Freud: Psychoanalysis Freud identified three levels of mental life unconscious, preconscious, and conscious Early childhood experiences

ood experiences that create high levels of anxiety are repressed into the unconscious, where they may influence heavier, emotions, and attitudes for years Events that have are not associated with anxiety but are merely forgotten make up the contents of the preconscious Conscious images are those in awareness at any given time Freud recognized three provinces of the mind id, ego, and superego The id is unconscious, chaotic, out of contact with reality, and in service of the pleasure principle The ego is the executive of personality, in contact with the real world, and in service of the reality principle The superego serves the moral and idealistic principles and begins to form after the Oedipus complex is resolved All motivation can be traced to sexual and aggressive drives. Childhood behaviors related to sex and aggression are often punished, which leads to either repression or anxiety To protect itself against anxiety, the ego initiates various defense mechanisms, the most basic of which is repression Freud outline three major stages of development infancy, latency, and a genital period but he devote most attention to the infantile stage The infantile stage is divided into three substages oral, anal, and phallic, the last of which is accompanied by the Oedipus complex During the simple Oedipal stage, a child desires sexual union with one parent while harboring hostility for the other Freud believed that dreams and Freudian slips are disguised means of expressing unconscious impulses

Adler: Individual Psychology People begin life with both an innate striving force and physical deficiencies, which combine to produce feelings of inferiority These feelings stimulate people to set a goal of overcoming their inferiority People who see themselves as having more than their share of physical deficiencies or who experience a pampered or neglected style of life overcompensate for these deficiencies and are likely to have exaggerated feelings of inferiority, strive for personal gain, and set unrealistically high goals People with normal feelings of inferiority compensate for these feelings by cooperating with others and developing a high level of social interest Social interest, or a deep concern for the welfare of other people, is the sole criterion by which human actions should be judged The three major problems of life neighborly love, work, and sexual love can only be solved through social interest All behaviors, even those that appear to be incompatible, are consistent with a persons final goal Human behavior is shaped neither by past events nor by objective reality but rather by peoples subjective perception of a situation Heredity and environment provide the building material of personality, but peoples creative power is responsible for their style of life All people, but especially neurotics, make use of various safeguarding tendencies such as excuses, aggression, and withdrawal as conscious or unconscious attempts to protect inflated feelings of superiority against public disgrace The masculine protest the belief that men are superior to women is a fiction that lies at the root of many neuroses, bot for men and for women Adlerian therapy uses birth order, early recollections, and dreams to foster courage, self-esteem, and social interest

Jung: Analytical Psychology The personal unconscious is formed by the repressed experiences of one particular individual and is the reservoir of the complexes Humans inherit a collective unconscious that helps shape many of their attitudes, behaviors, and dreams Archetypes are contents of the collective unconscious. Typical archetypes include persona, shadow, anima, animus, great mother, wise old man, hero, and self The persona represents the side of personality that people show to the rest of the world. Psychologically healthy people recognize their persona but do not mistake it for the whole of personality The anima is the feminine side of men and is responsible for many of their irrational moods and feelings The animus, the masculine side of women, is responsible for irrational thinking and illogical opinions in women The great mother is the archetype of fertility and destruction The wise old man archetype is the intelligent but deceptive voice of accumulated experience The hero is the unconscious image of a person who conquers an evil foe but who also has a tragic flaw

The self is the archetype of completeness, wholeness, and perfection The two attitudes of introversion and extraversion can combine with any one or more of the four functions thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition to produce eight basic types A healthy middle life and old age depend on proper solutions to the problems of childhood and youth Jungian therapists use dream analysis and active imagination to discover the contents of patients collective unconscious

Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory Horney insisted that social and cultural influences were more important that biological ones Children who lack warmth and affection fail to meet their needs for safety and satisfaction These feelings of isolation and helplessness trigger basic anxiety, or feelings of isolation and helplessness in a potentially hostile world The inability of people to use different tactics in their relationships with others generates basic conflict: that is, the incompatible tendency to move toward, against, and away from people Horney called the tendencies to move toward, against, or away from people the three neurotic trends Healthy people solve their basic conflict using all three neurotic trends, whereas neurotics compulsively adopt only one of these trends The three neurotic trends (moving toward, against, or away from people) are a combination of 10 neurotic trends that Horney had earlier identified Both healthy and neurotic people experience intrapsychic conflicts that have become part of their belief system. The major intrapsychic conflicts are the idealized self-image and self-hatred The idealized self-image results in neurotics attempts to build a godlike picture of themselves Self-hatred is the tendency for neurotics to hate and despise their real self Any psychological differences between me and women are due to cultural and social expectations and not to biology The goal of Horneyian psychotherapy is to bring about growth toward actualization of the real self

Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory Eriksons stages of development rest on an epigenetic principle, meaning that each component proceeds in a step-by-step fashion with later growth building earlier development During early stage, people experience an interaction of opposing syntonic and dystonic attitudes, which leads to a conflict, or psychosocial crisis Resolution of this crisis produces a basic strength and enables a person to move to the next stage Biological components lay a ground plan for each individual, but a multiplicity of historical and cultural events also shapes ego identity Each basic strength has an underlying antipathy that becomes the core pathology of that stage The first stage of development is infancy, characterized by the oral-sensory mode, the psychosocial crisis of basic trust versus mistrust, the basic strength of hope, and the core pathology of withdrawal During early childhood, children experience the anal, urethral, and muscular psychosexual mode; the psychosocial conflict of autonomy versus shame and doubt; the basic strength of will; and the core pathology of compulsion During the play age, children experience genital-locomotor psychosexual development and undergo a psychosocial crisis of initiative versus guilt, with either the basic strength of purpose or the core pathology of inhibition School-age children are in a period of sexual latency but face the psychosocial crisis of industry versus inferiority, which produces either the basic strength of competence or the core pathology of inertia Adolescence, or puberty, is a crucial stage because a persons sense of identity should emerge from this period. However, identity confusion may dominate the psychosocial crisis, thereby postponing identity. Fidelity is the basic strength of adolescence; role repudiation is its core pathology Young adulthood, the time from about age 180 to 30, is characterized by the psychosexual mode of geniality, the psychosocial crisis of intimacy versus isolation, the basic strength of love, and the core pathology of exclusivity Adulthood is a time when people experience the psychosexual mode of procreativity, the psychosocial crisis of generativity versus stagnation, the basic strength of care, and the core pathology of rejectivity Old age is marked by the psychosexual mode of generalized sensuality, the crisis of integrity versus despair, and the basic strength of wisdom or the core pathology of disdain Erikson used psychohistory (a combination of psychoanalysis and history) to study the identity crises of Martin Luther, Mahatma Gandhi, and others

Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory

Maslow assumed that motivation affects the whole person; it is complete, often unconscious, continual, and applicable to all people People are motivated by four dimensions of needs: conative (willful striving), aesthetic (the need for order and beauty), cognitive (the need for curiosity and knowledge), and neurotic (an unproductive patter of relating to other people) The conative needs can be arranged on a hierarchy, meaning that one need must be relatively satisfied before the next need can become active The five conative needs are physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization Occasionally, needs on the hierarchy can be reversed, and they are frequently unconscious Coping behavior is motivated and directed toward the satisfaction of basic needs Expressive behavior has a cause that is not motivated; it is simply ones way of expressing oneself Conative needs, including self-actualization, are instinctoid; that is, their deprivation leads to pathology The frustration of self-actualization needs results in metaphathology and a rejection of the B-values Acceptance of the B-values (truth, beauty, humor, etc.) is the criterion that separates self-actualizing people from those who are merely healthy but mired at the level of esteem The characteristics of self-actualizers include (1) a more efficient perception of reality; (2) acceptance of self, others, and nature; (3) spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness; (4) a problem-centered approach to life; (5) the need for privacy; (6) autonomy; (7) freshness of appreciation; (8) peak experiences; (9) social interest; (10) profound interpersonal relations; (11) a democratic attitude; (12) the ability to discriminate means from ends; (13) a philosophical sense of humor; (14) creativeness; and (15) resistance to enculturation In his philosophy of science, Maslow argue for a Taoistic attitude, one that is noninterfering, passive, receptive, and subjective The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) is a standardized test designed to measure self-actualizing values and behavior The Jonah complex is the fear of being or doing ones best Psychotherapy should be directed at the need level currently being thwarted, in most cases love and belongingness needs

Rogers: Person-Centered Theory The formative tendency states that all matter, both organic and inorganic tends to evolve from simple to more complex forms Humans and other animals possess an actualization tendency: that is, the predisposition to move toward completion or fulfillment Self-actualization develops after people evolve a self-system and refers to the tendency to more toward becoming a fully functional person An individual becomes a person by making contact with a caregiver whose positive regard for that individual fosters positive self-regard Barriers to psychological growth exist when a person experiences conditions of worth, incongruence, defensiveness, and disorganization Conditions of worth and external evaluation lead to vulnerability, anxiety, and threat and prevent people from experience unconditional positive regard Incongruence develops when the organism self and the perceived self do not match When the organismic self and perceived self are incongruent, people will become defensive and use distortion and denial as attempts to reduce incongruence People become disorganized whenever distortion and denial are insufficient to block out incongruence Vulnerable people are unaware of their incongruence and are likely to become anxious, threatened, and defensive When vulnerable people come in contact with a therapist who is congruent and who is unconditional positive regard and empathy, the process of personality change beings This process of therapeutic personality change ranges from extreme defensiveness, or an unwillingness to talk about self, to a final stage in which clients become their own therapists and are able to continue psychological growth outside the therapeutic setting The basic outcomes of client-centered counseling are congruent clients who are open to experiences and who have no need to be defensive Theoretically, successful clients will become persons of tomorrow, or fully functioning persons

Skinner: Behavioral Analysis Skinners theory of personality is based largely on his behavioral analysis of rats and pigeons Although internal states such as thinking and feeling exist, they cannot be used as explanations of behavior; only overt behavior can be studied by the scientist

Human behavior is shaped by three forces: (1) the individuals personal history of reinforcement, (2) natural selection, and (3) the evolution cultural practices Operant conditioning is a process of changing behavior in which reinforcement (or punishment) is contingent on the occurrence of a particular behavior A positive reinforcer is any event that, when added to a situation, increases the probability that given behavior will occur A negative reinforcer is any aversive stimulus that, when removed from the environment,, increases the probability of a given behavior Skinner also identified two types of punishment: The first is a presentation of an aversive stimulus, and the second involves the removal of a positive stimulus Reinforcement can be either continuous or intermittent, but intermittent schedules are more efficient The four principal intermittent schedules of reinforcement are the fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variableinterval Social control is achieved through (1) operant conditioning, (2) describing the contingencies of reinforcement, (3) depriving or satiating a person, or (4) physically restraining an individual People can also control their own behavior through self-control, but all control ultimately rests with the environment and not free will Unhealthy behaviors are learned in the same way as all other behaviors, that is, mostly through operant conditioning To change unhealthy behaviors, behavior therapists use a variety of behavior modification techniques, all of which are based on the principles of operant conditioning

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Observational learning allows people to learn without performing a behavior Observational learning requires (1) attention to a model, (2) organization and retention of observations, (3) behavioral production, and (4) motivation to perform the modeled behavior Enactive learning takes place when our responses produce consequences Human functioning is a product of the mutual interaction of environmental events, behavior, and personal factors, a model called triadic reciprocal causation. Chance encounters and fortuitous events are two important environmental factors that influence peoples lives in unplanned and unexpected ways Human agency means that people can and do exercise a measure of control over their lives Self-efficacy refers to peoples belief that they are capable of performing those behaviors that can produce desired outcomes in a particular situation Proxy agency occurs when people have the capacity to rely on others for goods and services Collective efficacy refers to the confidence that groups of people have that their combined efforts will produce social change People have some capacity for self-regulation, and they use both external and internal factors to self-regulate External factors provide us with standards for evaluating our behavior as well as external reinforcement in the form of rewards received from others Internal factors in self-regulation include (1) self-observation, (2) judgmental processes, and (3) self-reaction Through selective activation and disengagement of internal control, people can separate themselves from the injurious consequences of their actions Four principal techniques of selective activation and disengagement of internal control are (1) redefining behavior, (2) displacing or diffusing responsibility, (3) disregarding or distorting the consequences of behavior, and (4) dehumanizing or blaming the victims for their injuries Dysfunctional behaviors, such as depression, phobias, and aggression, are acquired through the reciprocal interaction of environment, personal factors, and behavior Social cognitive therapy emphasizes cognitive mediation especially perceived self-efficacy