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Loading-Force Relationship
Tension Load: As the ends of material are pulled apart to make the material longer, the load is called a tension load Compression Load: As the ends of material are pushed in to make the material smaller, the load is called a compression load.

Tension

Compression

Normal Force: The loads acting perpendicular to the cut surface (structural member cross section), generate normal forces

Shear Force: The loads acting parallel to the cut surface (structural member cross section), generate shear forces

Normal Stress and Strain

= =

P = stress A

= =

2P P = 2A A

= normal strain

P A 2 = = 2L L

Stress - Strain for Steel

Deformations under Uniform Axial Loading

From Hookes Law: P = E = = E AE From the definition of strain:

L Equating and solving for the deformation,

=
PL AE

Stiffness, k, is a force required to produce unit elongation

k= P

=P

EA EA = PL L

EA is known as axial rigidity

Deformations under non-uniform Conditions

With variations in loading, cross-section or material properties,

Pi L i Ai E i

For continuously varying loading, cross-section or material properties,

P ( x )dx 0 A( x ) E : displacement of one point on the bar relative to another point

L

L : original distance between the points P ( x ) : force at the section located at x from one end A( x ) : cross section of the bar as a function of x E : elastic modulus of the material

= dx

Design
n Factor of safety actual strength n= >1 required strength

Loading

Stress Analysis Stress

Geometry
If = n= P V and = , A A =

fail

allowable allowable fail Y or n = = allowable allowable

Strength of Materials

Beams
Extremely common structural element

devices for transferring vertical loads horizontally

action of beams involves combination of

bending and shear

Loads on Beams
Point loads, from concentrated loads or other beams Distributed loads, from anything continuous

Distributed Load

Point Load

Reactions

What the Loads Do?

The loads (& reactions) bend the beam, and try to shear through it

Bending

Shear

What the Loads Do?

C T Bending

Shear

How We Quantify the Effects ?

First, identify ALL the forces (loads and reactions) Make the beam into a freebody (cut it out and artificially support it) Find the reactions, using the conditions of equilibrium Find the shear force, using the conditions of equilibrium Find the bending moment, using the conditions of equilibrium Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams Find the deflection profile, using the moment-curvature relationship in order to determine the elastic curve equation Apply appropriate boundary/continuity conditions in order to determine the unknown constants of integration Find the maximum deflection, using the elactic curve equation

Definition of a Truss
What is a truss a truss is an assembly of linear members connected together to form a triangle or triangles that convert all external forces into axial compression or tension in its members

Single or number of triangles a triangle is the simplest stable shape Joints assumed frictionless hinges (pins) loads placed at joints

Find all the loads and reactions (like a beam) Then use freebody concept to isolate one piece at a time Isolate a joint (Method of Joints finds forces in ALL member) Isolate part of the truss (Method of Sections is useful to find forces in specific members, but not all)
This joint in equilibrium This piece of truss in equilibrium

Analysis of Trusses by the Method of Joints

Use equations of equilibrium of whole structure to determine reactions Assume each joint is in equilibrium Isolate each of the joints as a free body Repeat, until all forces determined Identify joints unknowns that have only two

Determine member forces required at one of those joints to maintain equilibrium

Please note: if unknown member forces are initially assumed to be tension forces at a joint and a force turns out to be negative, then assumption of tension was incorrect and it is compression a negative sign for a force means compression ONLY because we assumed the force was originally tension

Analysis of Trusses by the Method of Sections

Use equations of determine reactions equilibrium to

Divide the structure into two sections and draw free body diagram for one The section should have no more than 3 unknown forces With only three members cut by the section, the equations for static equilibrium may be applied to determine the unknown member forces, including FBD.

Beam Analysis Free Body Diagram

A P B x P V M M V L- x B

A roller/rocker support allows rotation as well as translation along the surface upon which the roller rests. A pin/hinge support does not allow translation but allows rotation. A fixed/clamped support does not allow translation or rotation.

Shear Force
Shear Force: is the algebraic sum of the vertical forces acting to the left or right of the cut section Positive directions are denoted by an internal shear force that causes clockwise rotation of the member on which it acts Loads that are opposite to these are considered negative

Positive shear
R.H down L.H up

Negative shear
L.H down R.H up

Bending Moment
Bending Moment: is the algebraic sum of the moment of the forces to the left or to the right of the section taken about the section Positive directions are denoted by an internal moment that causes compression, or pushing on the upper arm of the member Loads that are opposite to these are considered negative

Sagging
POSITIVE (happy)

Hogging
NEGATIVE (sad)

SFD & BMD Simply Supported Beams

P P = wL P P = wL

L V = +P/2

L Vmax = +P/2 Vmax = -P/2

V = +P

Vmax = +P

V = -P/2

Mmax = PL

Mmax = PL/2 = wL2/2

Mmax = PL/4

Mmax = PL/8 = wL2/8

Equation of the Elastic Curve

Applying the moment-curvature relationship, substituting and integrating:

Deflection profile (elastic curve), also denoted by y=(x)

M (x) EI

d 2 y M (x ) = = 2 EI dx 1 dy M (x )dx + C 1 = dx EI 1 M (x )dx dx + C 1 x + C 2 y= EI 1

Equation of the Elastic Curve

Constants are determined from boundary/ continuity conditions Three cases for statically determinant beams, - Simply supported beam, y A = 0, y B = 0 - Overhanging beam,

y=

1 EI

( M (x )dx )dx + C x + C
1

y A = 0, y B = 0
dy dx =0
A

- Cantilever beam, y A = 0, A

Continuity condition at specific locations, for instance at points where regions of integration meet