ID EA

Advanced Open Water

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

INDEX Introduction Equipment Physics The tables Diving limits The mixtures Search and recovery Underwater navigation Night dive or limited visibility dive Deep dive Rescue Diver page page page page page page page page page page page 3 7 25 35 45 51 55 63 75 81 87

Dive tables (images)

page 93

Advanced Open Water Diver Manual December 2000 IDEA Europe

Via Mulino di Pile 3 - 67100 LAquila (Italy) Phone +39 0862 318499 - Fax +39 0862 318542 www.idea-europe.com - www.idea-europe.org Written by Gaetano Occhiuzzi, President of IDEA Europe. Translated by Angela Lee. Photo by Fabio Bontempi, Walter Nicolini, Antonio Trogu. Pictures by Lorella Rossi. Special thanks to Francesca Ottolenghi and Sarah Lovari. Duplication and reproduction, even partially, of this manual is prohibited unless with written authorization. 2

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

INTRODUCTION The IDEA Advanced Open Water Course is aimed at introducing the student to a new diving experience different from those of the basic Open Water Diver Course. In fact, the basic course assumes the person is a new diver and, as such, has never had diving experience; therefore he is introduced to this new sport so that he may operate in simple and safe environmental conditions. The Advanced Open Water Course, on the other hand, is aimed at students already in possession of the basic certificate, who have already been diving, on the whole people who have a degree of familiarity with the sea. These divers want to, and indeed, must therefore, know and experience different situations from those undertaken in the simple Open Water Diver Certificate Course, thus enriching their personal knowledge and experience. This in fact is the case of the IDEA Advanced Open Water Diver Course: a series of dives, of different exercises together with a furthering of theoretical knowledge, without the excessive commitment required for specialised courses. The scheduled exercises are, in particular, based on search and recovery, techniques used in limited visibility or night dives, natural navigation and compass navigation technique, deep dives and rescue. Obviously the aim of this manual is to give introductory notes to these types of exercises, emphasising that they are not specialised course manuals, but that they simply illustrate experience, and that clearly everything should be integrated with an explanation by a trained instructor. At the end of the course you will have tried to dive in conditions different from those experienced in the Open Water Diver Course, you will be able to carry out your underwater activity even in these conditions although always accompanied by an instructor, you will have had an introduction to the various specific areas, so that you may understand if one of these areas is of particular interest to you and you may therefore attend the specialised course. Your knowledge of theory will be furthered, o the whole you will be a more complete diver, more advanced. Gaetano Occhiuzzi President of IDEA Europe
5

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

MT 12 5 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 GR A K J I H G F E D C B A MT 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39
0:10 2:10 0:10 2:11 12:0 12:0 0:10 1:39 1:40 2:49 2:50 12:0 0:10 1:09 1:10 2:38 2:39 5:48 5:49 12:0

15 10 10 5 5 5 5

25 15 15 10 10 10 7 5 5 5 C

30 25 20 15 15 12 10 10 10 D

DIVE TIME 40 50 70 30 40 50 25 30 40 20 30 35 20 25 30 15 20 25 15 20 13 15

80 100 110 130 60 70 50 40

J
0:10 0:31 0:32 0:54 0:55 1:19 1:20 1:47 1:48 2:20 2:21 3:04 3:05 4:02 4:03 5:40 5:41 8:40 8:41 12:0

K
0:10 0:28 0:29 0:49 0:50 1:11 1:12 1:35 1:36 2:03 2:04 2:38 2:39 3:21 3:22 4:19 4:20 5:48 5:49 8:58 8:59 12:0

GR

0:10 0:54 0:55 1:57 1:58 3:22 3:23 6:32 6:33 12:0

0:10 0:45 0:46 1:29 1:30 2:28 2:29 3:57 3:58 7:05 7:06 12:0

0:10 0:40 0:41 1:15 1:16 1:59 2:00 2:58 2:59 4:25 4:26 7:35 7:36 12.0

0:10 0:36 0:37 1:06 1:07 1:41 1:42 2:23 2:24 3:20 3:21 4:49 4:50 7:59 8:00 12:0

0:10 0:33 0:34 0:59 1:00 1:29 1:30 2:02 2:03 2:44 2:45 3:43 3:44 5:12 5:13 8:21 8:22 12:0

A 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 3

B 17 13 11 9 8 7 7 6 6 6

C 25 21 17 15 13 11 10 10 9 8

D 37 29 24 20 18 16 14 13 12 11

E 49 38 30 26 23 20 18 16 15 13

F 61 47 36 31 28 24 22 20 18 16

G 73 56 44 37 32 29 26 24 21 19

H 87 66 52 43 38 33 30 27 25 22

I 101 76 61 50 43 38 34 31 28 25

J 116 87 70 57 48 43 38 34 32 28

K GR 138 99 79 64 54 47 43 38 35 31

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

EQUIPMENT In the theory lessons of the basic course you learned that in order to dive, some specific equipment is necessary. Some of this is also used in skin diving, other pieces are completely different and are only used for scuba diving. Lets go over the most important points again. MASK AND SNORKEL The first piece of equipment we need when diving is the mask, since, as you well remember, due to the different refraction values between air and water, on direct contact with water our eyes cannot focus the light rays onto the retina exactly, so our vision is blurred. Therefore, the importance of the mask is not to be underestimated; without it we would not have perfect vision during dives and so we would not be able to see the beauties of the underwater world. Taking a look at this piece of equipment from a technical point of view, we can see that the mask is made of a rubber part (generally silicon rubber) acting as a grip when worn, and a rigid plastic part which contains one or two glass pieces which allow vision but avoid water penetration. Adding the strap and the buckles we have mentioned all the parts of the mask, which though having made progress in terms of the materials used , it has made no progress from the basic principle on which it is based, that is to create an air cushion in front of our eyes. Some may object to this statement saying that recreational scuba diving has witnessed progress in the form of the full face mask which marked a step forwards. We reply that this is true as far as cost is concerned, but not as regards its validity since it is both complicated and awkward to use. At least for now. Continuing our examination, we must remember that the glass must be tempered, this is easy to deduce due to the presence of the letter T or the word tempered written on the glass; were this not the case then apart from the obvious problem of misting, there
9

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

could also be the problem of breakage due to pressure when diving. Another point to remember should the glass need to be replaced, for example by prescription lenses, it is necessary to choose the two-lens model since it is practically impossible to substitute the single-glass model with prescription lenses. Before buying a mask you must be absolutely certain of the grip, this is ascertained by placing the mask on your face and then breathing in through the nose; if air leaks in, then the mask will not press against the face and therefore is not suited to the shape of your face. Once the correct mask has been found other secondary factors, such as colour and shape, may be considered. A nice colourful mask which does not grip is of no use at all. A snorkel is always with the mask, even if we have a regulator this precious piece should not be forgotten since it allows us to swim on the surface with our head under water without using up air from the tanks. The snorkel must be about 30 cm in length with an easy attachment to the strap; it is best to use models which are not fanciful (release valves etc) because the more complex it is the greater the possibilities are of getting caught up in something or it becoming annoying . FINS AND DIVE BOOTS Fins are essential to give us the necessary propulsion when in water. With an air tank, BCD, regulators, pressure gauges, we obviously cannot dream of moving forwards using only our hands and feet. Our penetration coefficient in water is comparable to a train in the air, therefore only by using a motor is it possible to move without using excessive effort. This is exactly what fins are used for: they increase the amount of water moved and consequently the speed and
10

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

power of our movement. Due to the mass they have to propel forward they have to be pretty resistant, therefore of average length and rigid enough, otherwise they would flex too much and not be able to propel the diver. So, long, flexible fins used by skin divers who do not carry air tanks, BCD etc are unadvisable since the ski diver has an optimum hydrodynamic coefficient, moving only a little water, but these fins are useless to a scuba diver weighed down with all his equipment. Also to be remembered is the use of open heel fins and not the closed type, because they are easier to put on and take off, and the use of dive socks make it easier to walk when wearing equipment since they are almost like shoes. It is enough to think of entering the water barefoot from a stony each wearing all the necessary equipment or even wearing the soft neoprene socks to understand the necessity of such socks with a reinforced sole. SUIT The suit, whose main purpose is to prevent our body from getting cold, due to thermal heat dispersion (cooling by conduction), is perhaps one of the pieces of equipment which has enjoyed a greater progress in recent years. Having started off based on the concept of avoiding contact with water, (in fact the first suits were air-/water tight) it has improved in time, thanks to the invention of neoprene which, guaranteeing direct heat, is developing and branching out comprising even more models. One-piece, two-piece, wet suit, padded with heat conserving water-tight materials, the suit comes in such a variety that beginners become confused! Obviously, having a 3 mm suit for warm seas, a 5 mm one-piece for average temperature seas and a nice 7 mm wet suit or better still a dry suit for the winter would be the ideal solution, also for retailers! Not being able to have all of these, you must consider the use you are going to make of the suit and in particular what kind of diving you are most likely going to do. For those who waive aside the idea of winter diving or diving in cold waters like lakes for example, they could choose a 5 mm, one or
11

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

two-piece, leaving the 7 mm fleeced wet suit to those who prefer winter diving. It is better not to be tempted by the heat offered by these types of suits if they subsequently will not be used in the conditions for which they have been specifically designed. Concerning the awkwardness, the increase in positive buoyancy, stress deriving from excessive heat in the summer, will offset the pros with the cons. It is better to be sure and choose the suit based on the use for which it was designed. The same goes for the 3 mm suit. Sometimes on the basis of experience gained while skin diving, in which a 3 mm is more appropriate, beginners tend to buy a 3 mm suit. On the first dive, when they begin to feel cold after about a quarter of an hour, they then realise that the advice given against using a 3 mm in our seas was correct after all. If all the dives occur in warm seas (not the Mediterranean, which is tempered and not warm) then a 3 mm is sufficient, but if the dives in warm seas is secondary compared to the Mediterranean, then a 5 mm is the preferred choice, given that even in the Red Sea which is a popular destination for Italian and other European scuba divers, in the colder months this type of suit is necessary. At this point the question arises: what about the wet suits which enjoy such popularity and do not permit water penetration but conserve heat? The answer is simple: they are excellent suits, but it is not true that they don not let water in, if anything they limit water penetration but not completely, otherwise they would be dry suits. Indeed they conserve more heat, particularly the 7mm suits, since the 5mm if not made of a particular type of neoprene (titanium, fleeced etc) does not conserve much more heat than an ordinary suit. However, the 7mm has the drawback of being more complicated to use, because it is more difficult to put on and requires heavier weights than the 5mm.
12

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

In conclusion then, it is better to choose the wet suit if using it the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, and if it is used many times as permitted by the temperature, that is in winter or when diving in lakes. Evaluate well if the addition of extra weights causes you problems, since some people need more than 10 kilos to obtain negative balance. Heavy weights cause stress and too much weight on the back so this aspect should be taken into account. Lets talk about the dry suits, which thanks to the drop in price and the distinct improvement in the material used are more readily available to the recreational diver, that is the person who dives as a hobby and not only available to the professional diver who dives in cold or polluted waters. Now the price of this type of suit is only a little higher than that of a good wet suit, but in effect the advantages of the dry suits are numerous and not to be underestimated by those who often dive in winter or in cold waters. There are numerous points in favour of a dry suit: you do not get wet (apart from your head); the special underwear suit (especially if good quality, like thinsulate) stops any possible small leakages and perspiration from wetting the diver and keeps the heat both before and after the dive; in the case of harsh temperatures you can walk about in the underwear suit rather than having to change clothes (maybe when it is windy) putting on tracksuits, sweatshirts or sweaters. The negative aspect of the dry suit is the greater complexity of control when diving, because apart from the BCD, it is necessary to fill and empty the suit with air, in order that it does not squeeze against you on descent and does not expand too quickly on ascent. Moreover, the greater stiffness of the material and the limited elasticity compared to a neoprene suit make movements more difficult. It requires a more specialised training, given by the IDEA Dry Suit Course in addition to a certain period of practise in order to perfect its use.
13

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

Once again, it is necessary to see if the advantages of the dry suit outweigh the disadvantages and if it is used often enough for the type of dives for which it was designed. Buying a suit and attending a specialised course only to carry out two or three dives a year in winter or in lakes, is perhaps not the wisest way to spend money. To conclude, only if you have no financial restrictions and you want to have a different suit for every occasion (summer, winter, warm seas, lakes) buying everything available, it is necessary to evaluate what kind of dives you are most likely to do and then decide how to spend your money wisely. It must be remembered that together with the suit it is necessary to buy socks, which we have already mentioned when discussing the use of fins, gloves, because it is from the extremities that great heat loss occurs and therefore they should be adequately protected. TANKS The air tank is essential when diving, since without the air it contains our permanence under water would be limited to our lung capacity. Instead, with the air tank, which is filled with air by means of a compressor, generally at a pressure of around 220 bar, our stay under water is lengthened because we have an air reserve with us. The air tank is a container for compressed air which is then inhaled by means of a regulator; remembering what we have already studied in the basic course, the amount of air it contains can be determined by multiplying tank capacity (in litres) by the loading pressure (in bars). If we want we can also calculate the dive time available in an air tank at a given depth, even if purely theoretical, by multiplying the average consumption of air of a man who is carrying out moderate physical activity, that is 20 litres of air a minute, by the pressure present at the desired depth, then dividing the amount of air contained in the tank by the consumption at that depth. This formula should be applied to the letter because the consumption of 20 litres a minute increases to 120/170 litres a minute in conditions of notable physical effort or lack of breath, these being situations in which we can easily come upon if calculations are wrong.
14

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

Getting back to the air tank, whose aim is to contain air at high pressure, this makes its construction more difficult. For example, it must be remembered that at the standard pressure load of 220 bar, the tank walls must bear a pressure of 220 kg on each square centimetre; it is not a pressure to be underestimated, so much so that when a tank explodes whoever is near usually loses his life. The construction materials are steel or aluminium. The advantages and disadvantages of both types are well known: steel tanks are smaller, have better buoyancy in water, but rust easily if not maintained well; aluminium tanks are larger, do not have such good buoyancy in water, but are free from corrosion of any kind so much so that in some countries their use is obligatory for professional use. In practice, even if slightly larger and with more positive buoyancy, aluminium tanks are the best solution; however the necessity to have them checked with the same regularity as the steel tanks, excessive size and weight which limit maximum capacity to 12 litres if worn without causing problems, makes their use more infrequent in our country. In fact, the most widespread tank used in Italy is the 15 litre, which if it were in aluminium would be too big and heavy for the diver who wants to have fun and not lift weights. The tank has a valve system, which apart from opening and closing the air flow, is also for attaching the regulator making this easier due to the two most common types: INT in Italy and in many other nations, DIN in Germany and in other north European countries. This valve system can be a one-attachment, that is which allows the attachment of only one regulator, or it can be a two-valve attachment, allowing for the attachment of two completely autonomous regulators. Lets look into this more in detail talking about the alternative air source.
15

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

When talking about tank maintenance we must say that this is of extreme importance since the pressure which the cylinder walls must bear makes maintenance essential in order not to have problems. Concerning the outside of the cylinder, each little pitting of the protective surface must immediately be sanded and then revarnished to avoid rusting or any type of corrosion; regarding the inside it is absolutely necessary to have the cylinder visually inspected yearly to check for corrosion. Even if this may be carried out by the scuba diver certified in Equipment Specialist, it is more opportune to entrust this test to a specialised facility. In fact the presence of rust inside the cylinder requires sanding since corrosion could lead to a decrease in the thickness of the cylinder walls with consequent decrease in the capacity of the cylinder walls to withstand the necessary pressure. Sanding is carried out with extreme care, especially at the top where there is the valve system and it is a tricky part to clean. The action of 220kg of pressure against the cylinder walls should really make us reflect and lead us to the conclusion that the utmost care should be taken when dealing with this particular piece of equipment. Great attention should be paid to purchase rather than choice of the cylinder. Nowadays, almost all diving centres include a full tank and weight belts in the cost of a dive, therefore the purchase of a cylinder is only useful if dives are carried out independent of diving centres. Should you decide to buy one, for our dives the choice of a 15 litre cylinder is practically obligatory, with a two valve attachment if you have two autonomous regulators. REGULATOR If the tank carries air under water to enable breathing then the regulator is the piece of equipment which enables us to breathe that air. It has a dual function: it lowers the pressure of the air in the tank making it breathable and it limits the release of this air to the inhaling phase, avoiding unnecessary air loss which would only compromise the duration of the dive. It is made up of two elements: the first stage which may be a flow through piston or a diaphragm and this is the part which is attached to the tank valves; the second stage, which is placed in the mouth in order to breathe. The first stage, apart from being neces16

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

sary to attach the regulator to the tank, carries out the reduction in air pressure in the tank, decreasing it to an intermediate pressure, variable depending on the design specifics of the tank, usually ranging from 7 to 10 bar. If it is a balanced regulator, this intermediate pressure will not be effected by the decrease in filling pressure, therefore it will remain unchanged and air supply released from the first stage will remain constant; instead if it is an unbalanced regulator the intermediate pressure will decrease as the loading pressure decreases therefore the air flow released from the first stage will be slightly decreased. In modern regulators this decrease in flow is so limited that it is only perceptible when the tank is almost empty and at depths of 30m. In fact, the materials of which the first stages are made and the strict EEC norms to which the regulators must adhere in order to be sold, really do demand perfection. For this reason the difference between the two types of construction, that is piston or diaphragm, the diaphragm type being associated with a balanced regulator and the piston with an unbalanced one, has been overcome by modern technology which has achieved perfection in both systems so that the finals results are practically the same. Analysing the regulator again, we come to the second stage, which provides air at environment pressure, that is, its release pressure varies according to the depth the diver is at, allowing him to breathe easily. Air supply is released on demand, that is only when the diver inhales, since inside the second stage there is a membrane which during this phase flexes back, lowering a lever which opens the release valve. As soon as inhaling stops, the lever is pushed back to its initial position by a spring thus returning the membrane to its initial position too. From this second stage, by means of one-way valve openings called moustaches in scuba jargon, the air inhaled is expelled thus completing the breathing cycle.
17

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

As may be unPURGE BUTTON derstood from WATER AT LEVER AMBIENT PRESSURE above, all the SPRING regulating of the DOWN STREAM DIAPHRAGH regulator takes VALVE place in the first INTERMEDIARE PRESSURE AIR AT AMBIENT stage, which is FROM FIRST PRESSURE STAGE the one that carries out the first reduction in pressure, and in this way deterMOUTH PIECE mining the capacity of the regulator. In some models, there is also a command in the second stage which regulates air flow release but a point should be made about this. This function does not regulate pressure but rather the push of the spring which acts on the release valves varies, making it lighter or stiffer. In practice at the second stage the air flow is not regulated but rather the inhaling force. Another element which as nothing to do with regulating pressure, is the nut which is located in the inner space of the second stage near the entrance point of the whip. This only varies the raising of the lever which lowers during the inhaling phase due to the action of the membrane, opening the release valve; this lever should normal only slightly touch the membrane in order not to have continuous air release. Having gone over the basic concepts of the regulator, it is necessary to remember some essential points in order to make the correct choice. Currently, one of the most important is that it must conform to EC norms; this may be seen by the markings E and C on the tank. Since there is the sale of regulators which are not EC approved, we should remember that this is the piece of equipment which lets us breathe, therefore live, and as such it is not advisable trying to save money on this piece. Another determining factor in the purchase of a regulator is the availability of spare parts and the number of technical assistance centres, since the regulator is a delicate instrument and needs maintenance at least once a year, that is at the end of the season.
18

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

So finding oneself without a spare part or some specialised centre to fix it means that you have not spent your money well. To conclude, all the features mentioned are generally present in the more famous makes of regulators which should be preferred to the special price unknown makes, even worse if it is a foreign make. ALTERNATIVE AIR SOURCE Since the scuba diver is trained and conscientious he must never dive without an alternative air source, not only necessary to make up for blocks in his regulator which is a rather remote possibility, but rather to assist a buddy in case of difficulty. The simplest solution is to have two second stages attached to a first stage, and this is called an octopus. It is the most economic and often, especially in diving centres abroad, it is obligatory since these centres usually use only on e - a ttachm ent tanks which do not allow for the use of two autonomous regulators. In any case, even if theoretically the use of two complete regulators is the best solution, since it would permit assistance to another person without air and to make up for some malfunction of the regulator, it really should be considered excessive since it is practically impossible for a modern day regulator to malfunction. The solution of an octopus is therefore the best, it lessens the weight to be carried eliminating one of the two stages, notably the heaviest piece of the regulator , and also permits saving on the purchase. It is important to join two compatible stages with intermediate pressure from the first stage, this is really simple since the same manufacturers produce an extra second stage which is yellow and has a longer hose to be used when assembling the octopus.
19

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

Apart from this solution there are also second stages which are part of the command part of the BCD; however they are usually very small to avoid being bulky, consequently they have a second stage diaphragm limited in size, and breathing is not so effortless since they are rather stiff. Another alternative solution are the small tanks which have the regulator incorporated, which although valid on the USA market given the limited depths of the dives by local divers, they are not very useful in our area since the extra air they contain is limited. In conclusion, the choice of the octopus is currently the only advisable one, both from the point of view of comfort and expense. BCD This is an essential piece of equipment since it gives perfect buoyancy in water, avoiding a continuous effort by the diver to remain under water and avoids tiring fin movements in order not to sink. This piece of equipment based on the simple concept of varying buoyancy using a closed pocket into which air is breathed or it can be emptied by pulling the release tube upwards, is enjoying a period of fast development it is more comfortable, easier to use and even more suited to its function. Initially the BCD used was a horse collar style which was inflated by mouth then improved by the use of an inflating system using a little tank and then the attachment to the first stage of the regulator. The next development was the transformation to a more comfortable jacket style, indeed called jacket which also has the function of holding the tank, making up together with the regulator and the pressure gauge what is known as ARA (Auto Respiratore Aria) or in English SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus).
20

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

For a given time the BCD remained unchanged in its jacket form, improving the load and release of the air while only improving marginally on other aspects such as shape, material, straps, until new ones arrived from the USA. These were initially defined as very technical but they were soon available to everyone. In these types the air chamber had been modified taking the shape of a horseshoe and moved to the back of the diver to reduce frontal impact on the water. At the same time the weights had been inserted, all of them or some, in special weight pockets with a quick release device in order to drop weights in case of emergency. Therefore there was a decisive change that improved the BCD and partially solved the problem of the position of the weights which was one of the annoying aspects for the diver. It must however be said that the idea of moving the air pocket to the rear of the jacket had previously been thought of by some Italian manufacturers, but did not receive the merit it deserved, probably only because keeping the size limited the positive push was limited too. Perhaps the best intuition of the designers was to go back to the old system of the double pocket , but creating the pocket containing the air chamber on the outside, with elastic material (or applying suitable elastics) to reduce the size of the air chamber when deflated, while at the same time the elastics stretch when it is inflated allowing for great quantities of air to be introduced and therefore have a positive push. Even more interesting is the integrated weight system, which apart from facilitating weight distribution which no longer presses against the hips or below the tank, it really is a godsend for the older divers who have some back problems. However, it should be taken into account that it is not necessary to have all the weights in the pockets of the BCD; our situation is different from the American one since they go diving in warm water with limited weights. Rather
21

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

than putting 10 kilos in your pockets and then risking not being able to put on your SCUBA jacket or that it sinks under water it is better to divide the weights between the BCD and the traditional weight-belt so as to take advantage of the integrated weights without going into exceeding weight and then cancelling the advantages this system can offer. Well then, a technical BCD for everyone? If by technical BCD we mean an improved version of the traditional one, without excessive accessories (clips, springs, elastics etc.) which crowd the technical BCD, then okay; however we must also weigh up the generally high cost and some little problem of floating on the surface given that if the weights are not well distributed then you tend to lean forward. Highly technical BCDs are not advisable, full of accessories which are useless on standard dives since they are designed for specific types of dives such as speleology or dives using gas mixtures. Having said this the traditional BCD is not finished, on the contrary. These models have also drawn advantages from the more technical ones, such as the integrated weight system, keeping for the most part their jacket shape, even if a little bulky allows for easier positions on the surface for example in a moment of fatigue you can let yourself float to recuperate some energy without problems. Also for the BCD you must look for the EEC marking and consider the availability of spare parts. You should plan a yearly test at the specialised assistance centres since there are many valves and the salt water can cause problems. INSTRUMENTS Instruments are essential to a correct dive, measuring some parameters which are absolutely necessary to be able to carry out our activity. The first instrument is the pressure gauge which measures the air available in the tanks; without it we would not know how much is left, and we would not be able to plan the dive and therefore risk meeting up with difficulties. The second instrument not to be forgotten is the depth gauge, which indicates the time elapsed during the dive, since as learned in the first course it is essential to know how much time has passed during the dive in order to remain within the safety curves.
22

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

Concerning the choice of these instruments, if digital models are available and are to be preferred to the analogic models due to their better precision and performance (for example, the digital depth gauges mark excessive velocity on ascent); there is also the possibility, given the notable drop in price, to substitute it with a modern computer which also has the function of controlling air within the tank. Given that the purchase of the three separate instruments, if chosen (as they should be) from among the bettermakes has an inclusive cost equal to, if not higher than, the computer, it must be added that the performance of a computer is much better. In fact the computer carries out the functions of the various instruments, it indicates depth and dive time, and air pressure within the tank if it also has the pressure gauge. However it is decidedly superior to the traditional instruments, since it can calculate the residual time in the safety curve based on the various depths reached and permanence there; that is, it calculates multi-level dives which tend to be the majority of dives. In fact, rarely do you reach the bottom and remain all that time at maximum depth, but using the tables even a minute over, for example, at 30m obliges us to consider the dive as having been carried out at that depth. If the pressure gauge is also included in the final calculations, the computer can calculate the air used, eventual effort or situations of breat h les s nes s, immediately reelaborating the maximum dive time on the basis of this data. In conclusion the performance offered by this pre23

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

cious instrument greatly facilitate the diver making the dive safer, therefore it is best to buy it, avoiding old models or those fed on old batteries for which replacements are almost impossible to find, or even poor technical assistance once the purchase has been made. ACCESSORIES There are many accessories for the diver and they are often used in particular situations. Leaving out the more specific which are useless in most dives, we must mention the knife or other cutting instruments used to free ourselves from ropes or nets (so make sure they are sharp!); the writing slate to communicate with your buddy; a whistle to attract attention on the surface; the buoy or flag to indicate the divers presence; the torch and chemical lights use particularly on night dives. All these should, together with the standard equipment, fit into a large, resistant bag in which it would be wise to put an emergency kit containing some tools (screwdriver, scissors multi-purpose instruments are advisable. etc) extra o-rings, straps for masks and fns, glue and finally some grease or vaseline. Sometimes a little thing like a missing o-ring or a broken fin strap can prevent a dive taking place; but the organised diver will never be caught unprepared and risk ruining his day. If you want to improve your knowledge of equipment, not only learning how it functions but also how to do some maintenance and carry out simple repairs, participate in the Equipment Specialist course which is really interesting and useful.

24

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

25

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

26

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

PHYSICS There are many laws of physics which affect mans activity in water and their effects are different from those experienced out of water. It is necessary to remember these principles, even furthering our knowledge of them, because knowledge forms the basis of a proper execution of our activity. BUOYANCY The principle of Archimedes is very important since it determines the three situations which are the basis of immersion of the human body in water, which in scuba jargon is identified as neutral buoyancy. The first is a situation of floating, or better, positive neutral buoyancy, which occurs when the weight of water moved is greater than the weight of the immerged body. This occurs when the result of the equation water weight minus immerged body weight is positive, therefore the upward thrust prevails and the object floats. The second situation occurs when the result of the above mentioned equation is zero, or rather, the weight of water moved equals the immerged body weight, therefore none of the forces prevail and the immerged body remains mid-water as if weightless. The third situation, defined as negative neutral buoyancy, occurs when the result of the equation is negative, that is, when immerged body weight is greater than the weight of water moved, therefore the upward thrust cannot sustain the immerged body, which will then sink.
27

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

These three situations, put into practice when diving, indicate that the diver should be slightly negative at the beginning of the dive in order to sink, afterwards he should assume neutral buoyancy in order to circulate weightless under water, finally he should be slightly positive to ascend effortlessly. All this cannot be achieved without a mechanical device which, increasing or decreasing the volume of liquid moved, places us in the various buoyancy situations at the right time. This device is the BCD, which attached to our body, allows us, by inflating or deflating, to vary the volume of the liquid moved; since air has a very low specific weight, our weight will remain practically unchanged and so we can manage the neutral buoyancy as we require. An important point to consider is the variation in air volume on ascent and descent, since due to the increase or decrease of water pressure on the BCD (and consequently on the air contained therein) there will be a decrease or an expansion of the volume of this air with the relevant variations in buoyancy. Both situations can be easily managed by adding more air when descending and releasing excess air when ascending, to always have the situation under control. VISION, HEARING, HEAT LOSS. Our senses, essential to perceive our environment, are notably affected by the different existing situations when in air, our normal life conditions, and when we are in water, in a situation different from the one we are used to. Lets begin with vision, remembering that when speaking about the mask in water, it has been said that its function is to allow us perfect vision in water, since our eye on direct contact with water, and due to the different refraction coefficient compared to air cannot focus perfectly. The difference of the refraction value is determined by the greater molecular consistence of water compared to air; in fact, air has a lesser mass than water, therefore there is much more distance between the molecules compared to those in water. The consequence of the light rays, when penetrating the water, are deviated (refracted) since they have to pass through water which is much denser than air. In a normal situation, the human eye has contact with air; since inside the eye there is a perfectly
28

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

transparent liquid (aqueous humour), the light rays when passing from air to the eye encounter this liquid which slightly deviates them. Thereafter, they meet up with the lense, which functioning as a converging variable lense, focuses them exactly onto the retina. In the case of the eye in contact with water, we have one liquid (water) practically in contact with another (aqueous humour). In this situation the first refraction, passing from air to aqueous humour, no longer occurs, and consequently the light ray carries straight on and the lense although trying its utmost to converge the light rays on to the retina, does not succeed and so we have blurred vision. Wearing a mask we create the normal situation in which our eye functions in contact with air therefore we focus perfectly. However all these phases of refraction among liquids, glass, air, eye produce a magnifying effect, this being why our vision is enlarged and closer when using the mask. To be precise we see things about 25% (1/4) closer and approximately 33% (1/3) larger. Another problem connected to vision in diving is the different levels of penetration in water of colours which make up the light spectrum; again this is due to the greater consistence of molecules of water compared to air. Starting from the basic concept, that tells us that light is composed of primary colours, which when mixed give white light ( think of the rainbow). These primary colours are light radiation and have different wave lengths; warm colours (red, orange, yellow) have a wave length which does not permit a high level of water penetration, so they cannot reach beyond a certain depth. For example, red radiation hardly reaches 6/8m, orange a little deeper, yellow reaches more than 20m and so on,
29

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

until reaching 40m where everything assumes a single colour which is a shade between blue and greenish. The concept may seem complicated, but if we compare colour to sound, which is also a wave, and we think of listening to music at a distance we can only make out the base sounds, while as we approach the sound source we can hear the complete sound, this should make it easier to understand. Returning to our discussion on vision, the resulting lack of a chro0 matic component when perceived by the human - 10 eye produces the sight of a certain colour, and that the object or the - 20 body of that colour seems dark or black. - 30 This may also seem a strange concept, but if - 40 we think that the same thing happens at dusk, - 50 even more so when darkness descends, when for example a red object appears dark brown, if not black, and only by turning on a light its true colour returns; it can be understood what happens during diving and why you need to carry a torch to see the splendid colours of the underwater world. Another factor which decreases visibility when diving is reflection; in fact the water surface, acting as a large mirror, reflects a part of the sun rays upwards, particularly so in early morning and late afternoon, that is when the sun is low in the sky and the rays shine obliquely. Clearly, the more rays reflected the lesser the visibility, because equally the light rays able to penetrate the water are less. This is the reason why it is said that the best hours of light are those during the central part of the day. Still to be considered is the problem connected with scarce visibility due to turbid water, which further limits vision because of the particles suspended in the water causing an effect similar to fog
30

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

and this cannot be solved using a torch. This situation of scarce visibility is certainly not the best way to enjoy to a dive to the full and observe the underwater world so similar conditions should be avoided, this is not the case on night dives on which the use of the torch or lights solves the problem allowing the diving activity even in this particular condition. Now lets examine hearing, the sense which permits us to communicate, listen to sounds, noises of the surrounding world but it also permits us to identify the direction these sounds are coming from and their source. This ability derives from the fact that sound, though travelling quickly, does have a speed therefore when the sound wave reaches us it reaches one ear and a fraction of a second later the other one. It seems almost impossible and yet our brain perceives this very slight delay and thus understanding which ear has been reached first and consequently from which direction the sound came. Since water molecules are closer to each other than those of air, sound is transmitted much more quickly and reaches further. The consequence is that the time lapse from the moment the sound wave reaches one ear and then passes to the next , is much more limited compared to that in air, therefore our brain is forced to work in a situation different from the one to which it is accustomed; it no longer distinguishes which ear has been the first to perceive the sound and cannot identify the direction the sound is coming from. Moreover, since sound waves travel much further under water than in air, sounds coming from a notable distance can be perceived, for example the noise of a boat which is not yet visible. A problem which is created when diving is the impossibility to communicate as we normally would, that is speaking, because the vocal chords are designed to vibrate in air and not in water. Con31

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

sequently, you need to use a sign system, the white board or the international hand signals in order to make yourself understood. Finally, talking about heat loss, which has been mentioned in the part relative to exposure suits, it must be remembered that also the ability of our body to react to heat and cold is altered when diving. In fact, due to the different temperatures of air and water, when diving our body loses heat much more quickly through conduction; only by protecting ourselves with a suitable suit will we be able to limit heat loss and so increase the duration of our dive. PRESSURE INCREASE Since water is heavier than air, on descending we find ourselves in a condition of absolute pressure, that is we experience a pressure measured in bars (measures in atmosphere is by now abandoned, the more up-to-date is Pascal, but we continue to use bars since it is more convenient) which is notably greater than the one accustomed to. In fact, every 10 metres the pressure increases by 1 bar; this fact should be taken into account when trying to adapt oneself to the increase in pressure. The first effect is compression produced by the decrease of air volume, which being a gas may be compressed and the volume halved each time pressure doubles, as well prove by the Boyle and Mariotte law. Consequently we have compression of the ears and the mask, which may be solved using the compensating manoeuvre; compression of the sinus if they are closed due to a cold or inflammation would cause pain and would ruin the dive; compression of the
32

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

stomach and intestinal gases; the compression of air trapped in dental holes and badly treated will prevent the diver from descending beyond a certain depth; the compression of equipment (in particular the BCD and the suit) will cause notable variations in buoyancy when diving. The opposite process occurs on ascent, when the air introduced in the lungs or BCD decreases in pressure as it increases in volume, the reason for which you must never hold in breath when diving to avoid pulmonary overextension nor should you release air from the BCD to avoid a too rapid ascent. NITROGEN ABSORPTION As you will remember the air we breathe is composed of , approximating to excess and eliminating secondary gases, 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen. Nitrogen is an inert gas , that is, it does not enter the metabolic processes, therefore the amount inhaled is the same as the amount exhaled. When we are in a normal pressure condition we have a stable amount of nitrogen absorbed in our tissues and so we are in a balanced condition, defined as saturation. This state is produced by the effect of a law of physics, Henrys law, which says that a gas on contact with a liquid (and our body is mainly made up of liquid) and if under pressure, dissolves into the liquid when the saturation stage is reached. Decreasing the pressure will have the opposite effect, that is the gas in its liquid state will become gas again. Applying this law to the case of the diver, who experiences an increase in pressure on descent, we find that the nitrogen not used in breathing and undergoing an increase in pressure begins to dissolve into the body tissues trying to reach a new stage of saturation. The higher the pressure the longer the squeezing action will
33

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

last, the greater the quantity of nitrogen which dissolves. The opposite process will occur when pressure is decreased, that is forming bubbles and, the faster the decrease in pressure the larger they will be. If the correct speed on ascent is carried out (10/12 metres a minute) a part of the bubble will be immediately eliminated through normal respiration, while those in the slow tissues will be eliminated without problems during the hours following the dive. Normally 12 hours are necessary to totally eliminate nitrogen but some tissue still release nitrogen even 24 hours after diving. Should the correct ascending speed not be respected, or worse if you go beyond the safety curve limit omitting the stop stages for decompression, you run the risk of decompression diseases, since the nitrogen bubbles, which are too large, cannot be easily eliminated thus causing even serious consequences.

34

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

35

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

36

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

THE TABLES To calculate time/depth limits and therefore to avoid absorbing too much nitrogen, a factor which could take us beyond the safety curve, preventing direct ascent at the end of the dive, there are diving tables. They are divided into two types: diving tables which indicate time and depth limits and decompression tables which also indicate the obligatory stops should the diver go beyond the safety curve limit. ADVICE IDEA vehemently warns against going beyond the safety curve limits, and moreover we emphasise the importance of a using a good quality underwater computer, which, if used with care, surely offers greater possibility of permanence and greater safety compared to diving tables, depth gauges or watches. Nevertheless, the tables should be studied, both to learn the theory on which computers are based and to know how to manage a dive then a computer is not available.
12 5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130 IDEA AND US NAVY TABLES 15 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 18 There are two kinds of diving tables: 21 5 10 15 20 30 35 40 24 5 10 15 20 25 30 US Navy and IDEA Doppler. The 27 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 5 7 10 15 20 former are decompression tables, 33 5 10 13 15 36 5 10 that s, apart from showing the vari39 5 GR A B C D E F G H I J K GR ous curve limits at various levels K they indicate the stops at various J I stages and permanence times, in H G case you go over the safety curve F E limit. The latter also indicate safety D curve limits and not decompression C B stages and times, this is because A MT A B C D E F G H I J K GR the Doppler are conservative tables 12 7 17 25 37 49 61 73 87 101 116 138 15 6 13 21 29 38 47 56 66 76 87 99 normally used for recreational dives 18 5 11 17 24 30 36 44 52 61 70 79 21 4 9 15 20 26 31 37 43 50 57 64 and the recreational diver does not 24 4 8 13 18 23 28 32 38 43 48 54 27 3 7 11 16 20 24 29 33 38 43 47 have to carry out dives requiring de30 3 7 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 43 compression. 33 3 6 10 13 16 20 24 27 31 34 38 36 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 25 28 32 35 The IDEA Doppler tables also indi39 3 6 8 11 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 cate the groups of residual nitrogen ad the surface intervals necessary when having to plan several dives in a 12 hour period.
0:10 2:10 0:10 2:11 12:0 12:0 0:10 1:39 1:40 2:49 2:50 12:0 0:10 1:09 1:10 2:38 2:39 5:48 5:49 12:0 0:10 0:54 0:55 1:57 1:58 3:22 3:23 6:32 6:33 12:0 0:10 0:45 0:46 1:29 1:30 2:28 2:29 3:57 3:58 7:05 7:06 12:0 0:10 0:40 0:41 1:15 1:16 1:59 2:00 2:58 2:59 4:25 4:26 7:35 7:36 12.0 0:10 0:36 0:37 1:06 1:07 1:41 1:42 2:23 2:24 3:20 3:21 4:49 4:50 7:59 8:00 12:0 0:10 0:33 0:34 0:59 1:00 1:29 1:30 2:02 2:03 2:44 2:45 3:43 3:44 5:12 5:13 8:21 8:22 12:0 0:10 0:31 0:32 0:54 0:55 1:19 1:20 1:47 1:48 2:20 2:21 3:04 3:05 4:02 4:03 5:40 5:41 8:40 8:41 12:0 0:10 0:28 0:29 0:49 0:50 1:11 1:12 1:35 1:36 2:03 2:04 2:38 2:39 3:21 3:22 4:19 4:20 5:48 5:49 8:58 8:59 12:0

MT

DIVE TIME

RESIDUAL NITROGEN GROUP

37

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

USE OF THE IDEA DIVE TABLES A) General guidelines The tables should always be used conservatively. If the time or depth corresponding to the planned dive cannot be found, the time or depth slightly higher should be considered. In the case of repeated dives, the first dive should always be the deeper than the second. Repeated dives with a surface interval of less than 10 minutes is considered a single dive. Ascend at a speed of 10 to 12 metres per minute and always carry out the 3 minute safety stop at a depth of - 4.5 and -3 metres. B) Calculation of no decompression limit (NDL) Go to the beginning of the table (at the top); identify the maximum depth you intend to MT DIVE TIME reach, continue 12 5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130 along the line to15 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70 wards the right until 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 18 21 5 10 15 20 30 35 40 you find the last 24 5 10 15 20 25 30 number. This num27 5 10 12 15 20 25 ber is the maximum 30 5 7 10 15 20 n decompression 33 5 10 13 15 limit (NDL) shown in 36 5 10 39 5 minutes. In the illusK GR GR A B C D E F G H I J trated example, the 0:10 0:28 NDL value at 21 metres is 40 minutes. C) Identifying the Residual Nitrogen Group Go to the beginning of the table; fid the maximum depth reached, carry on along the line to the right until you find the time spent on the dive, then go down the table until you reach the letter relevant to the nitrogen group. Following the illustrated example, after a dive of 40 minutes at 21 metres the residual nitrogen group is H. D) Calculating time limit of a second dive. Having established the residual nitrogen group, go down the table until you find the surface interval time, or the time you intend to spend on the surface between the two dives. Then move along to the left until you reach the letter indicating residual nitrogen reached at the end of the surface interval. In the illustrated example the group has changed from H initially to C. Go to the bottom of half of the table. Find the letter relevant to the
38

ID EA
39 5

Advanced Open Water

residual nitrogen and conGR A B C D E F G H I J K GR 0:10 tinue downwards until you K 0:28 0:10 0:29 J intersect the line which cor0:31 0:49 0:10 0:32 0:50 I 0:33 0:54 1:11 responds to maximum 0:10 0:34 0:55 1:12 H 0:36 0:59 1:19 1:35 depth you intend to reach 0:10 0:37 1:00 1:20 1:36 G 0:40 1:06 1:29 1:47 2:03 0:10 0:41 1:07 1:30 1:48 2:04 on the second dive, for exF 0:45 1:15 1:41 2:02 2:20 2:38 0:10 0:46 1:16 1:42 2:03 2:21 2:39 E ample 18 metres. 0:54 1:29 1:59 2:23 2:44 3:04 3:21 0:10 0:55 1:30 2:00 2:24 2:45 3:05 3:22 D 1:09 1:57 2:28 2:58 3:20 3:43 4:02 4:19 In this intersected box, 0:10 1:10 1:58 2:29 2:59 3:21 3:44 4:03 4:20 C 1:39 2:38 3:22 3:57 4:25 4:49 5:12 5:40 5:48 there will be a number, the 0:10 1:40 2:39 3:23 3:58 4:26 4:50 5:13 5:41 5:49 B 2:10 2:49 5:48 6:32 7:05 7:35 7:59 8:21 8:40 8:58 number is residual nitrogen 2:11 2:50 5:49 6:33 7:06 7:36 8:00 8:22 8:41 8:59 A 0:10 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12.0 12:0 12:0 12:0 12:0 time (RNT, in the illustrated MT A B C D E F G H I J K GR 12 7 17 25 37 49 61 73 87 101 116 138 example the equivalent of 15 6 13 21 29 38 47 56 66 76 87 99 17 minutes) which shall be 18 5 11 17 24 30 36 44 52 61 70 79 21 4 9 15 20 26 31 37 43 50 57 64 subtracted from the curve 24 4 8 13 18 23 28 32 38 43 48 54 limit time for this depth 27 3 7 11 16 20 24 29 33 38 43 47 (NDL at 18 metres equal to 30 3 7 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 43 33 3 6 10 13 16 20 24 27 31 34 38 50 minutes) indicated in 36 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 25 28 32 35 the top part of the table, so 39 3 6 8 11 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 as to get the time limit suited to no decompression. This example is therefore the result of the subtraction NDL-RNT which in the illustrated example corresponds to 50 (NDL) 17 (RNT), that is 33 minutes. E) Calculating multiple dives. If more than two dives are to be planned over a 12 hour period t is not possible only to calculate NDL RNT, so it is necessary to sum the effective time spent on the repeated dive (ABT=Actual Bottom Time), the Residual Nitrogen Time (RNT), so as to have a total dive time (TBT=Total Bottom Time) which takes into account the residual nitrogen of the previous dives as yet not completely eliminated. Therefore, the TBT will be the value based on which we must identify the residual nitrogen group, and not the ABT. Going back t the illustrated example, if the second dive, as programmed above, were indeed carried out with a total permanence time of 30 minutes at 18 metres, it would be necessary to sum to this time the 17 minutes of RNT, thus obtaining 47 minutes, which will be the figure we will have to consider to identify the residual nitrogen group at the end of the repeated dive. In practice, it is as if the duration of our dive had been 47 minutes, starting calculations from 17 minutes and not from zero. As said I
39

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

the previous chapter, if at least 12 hours have not passed between the two dives the nitrogen absorbed in our tissue will not be completely eliminated, therefore it will be necessary to keep this in mind, calculating the minutes this nitrogen corresponds to as a penalty time. In order not to miscalculate, it is best to use a simple scheme representing the various dives, such as the illustrated example give below, which graphically indicates the situation in which a diver carries out his first dive at 15 metres for 60 minutes, the second 3 hours later at 12 metres for 30 minutes and finally a third dive 3 hours later at 10 metres for 20 minutes, with all the relevant calculations.
NDL adapted 130-37=93 G - 3 hours - C H - 3 hours - D Time and Surface Surface First Dive depth interval. interval. second dive Nitrogen Nitrogen 15 m. - 60 min. 12 m. - 30 min. groups groups NDL = 70 min. ABT (30 min.)+ RNT (37 min.)= TBT (67 min.) NDL adapted 160-25=135 Time and depth third dive 10 m. - 20 min. ABT (20 min.)+ RNT (25 min.)= TBT (45 min.)

If, when making these calculation the exact depth is not found IDEA always advises considering the depth immediately above. This system, also advised by other teaching organisations, has created a longstanding diatribe with other schools which think otherwise. Infact there are those who maintain that in the case of multiple dives the depth immediately below should be considered since it has a greater RNT. Who is wrong? Probably neither school of thought, since it is true that considering he depth just below there is a greater RNT, but it is also true that calculating the depth just above there is a lesser NDL and so in both cases you have a safe calculation. Here is a simple example to understand better. If we are in group C and we want to do a second dive at 16 metres, there is no 16 metres indicated in the table, then we have to calculate the depth immediately after, (18 metres) we will have a RNT of 17 minutes; at 18 metres the curve limit (NDL) is 50 minutes, therefore the NDL adapted is 33 minutes. If, instead, we calculate the depth just above (15 metres) we will have a RNT of 21 minutes but a NDL of
40

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

70 minutes, consequently the time limit (NDL adapted) will be 49 minutes which is a greater result compared to that obtained using the other system of calculation. I these cases there is also the possibility of calculating the depth just above to identify the NDL and the depth just below to identify the RNT, obtaining, in the case in question, a NDL of 18 metres equal to 50 minutes, a NT of group C at 15 metres equal to 21 minutes, therefore a time limit of 29 minutes for the second dive. However at this point we risk total confusion, because if someone is not mentally trained he may have difficulty in remembering when to calculate the level just above and when to calculate the one just below. Considering that the IDEA tables are very conservative, we prefer to leave the standard system, that is always calculate the depth or time just above when the exact time or depth is not indicated in the tables. Not reaching dive limits will be an added safety factor which will avoid the questions relative to one theory or the other. US NAVY TABLES The use of the US Navy Tables is similar that of IDEA , the only difference being the graphics since these tables also indicate the various obligatory stops to be carried out should the safety curve limit be exceeded (remember: the US Navy table is a decompression table) and so t is arranged differently. In fact the times are shown in different sections and to the right of each time there are various squares; if the first square to the right is empty or shows zero, the time is within the safety curve, while if a number is indicated then we are over the curve since that time shown corresponds to the first decompression obligatory stop to be carried out on ascent. Also using the S Navy table the opposite calculation is possible, that is checking to see if dive time at a give depth is in or over the curve limit by identifying I the specific section if the square immediately to the right for that time shows zero or an obligatory decompression stop. Now remembering that the US Navy table should not be used for recreational diving and that the dives requiring decompression stages should be avoided, lets see how we calculate these decompression stops. Taking as an example a dive of 15 metres,
41

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

where the curve limit is 100 minutes, the step 30 D 40 E after (120 minutes) we 50 F find that the square to 70 G 80 H the right indicates the 12 100 I number 5; going up110 J 130 K wards we find the num150 L 170 M ber 3; this means that 200 N having reached 120 210 2 N minutes of diving time at 15 metres, before surfacing you must stop for 5 minutes at 3 metres. At depths greater than 18 metres the squares with the stops shown are two, since permanence under water over certain limits requires two decompression stops, one at 3 metres and the other at 6 metres. Over 39 metres, I D EA I D EA depth not indicated in International Diving Educators Association I D EA Eur ope the IDEA tables, there are three obligatory stops, apart from the ones at 3 and 6 there is one at 9 metres. Another example: 110 minutes of diving reaching 21 metres; two stops, the first at 6 for two minutes and the second at 3 for 41 minutes! Certainly 110 minutes of diving is difficult to achieve with only one 15 litre tank, therefore it is not easy to go over the curve at limited depth, but increasing depth the times shorten notably, so much so that reaching 33 metres in a 40 minute dive (normal time for a trained diver) two more stops would be necessary: the first for 2 minutes a 6 and the second for 21 minutes at 3 metres, for a total time of 63 minutes, which is difficult to achieve after having gone around at a depth of more than 4 bars, when at each breath a quantity of air four times normal is consumed. As
42

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

you have noticed it is easy to get confused, since with a 15 litre tank you can carry out a 40 minute dive reaching 33 metres but the same tank will not contain enough to allow you the 23 minute for decompression stops. OTHER TYPES OF TABLES Obviously other tables exist apart from those of the US Navy and IDEA. Many experts have dedicated their time to studying the problems connected to the bodys exposure to hyper-baric pressures, often coming up with different solutions but all aimed at avoiding diving accidents. The first studies were carried out at the beginning of the century by Haldane who witnessed the problems suffered by those who worked in pressurized environments these generally being great containers used at that time to carry out underwater digging and bridge and tunnel construction. These workers breathed air under pressure (thereby finding themselves in the same situation as a diver) and they were often affected by decompression disease (MDD) when they resurfaced rapidly. From their particular way of walking, that is bent over by pain, the term bends was coined and it is still used to this day. Haldane started to elaborate an initial decompression table which proposed ascending stops every 3 metres. The algorithm (the formula used) for the calculation was certainly excellent but at that time there were no other studies available and since the system assured a drop in the number of accidents, the table was adopted by the British and American Navy. Only several years later the US navy, based on new (for that time) studies based on those of Haldane but integrated with practical data from observing the effects of the various types pf dives carried out by military divers, the US Navy tables in use today were drawn up. The limit of these tables however apart from the backwardness of some concepts on which the algorithm calculations are based, lies in the fact that they are based on dives by male military divers, perfectly trained and physically fit, this sis not the case of the typical recreational diver who wants t explore the underwater world for his own enjoyment.
43

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

In fact, based on other studies, aimed at recreational diving, it was discovered that many decompression illnesses came about for inexplicable reasons since they occurred even when respecting the US Navy tables. The obvious conclusion was that these tables did not guarantee safety margins for the recreational diver. As a result, the BSAC tables were created followed by those of Rogers and Powell, then Buhlmann, the Canadian DCIEM tables, then the Doppler tables used by IDEA which consider the studies carried out using the equipment of the same name, hence the term Doppler. This instrument allowed the observation of the gas micro-bubbles which are not normally perceivable but which could cause problems for some divers unless the curve limits of this tables are not followed and there is a rapid ascent of 10 12 metres per minute. In conclusion, the only certain thing is that the studies are based on mathematical models, which even if at the basis of modern equipment such as the underwater computer, always refer to standard situations often not really pertinent to the real situations of divers or to particular conditions such as tiredness, lack of breath. Anyway, you can never be careful enough, therefore the only solution is to keep well within the safety curve and resurface if something is not going to plan.

44

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

45

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

46

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

DIVING LIMITS As you will remember from the Open Water Diver Course, to go over the safety curve limits, or to dive to great depths, can cause accidents. Lets go over these points again because only by fully understanding certain problems can they be avoided. POSSIBLE ACCIDENTS The sneakiest of diving dangers is nitrogen narcosis, which over the 30m limit, begins to come to the fore, the onset is sudden with the most varied symptoms, in general similar to those associated with drunkenness: irrational behaviour, such as removing the mask or trying to give the regulator to passing fish, laughter or nervousness for no apparent reason, difficulty with co-ordination or in carrying out simple tasks, inability to distinguish directions. I these situations the problem may be easily solved by bringing your buddy up immediately or taking him to a lesser depth. It is difficult to set a precise time to the probable onset of nitrogen narcosis, or indeed recognise in time the tell-tale signs which are common to all. Statistics show that some divers already experience problems at 30 metres, others at 40 metres; over 40 metres almost everyone has a slowing down of normal activity, which could be a setback should an emergency situation arise. Be careful not to disregard nitrogen narcosis, because eve if you do not feel it at a certain depth it is already working on you. Comparing the symptoms to those of drunkenness caused by alcohol is quite true, at some point you must have witnessed a person staggering or incoherent after having had a couple of drinks! Surely if you ask him if he is drunk r even tipsy, he will undoubtedly say no, the fact is that he does not realise.
47

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

Another problem connected with deep dives is embolism or otherwise known as decompression d i s e as e (MDD). In the Open Water Course you will most certainly have studied embolism, but mainly in its gaseous arterial gaseous embolism mediastinal emphysema or traumatic form, a phenomenon due to holding your breath on ascent and thereby causing lacerations to the pulmonary alveolae, given the expansion of air volume contained in the lungs. In this case bubbles subcutaneous emphysema pneumo-thoracic form (embolisms) which may cause arterial embolism if they enter the bloodstream; mediastinal emphysema if they locate within the heart cavity; subcutaneous emphysema if they gather under the skin; pneumothoracic if they concentrate in the pleura thus leading to collapsing of the lung. In all these cases the embolisms are due to air which has escaped, as said before, from the pulmonary alveolae. I the case of decompression disease the embolism (or rather the embolisms since there will surely be more than one) are due to the sudden emission of nitrogen absorbed by the tissues caused by ascending far too quickly or not carrying out the decompression stops which are necessary if you have gone outwith the safety curve limits. As you no doubt remember, the deeper you go, the longer the dive, the more nitrogen absorbs into the tissues according to Henrys law; the same principle applies when ascending, due to the fall in pressure, the nitrogen changes from liquid to gaseous form and if the correct speed is not carried out, or if the obligatory decompression stages are omitted, the bubbles grow to such a size that our organism cannot expel them and so they
48

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

damage the area in which they locate. For example, if the bubble if located in the spine where many muscle receptors originate or pass through, paralysis or renal failure may occur. Symptoms of MDD may occur after leaving the water or indeed many hours after a dive, depending on the type of tissue (slow or fast) in which the bubbles located, this is not the case for gaseous embolism. Summarizing, both gaseous embolism and MDD are considered embolic in nature, that is caused by the formation of a bubble within our organism,; in the first case the bubble will be of air and caused by the expansion of the air on ascending, regardless of depth or permanence; in the second case they will be of nitrogen due to an all too quick leakage of gas from our tissues, which were previously saturated (totally or partially depending on the tissue in question) during the deep dive. Another problem is the amount of air inhaled, because the further down you go the more air is consumed, therefore it is necessary to take this into account when planning the dive. Considering that the average man during light physical activity uses, at sea level, 20 litres of air per minute, due to decompression effect (Boyle and Mariotte law ) this increases to 40 litres per minute at a depth of 10 metres, to 60 litres per minute at a depth of 30 metres and to 100 litres per minute at a depth of 40 metres (5 bars of absolute pressure). Therefore air consumption increases notably and for example a 30 metre dive cannot be carried out using a 10 litre tank, unless the diver is an expert and well trained, it is extremely important to use a 15 litre tank for such dives, although they should be avoided if you are not psychologically or physically prepared. PREVENTION It is also necessary to underline that everything said so far is not aimed at frightening you in any way from diving to more than 18 metres but rather to point out that certain types of activities should be carried out with the utmost preparation, knowledge and training. Moreover, it is wise not to go over 30 metres, particularly for those who have Advanced Open Water Diver certificate, which enables you to carry out dives similar to those done during training, but only if accompanied by experts, such as a Divemaster or an Instructor. This is not a limit but a choice, because normally the Divemaster or the Instructors dive with the group in all the diving centers.
49

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

CONCLUSION In conclusion, the advice for a safe, quiet and pleasant dive are always the same, by now repeated to the point of boredom. Respect for time and depth limits, respect for your own level of certification, preparation, good quality equipment, a reliable buddy, a well programmed dive. If you memorize these simple rules, when under water you will only need to worry about appreciating the world around you, relaxing and achieving that beautiful sensation of flying weightlessly in the water.

50

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

51

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

52

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

THE MIXTURES Very often we hear of technical, specialised dives using a mixture. This topic was not in the basic course you attended but now as an advanced scuba diver you must begin to learn this too to avoid misinterpretation. NITROX For a certain number of years, this mixture, also defined as EAN in Italy, enriched air, has become part of the scuba divers language. It almost seemed a revolution, instead it is only air in which the percentage of nitrogen, normally around 80% has been reduced and the percentage of oxygen, usually around 20%, increased. This mixture, the ratio of the gases may vary, has been used for military purposes for decades. Introducing this mixture to recreational diving was an initiative aiming at reducing the risk of MDD while at the same time increasing the duration f the dive, given that the percentage of nitrogen is decreased and that of oxygen increased. It would seem to be the perfect solution, but as everything, it has its pros and cons. The advantage is longer dive time at a given depth compared to using air, the disadvantage is the maximum depth limit which decreases in proportion to the increase of oxygen in the mixture, since it comes close to the point where oxygen reaches the partial pressure of 1.6 bars, which as we well know, is the limit beyond which there is an almost certain risk of hyper-oxygen. Lets make this point clearer. Thinking of the air we breathe, which has an approximately 20% Oxygen the limit is around 70 metres, that is bar 8 of absolute pressure since it is at this point partial pressure of oxygen is by now 1.6 bars (8 bars x 0.20). Using Nitrox EAN 32, the number after the initials corresponds to the percentage of oxygen, that is 32%) we have 5 absolute bars, that is 40 metres. Using Nitrox EAN36, the limit comes even closer, since 1.6 divided by 3.6 gives 4.44, that is around 33 metres.
53

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

In our areas this depth is often exceeded, besides the dive is often limited due to cold which is felt after a certain permanence. It is therefore obvious that the use of Nitrox in recreational diving may be useful at limited depths and in warm seas where temperature factor is irrelevant. If we add to this, the opportunity, at least for Nitrox EAN 36, of specific equipment, oil-free compressors, the cost of it all, the difficulty in managing a diving accident in which the diver has not inhaled air, the conclusion is that this is not a experience to be avoided, but neither is it a solution to al the problems related to nitrogen absorption, since it involves other problems. Recently it has become fashionable to propose specialised courses on Nitrox EAN 32, but the IDEA view is that Nitrox is a specialised course; it is a serious course and to do it you should at the very least be an Advanced Open Water Diver or the equivalent of other agencies. MIXTURES There are other mixtures used in diving, such as ELIOX, in which nitrogen is replaced by helium; TRIMIX, a mixture of oxygen, helium and nitrogen, but they are completely out with the realms of recreational diving. Due to the expense and the need for extremely complex re-fill equipment, they are exclusive to professional diving, such as deep sea divers, since recreational divers rarely reach such depths as to merit their use. Specialised courses are also held in these mixtures, not by IDEA, but by organisations which deal with diving beyond the limits of recreational training. Our only consideration is that we prefer to have fun under water, not complicate things with deep sea diving equipment. Is it really worth it ?

54

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

55

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

56

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

SEARCH AND RECOVERY The general concept of search and recovery, at an amateur level, is very simple. To know how to search for, carry to the surface, then transport to shore small objects which have been lost (or in some cases found) in the sea. PURPOSE OF SEARCH AND RECOVERY As mentioned above: to search for small objects in simple recovery areas. Obviously the indications herein contained constitute a broad outline of what will be practised at sea in the Advanced Open Water Diver Course, since there are other specialised courses available to further your knowledge in this particular field for example, basic Search & Recovery and Advanced Search and Recovery. LIMITS OF SEARCH AD RECOVERY Always remember that we are recreational divers, people who dive for pleasure and not as a profession. Besides the necessity to complete knowledge on techniques of search and recovery by attending the specialised courses mentioned above, the main objective is your safety. Whenever this activity may endanger your safety, not only personal safety but psychological well-being too, do not continue. It is better to lose a anchor ad buy another one than attempt a search in deep water and incur the relevant risks. SEARCH TECHNIQUES Again bearing in mind that the notions set out in this manual are a simple introduction to the subject matter, let us examine the two easiest and readily available techniques: spiral search and cross search: In both cases minimum equipment s required and may be easily found or already resent in the divers existing equipment: some rope, one or more buoys (even the standard diver identification buoy), possibly a compass and for the recovery part, inflatable lifting balloons. Since recovery techniques will be dealt with later on, lets leave them aside and begin by examining those problems connected to the search. It should be quite clear what s meant by search: that s, looking for a lost object on the sea-bed, whose position is un57

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

known; if, on the other hand, the position is known and the object has been located, the position s then marked using a buoy and recovery procedures begin. To begin the search you should know approximately where the object may be, thus you cordon off the area using buoys in order to have precise reference points of where to start looking and where to stop, otherwise you risk operating in an undefined area and wandering aimlessly without achieving any measure of success. Remember it is easy to get confused, especially if the sea-bed is flat and consequently lacking in any natural reference points, n this way you risk carrying out the search repeatedly in the same area without realising and so obtaining poor results. Once the approximate area has been identified and cordoned off, it is now time to consider which of the simpler techniques available would be the best to adopt, as already mentioned, spiral or cross search. A) Circular or spiral search This is quite a simple search system which may be applies in quite limited areas, with practically hardly any equipment: a piece of rope, approximately 10 metres in length and a buoy. Anchor the buoy to the sea-bed (with a weight, an anchor etc) at the approximate point where the object could be situated, a second rope should be tied to the anchored buoy which will be used by the diver carrying out the search .The system is extremely easy: holding the free end of the rope, start to move away from the anchored point until the rope is taut to about ten centimetres above the sea-bed. Then start to swim around the anchored point always keeping the taut rope as a guide. If the object to be found is quite big it should stick out from the sea-bed and f the search area is correct, the rope should become entangled in the object, thus locating it. If it is not the correct search area, the anchored point should be moved beyond the explored area and the operation repeated until the object is (hopefully) found.
58

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

If the object to be located s small, or does not stick out from the seabed, or the sea-bed s uneven and the rope become entangled in rocks you must apply the system and look for the object using vision. To do this always complete the first round with the taut rope, and shorten it on each subsequent round so as to visually scan the area around the anchored point. If the search has not been successful, the anchor point is moved beyond the explored area and the operation is recommenced until the object is found. b) Cross Search This is a slightly more complicated system in that t requires more equipment. At least four buoys are needed, other ropes to tie them to the sea-bed and to then tie them together in pairs, and a free rope equipped with spring clips at both ends. To carry out this type of search the four buoys are anchored in the search area so as to form a rectangle (or a square) and then the pairs of buoys are in turn tied to the sea-bed using two ropes called longerons. The diver starts his search from one of the buoys, hooks the free rope (called crossing-rope) to the top of one of the two longerons and then swims to the other buoy where the other longeron is situated. He then clips the hook attached to the end of the free rope to the longeron to render it taut, thus cordoning off the area he will explore visually by making his way back along the free rope. Upon reaching the other end he will then move the clip forwards going beyond the area he has just explored, thus starting visual exploration again while making for the opposite end, so
59

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

proceeding in a zig-zag motion between the two longerons. In this way he will explore the complete cordoned off area until he reaches the final buoys. If it is the correct area the lost object should be identified, if not he will move one longeron forwards, leaving the other fixed so as to slowly sift the area where the object should be, and so successfully completing the search. RECOVERY TECHNIQUES Once the object has been located the first thing to do is to tie it with a rope and mark it with a buoy on the surface; it is extremely easy to lose ones way or reference points, not be able to find them again and so have to start all over. If you do not have an inflatable buoy, you can use one of the ones already in use moving it onto the object, firstly making sure to tie this to the rope used during the search and then go and get the buoy holding the end of the rope in your hand, so that you have a guiding rope on the way back. These should not seem excessive precautions; if the object is small, or the sea is not limpid it is surprisingly easy to lose again. Once the exact recovery location has been marked you should proceed to recovery if possible wit the usual means and if there is no danger. If you are not sure you are going to make it, because the object is large or because you do not have the correct means, then do not try it!! On the whole, search is within everyones capabilities while recovery often needs to be carried out using the appropriate means and by sufficiently trained experts. However, if the object is not too large (nor particularly small, because if it is a ring it may be slipped into a pocket) lifting balloons are necessary to carry it up to the surface, they are, plastic sacks open at one end which need to be inflated using the regulator and pushing the continual flow button. Do not get strange ideas, for example holding on the object and inflating the
60

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

jacket, this is extremely dangerous. Nor is it advisable to use the first regulator to inflate the balloon, there are many cables and consequently as many chances of getting entangled in them, therefore always keep this regulator in your mouth. The lifting balloons come in various sizes and are of various capacity; the larger they are the more air they contain and so lift heavier objects, although these are more difficult to use. Keep within the correct limits and if this subject interests you, attend the appropriate specialised course. The better types of lifting balloons are equipped with an automatic release valve since it allows the air inside, which expands due to diminishing pressure on ascent, to be released from above and not laterally. Should the air be released laterally then the balloon will turn over, allowing all the air to escape from the top and the object would sink back down to the sea-bed. In case of emergency and lack of equipment the homemade substitutes may be used: plastic shopping bags may be secured by their handles to the object. It may not be the maximum but it works! The balloon should be attached to a centrally balanced point on the object, two being used if the object is large or not of even dimensions. Be careful to use good quality knots when tying, because the force exerted on the ropes is strong even for moderately sized objects. Therefore, if the knot loosens the balloon will rush to the surface and the object will drop to the sea-bed endangering the operators. Once the balloon has been tied, it should then be inflated until it begins to lift just off the sea-bed; be careful when using two balloons, they should both be inflated simultaneously to avoid one balloon ascending before the other. Always use your spare regulator to inflate the balloon, position it just to the side of the opening (not directly inside) and slowly inflate until the object begins to come up off the sea-bed. At this point everything has been done, move off to one side and let the balloon go, the expansion of the air will do the rest. Do not follow behind the object because it will ascend too quickly and do not remain directly underneath it either, in case something unfortunate occurs; for example the balloons could become detached and you could have problems if you are positioned too near or even directly below the sea-bed. Move off
61

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

to one side and ascend slowly, maintaining a safe distance. It will now be up to whoever is assisting you above water to hook up and recover the object when it surfaces. TRANSPORT TO SHORE This is a task for others, since the diver will need more time to surface (unless the water is shallow) and really should not exert himself after the dive. The best transport system, if the object cannot be hoisted onto the boat, is to keep it floating on the surface using buoys, hook it to the boat and take it to shore rowing or using the engine. Avoid dragging the object along while still on the sea-bed or mid-water since this is both dangerous for the object and for the divers. Pay attention, when towing with engine powered boats, and proceed slowly, otherwise the pull of the water could break the tow rope and the object be lost. Remember never to work alone or do anything which could endanger your safety. These notions f the Advanced open Water Course only provide an introduction to the subject which should be further developed in specialised courses.

62

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

63

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

64

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

UNDERWATER NAVIGATION Under water it is really difficult to swim in the correct direction or identify an exact route, because often our sense of orientation cannot find fixed and sure reference points. The ability to navigate and orientate oneself underwater are also natural gifts, they can however be perfected and strengthened with practice. NAVIGATION Often the concept of navigation only refers to the movement of a boat, defining the path it takes as a route. It is not exactly like this, navigation regards all types of movement any type of means carries out: Have you ever thought why the rally pilots assistant is called a navigator? Divers and swimmers navigate too, since they move in a certain direction in water towards a given point. Navigation is necessary both on the surface and under water, so instead of wandering aimlessly you want to reach one or two fixed points or when at the end of a dive you look for the shortest route back to the boat. Therefore navigation is an extremely important element to the success of a dive. ORIENTATION Orienting oneself (literally turning towards the East) means picking out reference points given b what the ancient civilisations called the four cornerstones of the world (cardinal points) to determine our position in relation to our surroundings and to establish the correct direction to take. Besides the four cardinal points, the ancient Greeks established a further four intermediate points corresponding to the winds blowing from the Mediterranean. The winds were then named by the Venetians, who, taking the Ionian Sea as a central point, called the north-easterly wind blowing in from Greece the Grecale; Mistral the name given to the north-westerly wind blowing in from Venice (known as the Mistress); Scirocco the south-easterly wind blowing in from Syria and Libeccio the south-westerly one blowing in from Libya.
65

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

Also those winds blowing from north to south were given particular names: Tramontana is the north wind blowing in over the mountains, Auster or Mezzogiorno is the wind blowing in from the South, that is from austral countries. All directions indicating the four cardinal points together with the main winds is called the Compass Rose. Internationally, North, South, East and West are identified by their initial letters, N, S, E, and W. Sixteen other bearings were added, thus bringing the total number of bearings to date, to thirty-two. North, South, East and West are all 90 equidistant and are marked by two perpendicular lines which form four squares: the first square is the one between North and East, the second is between East and South, the third between South and West and the fourth between West and North. Reference is not made to the cardinal points or to the intermediate ones, since, apart from their names being too complicated, they would not be enough to determine the exact position of a point o the Equator. Therefore, try to imagine the horizon as a circle divided into 360 and calculate the topographical coordinates, bearing (azimuth) and its distance. The Azimuth is the angle formed by the northward facing observer and the direction of the object being observed measured in degrees and fractions of degrees commencing in a clockwise direction from the North. The distance is the linear measure between the northward facing observer who is always at the centre of the visible horizon and the object being observed. It is useful to learn early on in this study that 90 correspond to East, 180 to South, 270 to West and 0 is North, and that 45 correspond to the bearing North-East, 135 to South-East and so on. CALCULATING DISTANCES The ability to calculate distances underwater is very useful when looking for a particular site and in measuring dimensions and areas. A common way of doing this is calculating air-tank pressure. The quantity of air is subdivided by the number of stages along the route and you change direction when a certain pressure is reached, this is displayed on the pressure gauge. It is not the most reliable of methods since it is based on the amount of air used which is varies from diver to diver, and depends on the level of training, agitation and temperature.
66

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

Another way of calculating distance is to count the number of fin movements. One complete fin movement corresponds to two full leg movements. Divers usually travel one metre per fin movement; this means that after having carried out one vertical fin movement (that is, one upward movement followed by one downward movement) first with one leg then with the other, a distance of approximately one metre will have been covered. Therefore it is possible to measure the distance covered. During dives when visibility is reduced or when exact measurements are required, the arms may also be used to calculate distance; the distance between one outstretched arm and the other is for men, just under two metres and for women about one and a half metres (depending on the height of the individual). The procedure consists in stretching one arm out in front and the other behind, then moving the body forwards while shifting the arm, initially positioned behind, forwards and at the same time taking the forward positioned arm back behind the body. By repeating this movement the distance may be calculated with relative precision. Given that it is rather uncomfortable this system is best used for short distances. NATURAL NAVIGATION Poor visibility under water, few reference points, dulled senses all contribute to making orientation difficult, however you can navigate with a certain amount of precision, eve without instruments, by using these simple observations. For the moment lets look at the diving techniques which will help us identify our position under water with regard to a specific point ( departure or arrival point). Later we will study the use of the compass: the procedures for natural navigation and compass navigation are very similar. If a diver, swims aimlessly, moving from one part to the next without reference points, he cannot have a precise idea of his position.
67

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

Only if the diver follows a straight line and comes back the same way would he be able to identify his position, but this is only theoretical since such a dive would not be very interesting. The principle is quite simple, but the correct application of it requires a little practice. The only thing the diver has to do is follow a general line, change direction making decided turns (preferably 90) and keep in mind where these turns lead him with regard to his arrival point. The best way to make these 90 turns, once having reached the point where we want to make a turn, is to lie on the sea-bed, stretch the arms out in front, then open an arm towards the direction you wish to turn until it is at a 90 angle compared to the other arm; now pivot on the hand of the arm you moved, turn the body the straight arm comes around and then set off in this new direction. It seems a difficult manoeuvre but it is more difficult to explain than to carry out. NATURAL REFERENCE POINTS By following an underwater route and calculating distances you can navigate fairly precisely when using reference points. Having kept in mind many reference points concerning underwater navigation, it becomes easier to follow a direction or complete a route. Before diving it is wise to study the diving-off area well, the idea being to familiarize yourself with the area, looking out for all the reference points which could prove useful during the dive. The shape of the sea-bed or sea-wall is usually just a underwater extension of what is visible above water. If the formations are stratified then they will be so underwater too, and so on. It is important to begin a dive knowing your exact position. This does seem rather obvious, but if, in a unfamiliar location, a diver should turn around during descent he may not remember which direction to take before setting off. To begin descending, both divers should position themselves face to face on the surface, descend into the water and arrive on the sea-bed in the same position without having turned around. His help initial orientation. Once on the seabed it is usual to wait a few moments to take note of the depth and the surrounding area before setting off. The key to the use of natural reference points is an eye for detail. The more attentive you are to the surrounding area the better you succeed in navigation. It is necessary to pay attention to all infor68

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

mation that can be easily memorized during a dive. Light and shadow are reference points; changes in water movement are another reference point. Underwater currents may be used to determine relative direction. Always begin against the current and keep this in mind to avoid emerging beyond the desired point. Waves in shallow water cause what is called the ebb. This flows perpendicular to the shore and is a reliable reference point. Any kind of design or odd conformation on a sandy sea-bed or peculiar rock formations are useful guides too. After having completed an on-the-spot investigation of the area, which does not take too long, you can set off on the underwater route. It is always useful to look ahead, choose an object as a focal point and move in that direction. Repeating this procedure several times makes it possible to keep to the correct route. THE COMPASS The earth acts as an enormous magnet, just like an iron bar attracting ferrous metals. This characteristic had already been discovered by the Chinese in 2,5000 BC. In fact, they were the first to create such an instrument, basically made up of a magnetized needle positioned in such a way as to move freely and to direct itself, thanks to terrestrial magnetism, in a North to South direction. This instrument is called a compass. Just as extra information, we may say that the magnetic North Pole does not correspond to its geographical counterpart, in fact, its position differs by 2240 km and lies in the Canadian Arctic archipelago at 74 latitude north and 100 longitude west. This difference is important and is corrected when you have to follow long routes; since we follow shorter routes of only a couple of hundred metres, we shall only take note of this out of curiosity. The principle of a compass is quite simple. It is a magnet which is suspended thus allowing it to move freely and indicate the magnetic North Pole of the Earth. There are various types of compass, but the main features of a good compass are the following:
69

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

1) It must contain liquid (usually a mixture of water, alcohol and glycerine); the presence of the liquid stops the pressure from destroying the compass and it slows down the movement of the needle. It is difficult to follow a certain bearing if the needle is continually moving. 2) The needle has to turn freely and be precise even when the compass is not in a horizontal position under water; if the needle becomes stuck because the compass is not in a horizontal position then it is easy to take the wrong direction. 3) A reference line which passes through the centre of the compass is essential. This is called the guiding line and is used to take the bearing and follow directions. 4) It is best to have the guiding line to the side of the compass because if the diver looks at the compass directly from above, he could lose his focal point. 5) It is important that the compass has a rotating outer ring upon which two parallel lines are etched which allow the diver to memorize a given direction. 6) The outer part of the compass should display bearings in degrees and not in cardinal points (N, S, NE, etc). Care and maintenance of an underwater compass is not complicated, but should be carried out efficiently to keep the compass in prime condition. Care should be taken to avoid damaging or dropping it since it is a delicate instrument. The compass should not be placed near any heat source since this would cause the liquid inside to expand and leak out. As with all diving equipment, it is best to rinse the compass carefully in fresh water after use. USE OF THE COMPASS 1) The needle of the compass always indicates the magnetic North, the guiding line indicates the direction to follow relative to the North (azimuth). 2) When the needle is aligned with the guiding line, the diver is proceeding due North. 3) When the diver is moving eastwards, the guiding line will indicate 90. 4) When one bearing is opposite the one previously taken, it is called the opposite direction. South is opposite North.
70

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

It is important to set off in the direction relative to the starting point of the dive. This means taking into account the actual direction compared to a given point, for example, the shore or the position of the boat. Having this as a reference point, you can then vary directions relative to the initial one and still know your own position. The reference direction must be known before descending. The most common method is pointing the guiding line in the desired direction and turning the rotating outer ting until the magnetic arrow is positioned over the directional arrow, or it until it lies bet w e e n these two Align the notches. Point the needle compass At this in the guiding line stage we reference will have memorized our direcTrip direction tion on the outer ring and this will act as a memo on returning. If the compass does not have the appropriate notches or the directional line, you should position the guiding line in the desired direction and then memorize your route. Here are various ways to hold the compass properly; the most common method is to stretch one arm out I front, fold the other arm across to grip the extended arm just above the elbow, thus creating aright angle and having the compass on the wrist of the folded arm and directly at eye level. A n o t h e r method is used when a more precise navigation is
71

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

required. Both arms are extended forwards and the compass is held between the hands, allowing the diver to clearly see where he is heading and the route will surely be more precise. When the compass is installed on a console, it is positioned in front of the diver as in the abovementioned method. Remember to look directly down on to the compass, not at an angle, and also remember to take reference points from your surroundings while you are checking the direction. You should choose a focal point to fix and navigate towards it, and upon reaching that fixed point, repeat the exercise. This will allow you to keep to your route without constantly having to check the compass. Given that the needle is magnetic, it is attracted to metallic objects which may be present in the surrounding area. A distance of at least 30cm should be kept between the compass and the equipment to avoid interference, the main culprits of which are airtanks, regulators, cameras etc. INSTRUMENT NAVIGATION Navigation using instruments is surely different from using natural reference points. Always trust the direction indicated on the compass even if instinct sometimes dictates otherwise; instinct is more likely to be wrong. Sometimes, when following 120 the compass to the letter it may happen that it is not clear whether if you are to the right 60 or to the left of a given point. In this situation the use of natural navigational techniques explained earlier is helpful. To summarize: firstly use the compass to determine the direction then use the 60 60 natural navigation reference points to keep to the route. A
72

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

triangular route can lead to serious mistakes. Sometimes you think that a 60 turn would be enough to complete the route, this is wrong. 120 turns should be carried out to close off the triangle. I is advisable to practise on land before attempting this underwater. During instrument navigation divers worry about possible diversion of the route caused by currents. For precise navigation, complex techniques and mathematical calculations may be used but they are not necessary for recreational dives. As far as we are concerned, it is enough to bear in mind the direction and intensity of the currents and then make the necessary modifications. This method satisfies the majority of situations underwater and is perfected with practice. There are two ways to overcome an obstacle: the first is to pass over it, if this s not possible, go around it. In this last case, the divers behaviour is dictated by the necessity to keep to a more or less exact route. You can go round an obstacle and proceed in the same direction as before, making do with the general route ; if you want to keep to the same direction, you should be more precise: 90 turns should be carried out using the techniques already learned, the length of the diversion should be measured. This manoeuvre, if carried out correctly, allows you to get around the obstacle while keeping to exactly the same route. Moreover, if you are intent on a given route, apart from the usual compass, an underwater writing slate is also necessary in order to record the various reference points and the variations in the route. In conclusion, a compass is a precision instrument which increases safety limits and enjoyment; you must learn how to use it correctly and the diver must fully understand all the natural and instrument aid relevant to navigation.

73

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

74

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

75

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

76

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

NIGHT DIVE OR LIMITED VISIBILITY DIVE (POOR VISIBILITY) Night dives and diving in conditions of poor visibility both resent difficulties of limited visibility and lack f precise reference points and, as a rule, are not familiar situations for divers. However, both provide valuable experience since they complement the divers experience and constitute what could be considered a completely new diving environment for him. EQUIPMENT All divers need to be completely equipped when diving at night or in conditions of poor visibility. Equipment should be easily accessible and location should also be familiar to the diving partner, since he may have to intervene in case of emergency while already being hindered by limited visibility. Apart from the usual equipment, ac compass and a torch are necessary for these types of dives. The latter may be completely useless in conditions of limited visibility, that is when the water is turbid, since it may cause a blinding effect similar to that caused by car headlights in fog. A sharp knife may be useful since the diver may easily become entangled in nets r tackle, this is frequently the case during night dives since fishermen cast nets and lines at night. A good knife, a reliable partner and a good dose of calm will help in the event of any such unpleasant circumstances. Another important accessory on a night dive is a whistle, since it may be used to attract the attention of the crews or other companions, should the diver re-emerge far from the boat or the rest of the group. Sometimes conditions are windy and shouting s not enough, therefore it is better to have this small and extremely cheap accessory The compass, particularly useful when visibility is poor, has been discussed in the chapter on navigation, while the man accessory on a night dive is a torch. This creates light and lets us see just how different the marine world appears at night. There are various types of torches, wide beam and narrow beam, operating on normal or re77

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

chargeable batteries, big or small. The most indicated for night diving are wide beam torches since they illuminate a large portion of the sea-bed. Narrow beam torches are useful during daytime dives since they help illuminate fish dens but at night offer limited illumination and consequently limit vision and possibility to explore the area. Concerning the choice of normal or rechargeable batteries, technically there is no great difference for a diver the only difference being initial cost: rechargeable batteries cost more but the initial expense is quickly recovered since there is no further need to buy batteries. The size of a torch should not be the main consideration when purchasing one, but rather the width of the beam emitted; a large torch is not synonymous with wide beam emission or vice versa. Always check before buying. There are chemical lights on the market, called Star Lights, which produce a certain luminescence on bending the plastic tube; this plastic tube contains a liquid which , on contact with a chemical reactant contained in a small glass tube located within it, gives off light; contact between the two elements made on bending the plastic tube and consequently breaking the inner glass tube creating a luminescence which lasts for several hours. Obviously these lights cannot replace torches, however, attaching them to air tanks creates a glow and makes it easier to follow the rest of the group or be identified should you drift from the main group or should the torch go out. PREPARING TO DIVE Diving at night or in conditions of limited visibility requires preventative and detailed planning since diving conditions are so different from the usual ones. Drifting from one group or partner may easily happen unless various plans of action have been agreed upon beforehand. A proper dive begins with proper dressing and a preparation of the relative area, especially if it is dark. Avoid confusion, arrange all equipment in an orderly fashion and position it within easy reach, in collaboration with the others procure a powerful light source (for example, a large neon torch or gas lamp) to illuminate the area where the divers dress and also to facilitate location of the exit point upon surfacing. Proper planning and clear agreements lead to a successful dive in terms of desired depth, area to explore, what to do, action to be taken in case of separation both
78

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

below and on the surface. When in the water, it is necessary to be close to your partner or the rest of the group to avoid getting lost or drifting off completely. If necessary it is best to hold hands or hold a piece of connecting rope when visibility is almost zero. Despite having taken the necessary precautions, should someone drift off, the arrangements made before diving should be put into action. As a general guide you should look for your partner or the rest of the group for at least one minute and if unsuccessful, surface. If your partner or the rest of the group have respected the previous arrangements then they should surface after a short time, attracting attention by using the whistle; if your partner or group has not surfaced after ten or fifteen minutes, give the alarm immediately. Do not try to be a hero by continuing the search nor be offensive to your diving partner because you were forced to surface. Anyone can get lost underwater at night or when conditions are less than favourable, even you. THE DIVE Apart from respecting all previously made arrangements and correct planning, a night dive or a dive in conditions of limited visibility also require good coordination on entering the water together and carrying out the activity of the dive. This means possibly entering the water together, staying close together on the surface, descending down a guide rope, balancing oneself without touching the sea-bed, especially f it is muddy, following the person leading the dive and not becoming distracted or going off on your own. On a night dive use the torch correctly, do not point it in the face of the others but on the body, moving it according to what is to be communicated. Generally speaking, circling the torch means okay, everything is fine, moving the torch up and down means
79

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

calling for attention also when asking for help. Remember that marine life also continues at night, many large predators hunt and live mostly at this time and many other species are sleepy or stunned by light from the torch. During these dives be especially careful where you lean, not looking where you rest your hands is always dangerous especially if not wearing gloves. Always surface with the group and try to be as orderly as possible when undressing, dressing and gathering up equipment. PROBLEMS IN DIVING Although very informative, diving at night or n conditions of limited visibility is not to everyones liking. No precise reference points and limited field of vision are aspects which may cause divers to experience stress, fear and at times, a sense of claustrophobia. In such cases, though fortunately few, report the problem before it becomes worse and leads to outright panic, interrupt the dive (or accompany your partner to the surface if, indeed, he is the person in difficulty). You can calmly try again some other time to see if you succeed in appreciating the beauty of a night dive in conditions of limited visibility. You will no doubt succeed on another attempt, f not, at least you can say: I tried. Remember, this is only an introduction to the Advanced Open Water Course, which, as always, will be studied in greater detail in the appropriate specialised Night Diver and Limited Visibility Dive courses.
80

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

81

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

82

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

DEEP DIVE The fascination with the deep, the abyss, is perhaps one of the elements of the dive which excites divers most. Probably it is one of the experiences which everyone sooner or later decides to carry out, but it is necessary to know that it cannot be faced with superficiality or bad preparation. WHAT IS A DEEP DIVE? People often ask for definitions or limits of depth with a view to understanding if a dive is a deep one or not. It is almost as if there were a street sign or something like a speed limit which once exceeded, would serve as an indication of a deep dive. There is no such indicator, since the concept varies from person to person according to their training, experience and psychological capabilities. Generally speaking, for an Open Water Diver, a deep dive could be one at over 18 metres, maximum limit for the first stage and a reasonable limit beyond which an emergency surfacing, either in pairs or alone, begins to become complicated. Likewise the limit for non-specialized recreational divers is considered to be 30 metres, a depth beyond which the limit of permanence within the relative curve limit is so drastically shortened that anything may force the diver to exceed it forcing him to carry out decompression stages.
83

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

DIVING EQUIPMENT Even more so than diving at night or in conditions of limited visibility, equipment on a deep dive should be complete and in perfectly working order. All components should be easily accessible and of good quality, beginning with the regulator which at a depth of 30 metres will begin to take more out of you if of poor quality. A second regulator is indispensable especially for greater safety when having to assist a fellow diver in difficulty due to lack of air. Try to imagine breathing in pairs at a depth of 30 metres and then having to together ascend too, this should give an idea of the importance of a second regulator! 15 litre air tanks are therefore necessary at this depth since 10 litre tanks cannot guarantee an adequate reserve of air, as is an emergency tank (complete with regulator) lowered down from a boat by rope until the safety stop (-4 to 5 metres) to be used by someone whose air supply has run out. Another instrument of extreme importance in this type of dive is the computer, which elaborating the data based on the amount f time passed at each of the various levels, offers us problem-free dives and indeed longer ones compared to the diving tables which (thankfully) are purposefully limiting. However, the computer cannot know us personally and only knows the standard diver upon whose model it has been programmed; therefore, you really need to know its basic functions well in order to use it properly and appreciate its value. Attend the specialised course in Computer Diving if you are interested in this subject, it is very interesting because apart from dealing with the functions of the computer it also deals with the questions related to nitrogen absorption, hemi-saturation times and multiple dives. DIVING LIMITS Even if many of the beautiful marine species are, unfortunately, to be found at depths of 30 metres or more, you must always respect the limits, in particular those for deep dives. Carefully plan the dive with your diving partner using the diving tables, preferring
84

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

Doppler tables to those of the US Navy; comply with surfacing speed and safety stops, do not carry out two deep dives in the same day. The first dive should be the deeper and use the diving tables when repeating dives; on these dives try not to be a hero or superman. Remember that at 30 metres more air is use up than at 18 metres, therefore your normal air consumption rate will not be applicable at this depth. Everything that seems simple on a shallow dive becomes difficult at 30 metres; the time available becomes shorter, problems connected to nitrogen narcosis and decompression illnesses loom larger on the horizon. PROGRAMMING DIVES More than in other dives programming on deep dives is of extreme importance and must be followed. Before reaching the dive entry point, with your partner it is necessary to get as much information on the diving area as possible either by speaking to other divers, studying maps of the area, reading articles on the area or asking the locals. Once all this information has been gathered, you need to establish how to reach the dive point, since 30 metre dives are generally far from the coast. Therefore, a boat or dinghy will be necessary, even better if you are accompanied by members of the local diving centre, since they generally have guides who can give you the necessary information on the area thus eliminating the need to do the research yourself: everything will be explained to you during the briefing! If you decide not to contact the local diving centre, having procured the boat and the necessary equipment, you can now set off to the chosen dive point. Once there, after having gone over the dive plan, that is what type of descent to carry out, maximum depth to reach, underwater route, maximum permanence time, ascent procedure, communication, the spare air-tank will be placed in the water (with the assembled regulator) tied to a rope of 4 5 metres. Then you will dress carefully, and with the help of your partner you will check the position and function of each piece of equipment. Having made sure that everything is okay, take the maximum dial of the depth gauge to zero and position the moveable outer ring of the underwater watch, if you are using the analogical equipment, enter the water aiming for the exciting blue depths. Obviously during the dive the complete plan should be followed to the letter, otherwise it will have been a complete waste of time.
85

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

CONCLUSION After having spoken at length in the relative chapter on the problems concerning nitrogen absorption, air compression, diving tables, there is not much left to say about deep dives only that this is only a token example, an introduction to our seas. If you are interested in this subject and you want to further your knowledge or carry out more deep dives in order to be well trained and therefore capable of descending to these depth, talk it over with your instructor who will be only too happy to help.

86

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

87

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

88

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

RESCUE DIVER Diving accidents are very rare if you adhere to the safety norms. Knowing certain situations, remembering that it is better to foresee them rather than have to deal with them, makes you a more serious and competent diver. PREVENTION Given that we are at the Advanced open Water Diver level, is should already be very clear that it is imperative to respect the rules, it is not an option. Unfortunately, each time we are faced with an emergency situation, or worse, an accident, you realise that the reason is always irresponsible behaviour or complete disregard for the rules. Remember: prevention before everything. There will rarely be an accident if all the procedures are followed and use of the following techniques will hopefully remain theoretical. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSISTANCE AND RESCUE Underwater rescue consists in a series of actions geared towards initially assisting and the rescuing a diver in difficulty or who has been the victim of a accident. He two types of intervention in this case are different; assistance is aimed at helping a person in difficulty before an accident actually occurs; underwater rescue, on the other hand, is aimed at taking an injured diver out of the water and thereafter providing the necessary assistance in the form of first aid. ASSISTANCE This is the first option to be applied when trying to foresee and avoid an accident. This consists in simple actions to be carried out to assist a companion in difficulty. For example: help him if he has cramp; keep close if he is afraid; inflate his jacket on the surface if he has difficulty in keeping afloat and cannot operate it himself; in
89

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

general help him regain control of himself and the situation so that he may calmly continue with the dive. However, do be careful, for a person who has encountered difficulty during a dive may be prey to another accident during the same dive, therefore it would be better to interrupt the dive before meeting with another accident which could have more serious consequences than the first. Assistance is also given to ourselves, that is you should always make sure that everything is going smoothly and absolutely avoid continuing if any symptoms of stress, fatigue or anxiety are experienced. To carry on without reporting the problem is to endanger both your own life and that of the others who, in the event of emergency, will have to lend assistance. Once again: dont be a hero, anyone can feel bad during a dive and admitting this should be no cause for shame. RESCUE Rescue should be given when assistance has not been requested and the diver is already in crisis, or when assistance has not been enough (this is rarely the case). There are various situations which may occur, but these can generally be divided into two main categories: conscious diver and unconscious diver. I the first case, you may be at the first stage, that is stress, or my immediately break into panic. I any case you should identify the cause and try to eliminate it, if possible. For example, difficulty in buoyancy and having to use strong kicking movements to avoid descending a sea wall is a cause of stress. Slightly inflate the jacket to solve the problem. Fatigue and the subsequent sensation of lack of air, is solved by stopping and taking a rest. Fear generally ceases on physical contact, for example holding hands with the diver in distress. As may be seen, they are generally quite simple situations which become situations of assistance.
90

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

The situation is different when the diver is already panicking, is moving wildly and is not reasoning. These situations can prove dangerous, so help is given considering yourself too. Handle the diver from behind, gripping the air-tank taps and pull him to the surface or try to stop him sinking further. If on the other hand the diver is unconscious, rescue procedures should be followed and he should be transported to the surface for first aid treatment. In this case the diver must necessarily be handled from behind, placing one hand under the chin and pointing it upwards to favour opening of respiratory airways and the expulsion of air accumulated in the lungs which will increase in volume while ascending. If the diver is breathing the operation will be easier though the same position should be maintained. Carefully check the jacket, unhooking the victims jacket and letting it drop to the sea-bed if you can use your own, otherwise if this is not possible, unhook your own and use the victims, to permit a quick and controlled ascent. Ascending too quickly or in an uncontrolled manner should be avoided since proving dangerous for both victim and rescuer. Upon surfacing, unhook the victims weight belt, inflate his jacket and transport him to shore dragging him by the air-tank taps while immediately calling for help in order to give maximum time to whoever is on land to intervene, for example, using the boat or preparing oxygen, medical kits etc. We do not want to seem repetitive, but it is extremely important to know these techniques
91

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

and the notions given here are only and idea and do not constitute a specialised course. The first course you should attend on this subject is Open Water Diver and Dive Medic (first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation), Rescue Diver (underwater rescue) so that you may capably deal with any emergency situation, whether in water or on land. Remember: diving is good, pleasant, fun, but being familiar with certain techniques helps you to a more complete diver, calm and serene, since you know the procedure well. Awareness and ability in underwater diving can only be obtained by attending advanced courses, collaborating with an instructor and going on planned dives with groups of friends in complete safety. This is our credo and it is what we expect from our divers!

92

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

93

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

94

ID EA

Advanced Open Water

95

Advanced Open Water

IDEA

Advanced Open Water Diver December 2000

96