fact, the whole world (Universe

) is regulated by a superpower that is Dharmesh in Kurukh which simply means the almighty, he is also called Mahaedeo. The great one Dharmeshs purity demands tha t he be offered sacrifices only of things that are white. Hence he is given sacr ifices of white goats, white fowls, white gulainchi flowers, white cloth, sugar, milk, etc. White is the sacred colour of Oraon tribe, in fact it is true for mo st adivasi. Among the many important deities, the Chala-pacho Devi (Sarna Devi) is among the most important and most respected deity. The Gram Devi Chala-Pachho is a caring Old age lady with beautifully flowing white hair. It is believed that the Sal t ree is the holy abode of the Sarna Devi, the mother goddess that protects and nu rtures the Oraon tribe and others. On the occasion of Sarhul festival, the Pahan conducts special puja of the Devi. According to Sarna Dharam, the Devi lives in the wooden soop of Pahan kept at Chala-Kutti place, the auspicious place at Pah ans home. At Kutti place, one stick made up of Saal wood or Bamboo Wood is fixed on the ground, on this respected wooden soop called Sarna-Soop, the Sarna-Devi r esides. Oraons perform rituals under the Sal trees at a place called Sarna Sthal, it is al so known as Jaher (sacred grove); it resembles a small forest patch. In Oraons vill ages, one can easily find the sacred religious place the Sarna Sthal that has holy Sal trees and other trees planted at the site. Sometimes the Jaher are located inside the nearby forest area and not in the village. This Sarna Sthal (Jaher) is a common religious place for the whole village and a lmost all the important socio-religious ceremonies of the village take place at this place only. These ceremonies are performed by the whole village community a t a public gathering with the active participation of village priests known as Pa han. The chief assistant of village priest is called Pujaar or Panbhara. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The term Kuki, in literature, first appeared in the writing of Rawlins when he w rote about the tribes of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. It refers to "Hillsmen" com prising numerous clans. These clans share a common past, culture, customs and tr adition. They speak in dialects that have a common root language belonging to th e Tibeto-Burman group. The Kukis have Mongoloid features and are generally short -stature with straight black hair and dark brown eyes. The different Kuki clans are recognised as scheduled tribe of India. This tribe recognition is based on t he dialect spoken and region. They spread out in the contiguous regions of North east India, Northwest Burma (Myanmar), and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Banglad esh. They are most prominent in Manipur, Nagaland, Assam and Mizoram. Kuki is co mposed of many different entities and clans. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Apatani, or Tanii, are a tribal group of people living in the Ziro valley in the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh in India. However more Apatan is live outside this valley, making the total population approximately 26,000 al l over the state. Their language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family. Most Apatanis are loyal followers of the Danyi-Piilo faith, who pray to the Sun (Ayo Danyi) and the Moon (Atoh Piilo). Abotani is revered as the sole ancestor o f all Apatani and other tribes in the surrounding regions. When a misfortune occ urs, they believe that it is caused by certain evil spirits, and thus they make appeasement by sacrificing chickens, cows and other domestic animals. Myoko, the festival of friendship and prosperity, is celebrated in a grand manner lasting for all of March each year. Dree Festival, celebrated in July, is the main agric ultural festival of the Apatanis.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Munda are tribal (Adivasi) people of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region. They are found across Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and As sam states of India, and into parts of Bangladesh. Their language is Mundari, wh ich belongs to the Munda subgroup of the Austro-Asiatic language family. There are estimated to be two million Munda people. Religion and Identity Mostly Munda people follow the Sarna religion, believing in a god called Sin gbonga. However nearly one-fourth of them have adopted Christianity. The surname of a Munda defines their identity. Many surnames are common amon g other tribes with minute variations. Surnames are based on natural elements, t rees, animals birds or any nature related object which are often found in Chotan agpur region. Common surnames among the Munda are: Topno (species of tree ant), Barla (Pot ter, species of fig tree), Aind (species rare river eel), Kerketta (species of r are bird), Kandir (lion), Guria, Sanga, Kandulna, Bage, Lugun, Surin, Burh/Bur, Demta, Mundu, Jojo (Tarmarind), Honhaga (younger brother), Kongari (species of r are bird), Horo (tortoise), Lomga, Samad, Purti, Bodra, Dang, Bhengra, Hem(b)rom , Dodrai, Soy, Herenz, Tiru, Bhuinya (earth). Many Munda choose to write "Munda" in place of their surname. There are also gro up of Munda families who are called Sing Munda. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Andamanese people are the various aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman Isla nds, which is the northern district of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands union ter ritory of India, located in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal. They inc lude the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Sentinelese, and the extinct Jangil. An thropologically, they are usually classified as Negritos (sometimes also called Proto-Australoids), represented also by the Semang of Malaysia and the Aeta of t he Philippines. Their ancestors are thought to have arrived in the islands 60,00 0 years ago from coastal India (or crossed over a land bridge from Burma during a glacial period) as part of the first human peopling of India and Southeast Asi a, in the initial Great Coastal Migration on what is now the Continental shelf o f the northern Indian Ocean that was the first expansion of humanity out of Afri ca that began 60,000 years ago. With very little contact with external societies or each other for nearly all this period the tribes have mutually unintelligibl e languages. This comparatively long-lasting isolation and separation from exter nal influences is unequaled, except perhaps by the aboriginal inhabitants of Tas mania. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Bodos (pronounced BO-ros) are an ethnic and linguistic community, early sett lers of Assam in the North-East part of India. According to the 1991 census, the re were 1.2 million Bodos in Assam which makes for 5.3% of the total population in the state. Bodos belong to a larger ethnic group called the Bodo-Kachari. The Bodos are recognized as a plains tribe in the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Cons titution. Udalguri and Kokrajhar are considered the center of the Bodo area. Religion In the past, Bodos worshipped their forefathers and followed animistic tradition s. In recent years, Bodos practice Bathouism, Hinduism and Christianity.Among Ch

ristian groups some belong to the Bodo Evangelical Lutheran Church. Bathouism is a form worshipping forefathers called Obonglaoree. The sijwu plant (belonging to the Euphorbia genus), is taken as the symbol of Bathou and worship ed. In the Bodo Language Ba means five and thou means deep. Five is a significan t number in the Bathou religion. A clean surface near home or courtyard is considered as an ideal place for worsh ip. Usually, a pair of arecanut called 'goi' and betel leaf called 'pathwi' coul d be used as offering. On some occasion, worship offering could include rice, mi lk, and sugar. For the Kherai Puja, the most important festival of the Bodos, th e altar is placed in the rice field. Other important festivals of the Bodos incl ude Hapsa Hatarnai, Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai, Bwisagu and Domashi. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bhils are primarily an Adivasi people of Central India. Bhils are also settled i n the Tharparkar District of Sindh, Pakistan. They speak the Bhil languages, a s ubgroup of the Western Zone of the Indo-Aryan languages. Bhils are listed as Adivasi residents of the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra,and Rajasthan in western and central India as well as in Tripura in far-eastern India on the border with Bangladesh. Bhils are divided into a number of endogamous territorial divisions, which in turn have a number of clans and lineages. Most Bhils now speak the language of the region they resi de in, such as Marathi and Gujarati. The Ghoomar dance is one well-known aspect of Bhil culture. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Chakmas, also known as the Changhma, are a community that inhabits the Chitt agong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh, the North-East India and Rakhine state of Myanm ar. The Chakmas are the largest ethnic group in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, maki ng up more than half the tribal population. In Myanmar the Chakmas are known as Daingnet people. Chakmas are divided into 46 clans or Gozas. A tribal group call ed Tongchangya are also considered to be a branch of the Chakma people. Both tri bes speak the same language, have the same customs and culture, and profess the same religion, Theravada Buddhism. Chakmas are Tibeto-Burman, and are thus closely related to tribes in the foothil ls of the Himalayas. The Chakmas are believed to be originally from Arakan who l ater on moved to Bangladesh, settling in the Cox's Bazar District, the Korpos Mo hol area, and in the Indian states of Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura. Religion The vast majority of the Chakma are followers of Theravada Buddhism, a religion that they have been practising for centuries. In the past Lories (a sect of Budd hist priest) used to perform all religious rites in the Chakma society. They use d to follow a religious book called Agartara. The language of these is nothing b ut the corrupt from of Pali text of the Holy Tripitaka. The Lories are still fou nd in remote rural areas, but their numbers began to decline due to rise of mona stic form of Buddhist order in the society. At present it is the Buddhist monks who play vital role in religious matters in Chakma social life. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Chenchus are an aboriginal tribe of the central hill regions of Andhra Prade sh, India. Their traditional way of life has been based on hunting and gathering . The Chenchus speak the Chenchu language, a member of the Telegu branch of the

Dravidian language family. In general, the Chenchu relationship to non-tribal pe ople has been largely symbiotic. Some Chenchus have continued to specialize in c ollecting forest products for sale to non-tribal people. Sizable number of Chenc hus live in the dense Nallamalai forest of Andhra Pradesh. Although the government provide funds for their development,schooling etc.,it ha rdly percolates down to the real beneficiary. The Chenchus are referred to as one of the Primitive Tribal Groups that are stil l dependent on forests and do not cultivate land but hunt for a living. Caste Hi ndus living among them, rent land from the Chenchus and pay a portion of the har vest. Dalits also settled among them with the help of the Chenchus and learned a griculture from them, and the nomadic Banjara herders who graze their cattle in the forest also have been allotted land there. The Chenchus have responded unent husiastically to government efforts to induce them to take up farming themselves . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The majority of the Dhodia tribes are located in the southern part of Gujarat, S urat and Valsad districts, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Madhya Pradesh , Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan of India. In Maharashtra, they are found mai nly in the district of Thane.The Dhodia tribes speak the Dhodia language. It is a language which is a mixture of unique words, as well as some words influenced by Gujarati as well as Marathi. Their language does not have a written script. Religion and Customs Most of the dhodia believe in traditional religious practices. Dhodia primarily follow Hinduism. Some however follow Christianity under the influence of mission aries. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Gondi (Gndi) or Gond people are people in central India, spread over the stat es of Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra (Vidarbha), Chhattisgarh, northern And hra Pradesh, and Western Orissa. With over four million people, they are the lar gest tribe in Central India. Gond or Rajgond are same tribes. The term Raj Gond ,was widly used in 1940's but has now become almost obsolete, probably because of the political eclipse of th e Gond Rajas. The Gondi language is related to Telugu and other Dravidian languages. About hal f of Gonds speak Gondi languages, while the rest speak Indo-Aryan languages incl uding Hindi. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Khasi are an indigenous or tribal people, the majority of whom live in the S tate of Meghalaya in North East India, with small populations in neighbouring As sam, and in parts of Bangladesh. They call themselves Ki Hyniew trep, which means "the seven huts" in the Khasi language. Their language Khasi is the northernmos t Austro-Asiatic language. This language was essentially oral until the arrival of European missionaries. Particularly significant in this regard was a Welsh mi ssionary, Thomas Jones, who transcribed the Khasi language into Roman Script. Th e Khasi people form the majority of the population of the eastern part of Meghal aya. A substantial minority of the Khasi people follow their tribal religion; ca lled variously, Ka Niam Khasi and Ka Niam Tre in the Jaintia region and within t hat indigenous religious belief the cock is sacrificed as a substitute for man, it being thought that the cock "bears the sins of the man and by its sacrifice,

man will obtain redemption (compare Kapparot). Other religions practiced include Presbyterian, Anglican, Unitarian, Roman Catholic and very few are Muslims. The Khasi people who reside in the hilly areas of Sylhet, Bangladesh are of the War sub-tribe. The main crops produced by the Khasi people living in the War areas, including Bangladesh, are betel leaf, areca nut and oranges. The War-Khasi peopl e designed and built the living root bridges of the Cherrapunjee region. In seve ral States of India, Khasis have been granted the status of Scheduled tribe. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Kurichiya or Kurichiyar also known as Hill Brahmins or Malai Brahmins are a matr ilineal tribe of Kerala distributed mainly in Wayanad and Kannur districts of Ke rala, India. Kurichiyans are one of the Scheduled Tribes of Kerala practicing ag riculture. Generally their houses are found in clusters and cluster of houses in one settle ment is called Mittom also known as Tharavadu. A lineage head called Karanavar h eads a Mittom. In addition to Karanavan, Kurichiya society includes medicine man , and other social functionaries such as Pittan. Joint family system is common a mong the Kurichiyan. Society is divided into lineages headed by lineage heads. A female initiation ritual called the pandal pattu is performed before a girls men arche and after the ear boring ceremony among the tribe. Among the Kurichiyas, a husband may divorce his wife any time he likes : but the wife has to bring her case before the elders, if she wants to leave him, and they decide the question. The Kurichiyans bury their dead ; an arrow is buried with the body if a male, a nd a scythe if a female. Seven days' pollution is observed and rice is offered t o the soul of the departed. The funeral ceremony on a grand scale is observed at any time convenient in the year. They have no priests : the elders act for the occasion. The deceased ancestors are remembered and once a year, toddy, meat, et c., are placed in a room for their use and subsequently enjoyed by the Kurichiya ns. They occupy the highest status among the Wynad tribes in point of caste, the y do not take meals of any caste but of the Brahmins and the Nayars of Wynad : t heir houses are polluted if any other caste man should enter the same : and the slightest suspicion is enough to put a man or woman out of the caste. These outc astes have, on such occasion, been taken to the Christian fold. The Kurichiyas worship some of the same deities as other Hindus in Kerala, such as Kuttichathan and Vettakkaran, and Kali (also called Mariamma). The Kurichiyas worship their deceased ancestors, called Nizhal (shadows) as well as a number o f deities unique to their tribe. They worship Malakkari (Kari of the hills) and the fierce Mother-Goddess Karimpili (the dark one from the hills). Offering to t he deities is given after the harvest in either of the two methods Thera or Koll . For the Thera, the platform or shrine where the puja (worship) is to be perfor med is purified by holy water from a Brahmin's hands, and a Kurichiyan dressed u p for the occasion, with a white head-dress, acts as an oracle. The KumbTiam-Vet tal (cutting the vessel) then takes place, the Muppen-headman cutting a bamboo p iece full of toddy. Then all similar bamboo pieces in which toddy will have been brought are emptied and the contents consumed. In the offering known as Koll be aten rice, plantains and jaggery are placed on a plantain leaf at the shrine and the Muppen, after prayers, distributes them. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Kurumbar or Kurumans or Kurubaru or kurumba caste are shepherds of South India. They are indigenous people of India. Even though they are called in different na mes like 'Kurumans', 'Kurumbar' or 'Kuruba' and these names are synonyms and one and the same. They speak Kuruman tribal Kannada language. Their God is Veerabad ra (Beera dhevaru). They celebrate the God by breaking coconuts on their heads. Their surnames are Gounder, Gowder, Heggade, Naiker, and others. They are known as Dhangar in rest of India.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Most popularly known as tripuri tribes The Tripuri (Tipra or Tipperah) people ar e the original inhabitants of the Kingdom of Tripura in North-East India and Ban gladesh. The Tripuri people through the Royal family of the Debbarmas ruled the Kingdom of Tripura for more than 2000 years till the kingdom joined the Indian U nion in 1949. The Tripuris live on the slopes of hills in a group of five to fifty families. T heir houses in these areas are built of bamboo or ua as it is called in Kokborok and raised five to six feet height to save themselves from the dangers of the w ild animals. Nowadays a considerable section of this community are living in the plains and erecting houses like the plains people, adopting their methods of cu ltivation, and following them in other aspects of life, such as dress, manners, and cosmetics. Tripuri women wear a scarp, called rignai, which reaches down jus t below the knee. They weave in their loin-loom a small piece of cloth, which th ey call risa, and they use this small piece of cloth as their breast garment. According to the 2001 census, around 90% of the Tripuri adhere to Vaishnava Hind uism which is heavily influenced by the religious doctrine of the neighbouring B engali people. Most of the remaining are Christians, mostly Baptists. The Tripur i Hindus claim Kshatriya status. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Mizo people (Mizo: Mizo hnam) are an ethnic group native to north-eastern In dia, western Burma (Myanmar) and eastern Bangladesh who speak Mizo. The Mizo are recognised as Scheduled Tribe under the 6th Schedule of the Constitution of Ind ia. The present Indian state of Mizoram (literally "Mizoland") was called the Lushai Hills and was a district of Assam, before it became a Union Territory and after wards a full-fledged state. The Lushai were the first Mizo tribe to have an exte rnal exposure and hence the ethnicity was initially known as the Lushai people. The demand for a distinct political territory for the people of Lushai Hills res ulted in the creation of a separate Union Territory and afterwards the State of Mizoram. In this struggle, one of the powerful factors was the movement to call themselves Mizo, rather than by distinct tribal names such as the Lushai, the Ra lte, the Gangte, the Paite, the Mara, the Pawi, etc. Their languages (of which t he largest is Lusei Duhlian dialect) belong to the Tibeto-Burman, and are closel y related to those of the Chins in the adjacent Chin State of Burma, as well as those of the Kukis. They also share similar tradition of the Chinese as well to some extend in their folks story and way of life. Religion All ethnic Mizo people claim to be Christians, although there has been a departu re from the Christian faith among certain sections of the community. The major C hristian denominations are Presbyterian (majority), Baptist, The Salvation Army, Seventh-day Adventist, Evangelical Church of Maraland (ECM), Congregational Chu rch of India (Maraland) in the southern district of Saiha, Roman Catholic and Pe ntecostal. Jehovah's Witnesses also has a good number of members. In recent gene rations a small group of Mizo have claimed themselves as Jews; see Bnei Menashe. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The term Naga people refers to a conglomeration of several tribes inhabiting the North Eastern part of India and north-western Burma. The tribes have similar cu ltures and traditions, and form the majority ethnic group in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and Nagaland. Some of the prominent Naga tribes are A

ngami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Lotha, Pochury, Phom, Poumai , Rengma, Sangtam, Sema (Sumi), Mao (Memai), Yimchunger, Zeliang. There are 16 officially recognized tribes in the Nagaland state of India. The ot her Naga tribes can be found in the contiguous adjoining states of Manipur, Assa m, Arunachal Pradesh and across the border in Burma. Some of these tribes are: Z eme, Liangmai, Mao (Memai), Nocte, Phom, Pochuri, Poumai Naga, Rongmei, Tangsa, Tutsa, and Wancho The Naga tribes practised headhunting and preserved the heads of enemies as trop hies before the 19th century. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Nicobarese or Nicobaric languages form an isolated group of half a dozen clo sely related Austro-Asiatic languages, spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of the Nicobar Islands of India. They have a total of about 30,000 speakers (22 ,100 native). The majority of Nicobarese speakers use the Car language. They appear to be at best distantly related to the Shompen languages of the indi genous inhabitants of the interior of Great Nicobar Island. The morphological similarities between Nicobarese and Austronesian languages hav e been used to help support the Austric hypothesis. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Oraon tribes or Kurukh tribe (Kurukh: On and Kuu), also spelled Uraon, Oran, or Or am, are tribal aborigines inhabiting various states across central and eastern I ndia as well as Bangladesh. Traditionally, Oraons depended on the forest and far ms for their ritual and economic livelihood, but in recent times, a few of them have become mainly settled agriculturalists. Small numbers of Oraons have immigr ated to the northeastern part of India, where they are mainly employed in tea es tates. Religion Sarnaism The Oraon Adivasi followed the 'Sarna' Dharam (Sarna religion) but due to the in fluence of Hinduism and Christianity some of the groups started following Sarna in Hindu style, as Bishnu Bhagats, Bacchinda Bhagats, Karmu Bhagats and Tana Bha gats; others accepted Christianity. The Oraons have established several Sarna se cts. Oraons worship Mahaedeo (a name given for Dharmesh). Oraon believe every th ing in nature has its own deity or god. They are adopting Hinduism in most place s. Kamru Bhagats (Oaron or Munda devotee) originated when Oarins acquired special p owers after making a pilgrimage to Kamakhya in Asom to pay respect to the Durga. Tana Bhagats were formed by Oaron saints Jatra Bhagat and Turia Bhagat. The Tana Bhagats opposed the taxes imposed on them by the British and they staged a Saty agraha (civil disobedience movement) even before Gandhi's satyagraha movement. A ll Tana Bhagats were the followers of Mahatma Gandhi during the Independence mov ement and participated in the movement. Still Tana Bhagats wears khadi kurta, dh oti and Gandhi topi (cap) with tricoloured flag in their topi. All the Tana Bhag ats are performing pooja to the Mahadeo and the tricolour with charakha symbol o n it fixed at their courtyard. Religious Beliefs Most of population are Sarna (following Sarna Dharma, in which Dharmesh is the s upreme almighty). Sarna perform religious rituals under the shade of a sacred gr

ove. Sarna worship The Sun as Biri and the Moon as Chando. Chando Biri are the w ords which been used in the Sarna Puja. They called the earth Dharti Aayo (Earth as mother). A large number of Oraons abandoned their original beliefs of Sarna .In fact, the 19th and 20th century troubles were mainly due to the hoarding malpractices of the British traders . These led to indirect deaths of millions of Biharis and Be ngalis.The Christian missionaries found the Oraon community depressed and withou t food. Due to their missionary activities, many of them turned Christians. Amon gs Christians Oraons, there are Roman Catholic Oroans and the Protestants Oraon, the latter having several denominations. It is true that those accepted Christi anity have developed socio-economically very much due to education brought to th em by the missionaries. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Santal (also spelled as Santhal (formerly also spelt as Sontal), are the lar gest tribal community in India, who live mainly in the states of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Assam. There is also a significant Santal minority i n neighboring Bangladesh, and a small population in Nepal. The santals belong to the Proto-Australoid group,and may have arrived in India soon after the Negrito s.The name is given because of the similarity of racial type with Australian tri bes.There is no precise information as to when this race first came into India.I t is found among the prehistoric skulls in the Tinnevelly district, and from ref erences in early Sanskrit literature to 'Nishads', where they are described as n oseless (anash) with dark skin colour and peculiar speech and habits,there can b e no doubt that the Proto-Australoid tribes were meant.The Santals are short in stature, and among them the broad flat nose with a sunken nose ridge is fairly c ommon. They frequently have wavy hair;sometimes it is curly, though it is never frizzy.They share all these characteristics with other primitive tribes in the s ame group. To the Proto-Australoid races may perhaps be attributed a largest sha re of totemistic rites, exorcism, food taboos, and magical belief still obtainin g in Indian life. The ban on commensality and intermarriage which forms the basi s of the caste system must also owe its origin to them.It is impossible to dogma tize on these subjects when one remembers how widespread each of the above facto rs is among primitive cultures in various parts of the world. The tribal structu re of the Santals is totemistic and the clans are patrilinear, as among the othe r tribes of Central India. Many of the taboos and customs which have grown up ro und life's crises, many features in the tribal ritual, their attitude towards di sease and towards the supranatural world, are fundamentally similar throughout t hese tribes. Religion Santals believe in supernatural beings and ancestral spirits. Santali rituals co nsist mainly of sacrificial offerings and invocations to the spirits, or bongas. It is believed by some scholars that Bonga means the same as Bhaga (or Bhagavan ). The Santals have their own story of creation, from two heavenly birds Pilchu Haram and Pilchu Buddhi.These two birds were created by God and then allowed to fly in all directions. One day they made a nest and laid two cosmic eggs. Out of this two eggs came the male and females of the Earth. Apart from the story of c reation of human there is another story explaining the creations of all living t hings. These two stories are integral to the Santal worldview as it uniquely con nects the life of humans to animals. The Santhals have a high regard of the flor a and fauna and they decorate the mud walls of their houses with figures of anim als and plants. Similarly the association of the Santals with the Hindu neighbor s influenced their religion as well. One of the most studied tribal religions is that of the Santhal of Orissa, Bihar , and West Bengal, one of the largest tribes in India, having a population estim ated at 4.2 million. According to the 1991 census, however, only 23,645 people l

isted Santal as their religious belief. Santhal According to the Santhal religion, the supreme deity, who ultimately controls th e entire universe, is Thakurji. The weight of belief, however, falls on a court of spirits (bonga ), who handle different aspects of the world and who must be p lacated with prayers and offerings in order to ward off evil influences. These s pirits operate at the village, household, ancestor, and subclan level, along wit h evil spirits that cause disease, and can inhabit village boundaries, mountains , water, tigers, and the forest. A characteristic feature of the Sanhthal villag e is a sacred grove on the edge of the settlement where many spirits live and wh ere a series of annual festivals take place. The most important spirit is Maran Buru (Great Mountain), who is invoked wheneve r offerings are made and who instructed the first Santals in sex and brewing of rice beer. Maran Buru's consort is the benevolent Jaher Era (Lady of the Grove). A yearly round of rituals connected with the agricultural cycle, along with life -cycle rituals for birth, marriage and burial at death, involves petitions to th e spirits and offerings that include the sacrifice of animals, usually birds. Re ligious leaders are male specialists in medical cures who practice divination an d witchcraft. Similar beliefs are common among other tribes of northeast and cen tral India such as the Kharia, Munda, and Oraon. Smaller and more isolated tribes often demonstrate less articulated classificati on systems of the spiritual hierarchy, described as animism or a generalized wor ship of spiritual energies connected with locations, activities, and social grou ps. Religious concepts are intricately entwined with ideas about nature and inte raction with local ecological systems. As in Santal religion, religious speciali sts are drawn from the village or family and serve a wide range of spiritual fun ctions that focus on placating potentially dangerous spirits and coordinating ri tuals. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Saharia, Sahar, Sehariya, or Sahariya is an indigenous Munda-speaking tribe in t he Madhya Pradesh province of India. The Saharias are mainly found in the distri cts of Morena, sheopur, Bhind, Gwalior, Datia, Shivpuri, Vidisha and Guna distri cts of Madhya Pradesh and Baran district of Rajasthan. Religion The tribe members believe in Hinduism. They worship Goddess Tejaji, Dhakar Baba, Durga, Hanuman, Lalbai and Bejasan. Savni Amavasya, Janmashtami, Raksha Bandhan , Deepavali, Holi and Teja Dashmi are some among the major festivals celebrated by them. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Toda people are a small pastoral community who live on the isolated Nilgiri plateau of Southern India. Before the late 18th century, the Toda coexisted loca lly with other communities, including the Badaga, Kota, and Kuruba, in a loose c aste-like community organization in which the Toda were the top ranking. The Tod a population has hovered in the range 700 to 900 during the last century. Althou gh an insignificant fraction of the large population of India, the Toda have att racted (since the late 18th century), "a most disproportionate amount of attenti on because of their ethnological aberrancy" and "their unlikeness to their neigh bours in appearance, manners, and customs." The study of their culture by anthro pologists and linguists would prove important in the creation of the fields of S ocial Anthropology and Ethnomusicology.

The Toda traditionally live in settlements consisting of three to seven small th atched houses, constructed in the shape of half-barrels and spread across the sl opes of the pasture. They traditionally trade dairy products with their Nilgiri neighbour people. Toda religion centres on the buffalo; consequently, rituals ar e performed for all dairy activities as well as for the ordination of dairymen-p riests. The religious and funerary rites provide the social context in which com plex poetic songs about the cult of the buffalo are composed and chanted. Frater nal polyandry in traditional Toda society was fairly common; however, this has n ow largely been abandoned. During the last quarter of the 20th century, some Tod a pasture land was lost due to agriculture by outsiders or afforestation by the State Government of Tamil Nadu. This has threatened to undermine Toda culture by greatly diminishing the buffalo herds; however during the last decade both Toda society and culture have also become the focus of an international effort at cu lturally sensitive environmental restoration. The Toda lands are now a part of T he Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO-designated International Biosphere Reserv e and is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selectio n as a World Heritage Site. Religion A Toda temple in Muthunadu Mund near Ooty, India. According to the Todas, the goddess Teikirshy and her brother first created the sacred buffalo and then the first Toda man. The first Toda woman was created fro m the right rib of the first Toda man. The Toda religion also forbids them from walking across bridges, rivers must be crossed on foot, or swimming. Toda temples are constructed in a circular pit lined with stones and are quite s imilar in appearance and construction to Toda huts. From Frazer's Golden Bough, 1922: "Among the Todas of Southern India the holy milkman, who acts as priest of t he sacred dairy, is subject to a variety of irksome and burdensome restrictions during the whole time of his incumbency, which may last many years. Thus he must live at the sacred dairy and may never visit his home or any ordinary village. He must be celibate; if he is married he must leave his wife. On no account may any ordinary person touch the holy milkman or the holy dairy; such a touch would so defile his holiness that he would forfeit his office. It is only on two days a week, namely Mondays and Thursdays, that a mere layman may even approach the milkman; on other days if he has any business with him, he must stand at a dista nce (some say a quarter of a mile) and shout his message across the intervening space. Further, the holy milkman never cuts his hair or pares his nails so long as he holds office; he never crosses a river by a bridge, but wades through a fo rd and only certain fords; if a death occurs in his clan, he may not attend any of the funeral ceremonies, unless he first resigns his office and descends from the exalted rank of milkman to that of a mere common mortal. Indeed it appears t hat in old days he had to resign the seals, or rather the pails, of office whene ver any member of his clan departed this life. However, these heavy restraints a re laid in their entirety only on milkmen of the very highest class". ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Maldharis are nomadic tribal herdsmen who live in the Gujarat state of India. Th e literal meaning of Maldhari is "owner of animal stock". They are notable as th e traditional dairymen of the region, and once supplied the palaces of rajas wit h milk and cheese. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Cholanaikkans are a traditional tribal society in South India, numbering onl

y 360 in 1991. They are one of the indigenous communities of Kerala state, India . They are one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes of South India, livi ng in the Silent Valley National Park (Kerala). This tribe was first contacted i n the 1960s, but since this first contact their lifestyle has been altered. Curr ently they have a 16% literacy rate. They speak the Cholanaikkan language, but a round half of them have a basic knowledge of Malayalam. Only a handful of them l ive as hunter-gatherers now. The Cholanaika habitats are found in the Karulai and Chunkathara forest ranges n ear Nilambur, which fall in Ernad Taluk of Malappuram district. They were leadin g a secluded life with very limited contact to the main stream. The Cholanaikka call themselves as Malanaikan or Sholanaikan. They are called Cholanaikan because th ey inhabit the interior forests. Chola or shoals means deep ever green forest, and na ikan means King. They are said to have migrated from Mysore forests. They are gen erally of short stature with well-built sturdy bodies. The complexion varies fro m dark to light brown. The faces are round or oval with depressed nasal root, th eir bridge being medium and the profile straight, lips are thin to the medium, h air tends to be curly. They live in rock shelters called Kallulai or in open camps ites made of leaves. They are found in groups consisting of 2 to 7 primary famil ies. Each group is called a Chemmam. The Cholanaikans are very particular in obser ving the rules framed by their ancestors for the purpose of maintaining the terr itories under the Chemmam. The Chemmams are found widely scattered in the forest ranges. They subsist on fo od-gathering, hunting and minor forest produce collection. Their language is a m ixture of Kannada, Tamil and Malayalam. They use dress and ornaments, household articles, tools and weapons in their daily life. They use rice as their staple f ood. They also use wild roots, tubers, seeds, fruits and meat. Their livelihood is totally dependent on the forest. The collection and selling of minor forest p roduce is the major source of income. There are still many customs, practices an d taboos prevailing among the Cholanaikans. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Warlis or Varlis are an indigenous tribe or Adivasis, living in Mountainous as well as coastal areas of Maharashtra-Gujarat border and surrounding areas.The y have their own animistic beliefs, life, customs and traditions, as a result of acculturation they have adopted many Hindu beliefs. The Warlis speak an unwritt en Varli language which belong to the southern zone of the Indo-Aryan languages. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Kisan Tribe in Orissa are found in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur and Keonjha r. They are traditional farmers and food gathering people. They speak the Kurukh language along with Kosli, Hindi and English. Religion The Kisan religion reveals their beliefs in soul, super human power, mana, Bonga , natural objects, defferent Gods, Goddesses and spirits. They believe that the soul of living beings take abode on hill, mountain, well, tank, stream, mud hell , dry trees etc. They also believe that all living and nonliving things possess super human power. They have faith that man after death becomes ancestor. They b elieve that every event in their society is brought by the super human power. In and around the settlement of the Kisan village, one finds several spots dedicat ed to in the names of different spirits of man, natural things, snake, tiger, et c. The ancestors of the Kisan live in saranga grove. Gram Devata, Brahma Devata, singbonga, Dharati Mata, Kali Mai, Durga Mai etc. are their different Gods and Goddesses. Sokha and Mati also belong to their Gods and Goddesses. The sacred sp ecialist of Kisan is called Baiga. He performs the sacrificial worships. At the time of worship, they use milk, flower, sunfried rice, turmeric, Dub grass, Dhup

, Agarbati, fire, curd, loaf sugar etc. They make sacrifice of goat, pig, chick, duck, and pigeon etc. The Kisan celebrate festivals like Phagun, Karma, Jitia, Diwali, Sohrai, Sarhul, Maghi etc. On festive occasions, they organise religious dances in the Akhara o f the village in which men, women and children take part. While performing dance , they play mandar and sing varieties of songs. The Kisan are not followers of Christianity. They have been influenced by Hindui sm. They have started worship of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. They also participate in religious worship of the Hindus and religious processions of Hindus. The con cept of individual and common property is found among them. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Kondha are indigenous tribal groups of India. They live in Orissa, a state i n Eastern India. Their highest concentration is found in the blocks of Rayagada, Kashipur, Kalyansinghpur, Bissamcuttack and Muniguda. The Kondhas are believed to be from the Proto-Australoid ethnic group. Their nat ive language is Kui, a Dravidian language written with the Oriya script. The Kon dha are adept land dwellers exhibiting greater adaptability to the forest enviro nment. However, due to development interventions in education, medical facilitie s, irrigation, plantation and so on, they are forced into the modern way of life in many ways. Their traditional life style, customary traits of economy politic al organization, norms, values and world view have been drastically changed over a long period. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Society The Dongria family is often nuclear, although extended families are found. Femal e family members are considered assets because of their contribution inside and outside the household and women are on equal footing with the male members in co nstructing a house to cultivation. Women do all the work for household ranging f rom fetching water from the distant streams, cooking, serving food to each membe r of the household to cultivating, harvesting and marketing of produce in the ma rket. Due to this, the bride price is paid to her parents when she gets married which is a striking feature of the Dongrias. However, the family is patrilineal and patrilocal. The Dongrias commonly practice polygamy. By custom, marriage must cross clan bou ndaries (a form of incest taboo). The clan or "Puja" is exogamous, which means m arriages are made outside the clan (yet still within the greater Dongoria popula tion). The form of acquiring mate is often by capture or force or elopement. How ever, marriage by negotiation is also practiced. The Dongrias have a dormitory f or adolescent girls and boys which forms a part of their enculturation and educa tion process. The girls sleep at night in the dormitory (Daa Sala) and learn soc ial taboos, myths, legends, stories, riddles, proverbs amidst singing and dancin g the whole night, thus learning the way of the sacred feminine. The Dongrias are great admirer of aesthetic romanticism. Their personal adornmen t is unique with each male and female member using hair clips, ear rings neck ri ngs, hand rings made up of brass, iron and Hyndalium prepared by themselves as w ell as purchased from local markets. Body tattooing is practiced by both sexes. Religious beliefs The Dongria have syncretic beliefs combining animism. Their pantheon has both th e common Hindu gods and their own. The gods and goddesses are always attributed to various natural phenomena, objects, trees, animals, etc. They have a god or d

eity for everything and anything. The Dongrias give highest importance to the Ea rth god (Dharani penu), and NIyam penu (Niyamgiri Hill) who is held to be the cr eator and sustainer of the Dongria. For instance, in a house, there is a deity f or back and front street, kitchen, living room, implements and so on and so fort h. In the Dongria society, breach of any religious conduct by any member of the society invites the wrath of spirits in the form of lack of rain fall, soaking o f streams, destruction of forest produce, and other natural calamities. Hence, t he customary law, norms, taboos, and values are greatly adhered and enforced wit h high to heavy punishments, depending up on the seriousness of the crimes commi tted. As with any culture, the ethical practices of the Dongria reinforce the ec onomic practices that define the people. Thus, the sacredness of the mountains p erpetuates tribal socio-economics, whereas outside cultures that neglect the sac redness of the land find no problem in committing deforestation, strip-mining et c. For social control in the village and at Muttha level (regional), there are here ditary religious leaders like Jani (religious head), Mondal (secular head), Beju ni (sorcerer), Barik (messenger) to co-ordinate, decide by holding a meeting whe re the punishment is awarded along with appeasement procedure is followed with s acrifices of buffaloes and cocks. The punishment may be in cash or kind and may lead to ostracism from the community if not obeyed. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Bonda (also known as the Bondo, Bondo Poraja, Bhonda, or Remo) are an ancien t tribe of people numbering approximately 12,000 (2011 census) who live in the i solated hill regions of the Malkangiri district of southwesternmost Orissa, Indi a, near the junction of the three states of Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Andhra Pra desh. The Bonda are a scheduled tribe of India and are also known as the Remo (meaning "people" in the Bonda language). The tribe is one of the oldest and most primit ive in mainland India; their culture has changed little for more than a thousand years. Their isolation and known aggressiveness continue to preserve their cult ure despite the pressures of an expanding Indian population. In contrast with many other populations in India, the number of women among the Bonda greatly exceeds the number of men. Their language belongs to the Munda subgroup of the Austro-Asiatic language fami ly. The Bonda are generally semi-clothed, with the women characterized by the wearin g of thick silver neck bands. The best way to see members of the tribe is to go to one of the local town marke ts. It is not safe to go into their tribal areas. The Bondas still use "binnimoy protha," i.e., barter, and they customarily go to a market every Sunday. They like to put castor oil on their heads. The women make worli paintings in thei r homes. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Others Unlike the Santhal, who have a large population long accustomed to agriculture a nd a distinguished history of resistance to outsiders, many smaller tribal group s are quite sensitive to ecological degradation caused by modernization, and the ir unique religious beliefs are under constant threat. Even among the Santal, th

ere are 300,000 Christians who are alienated from traditional festivals, althoug h even among converts the belief in the spirits remains strong. Among the Munda and Oraon in Bihar, about 25 percent of the population are Christians. Among the Kharia of Bihar (population about 130,000), about 60 percent are Christians, bu t all are heavily influenced by Hindu concepts of major deities and the annual H indu cycle of festivals. Tribal groups in the Himalayas were similarly affected by both Hinduism and Buddhism in the late twentieth century. Even the small hunt ing-and-gathering groups in the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands h ave been under severe pressure because of immigration to this area and the resul ting reduction of their hunting area. Pressure to convert to Major religions Some of pressure is intentional, as outside Christian missionaries work among tr ibal groups to gain converts. Most of the pressure, however, comes from the proc ess of integration within a national political and economic system that brings t ribes into increasing contact with other groups and different, prestigious belie f systems. In general, those tribes that remain geographically isolated in deser t, hill, and forest regions or on islands are able to retain their traditional c ultures and religions longer. Those tribes that make the transition away from hu nting and gathering and toward sedentary agriculture, usually as low-status labo rers, find their ancient religious forms in decay and their place filled by prac tices of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, or Buddhism.

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