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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology

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Complex mapping of aerofoils a different perspective

Miccal T. Matthews
a a

School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia Published online: 24 Jun 2011.

To cite this article: Miccal T. Matthews (2012): Complex mapping of aerofoils a different perspective, International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 43:1, 43-65 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2011.582174

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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, Vol. 43, No. 1, 15 January 2012, 4365

Complex mapping of aerofoils a different perspectivey

Miccal T. Matthews*
School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia (Received 25 October 2010) In this article an application of conformal mapping to aerofoil theory is studied from a geometric and calculus point of view. The problem is suitable for undergraduate teaching in terms of a project or extended piece of work, and brings together the concepts of geometric mapping, parametric equations, complex numbers and calculus. The Joukowski and KarmanTrefftz aerofoils are studied, and it is shown that the KarmanTrefftz aerofoil is an improvement over the Joukowski aerofoil from a practical point of view. For the most part only a spreadsheet program and pen and paper is required, only for the last portion of the study of the KarmanTrefftz aerofoils a symbolic computer package is employed. Ignoring the concept of a conformal mapping and instead viewing the problem from a parametric point of view, some interesting mappings are obtained. By considering the derivative of the mapped mapping via the chain rule, some new and interesting analytical results are obtained for the Joukowski aerofoil, and numerical results for the KarmanTrefftz aerofoil. Keywords: Joukowski mapping aerofoil; KarmanTrefftz aerofoil; complex

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1. Introduction Modelling the flow of air past the wing of an aircraft is a highly complex problem, and as is common in applied mathematics the problem is made tractable by applying simplifying assumptions. One such assumption reduces the problem to looking at cross-sections of the aerofoil, thus the theory of two-dimensional fluid flow can be utilized. For potential flow in two dimensions, there exists a stream function and a velocity potential such that the flow is irrotational and automatically satisfies the equation of continuity [1]. These two functions satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations, which imply that there exists a complex potential describing the stream function and velocity potential for some fluid flow problem [2]. With the existence of an analytic function (i.e. the complex potential) we can employ the theory of conformal mapping to transform complicated geometries into simpler ones that can be handled analytically [3]. One such complex function was studied by Joukowski [4,5] and is known as the Joukowski transformation, which under certain conditions will map a circle onto a curve shaped like the cross-section of an aerofoil. The mapped aerofoil has the correct shape for wing design, with a
*Email: miccal.matthews@ecu.edu.au y This work is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Grant M. Cox, R.I.P.
ISSN 0020739X print/ISSN 14645211 online 2012 Taylor & Francis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2011.582174 http://www.tandfonline.com

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M.T. Matthews

blunt note and a sharp trailing edge. The study of fluid flow past an aerofoil therefore becomes the simpler task of flow past a circle [6]. The sharp trailing edge of the Joukowski transformation can be shown to form a cusp, and in reality is virtually impossible to construct. A simple modification of the Joukowski aerofoil which makes the trailing edge have distinct tangents was rma n and Erich Trefftz and is known as the developed by Theodore von Ka KarmanTrefftz transformation [7,8]. This transformation has the advantage that it is a more physical aerofoil shape to construct, so much so that KarmanTrefftz aerofoils are closely related to a catalogue of aerofoils known as NACA aerofoils (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, a branch of NASA) [9]. Within the theory of conformal mapping, the Joukowski and KarmanTrefftz transformations are well-studied [6]. However, if we ignore the definition of where the mapping is conformal and consider instead the problem of mapping a circle to an aerofoil shape via the theory of parametric equations, we obtain some interesting mappings. Thinking about the problem in this way, the only mathematical expertise required is calculus, parametric equations and the most basic concepts of complex numbers such as real and imaginary parts, polar form and De Moivres theorem. When complex numbers in Cartesian form and polar form are studied, their graphical representation is illustrated in the Argand plane. The connection between the polar coordinates in the two-dimensional Cartesian plane and the polar form of a complex number in the Argand plane is quickly made, and therefore a plot in the complex plane is just like a plot in the Cartesian plane in particular, we can think of a plot in the Argand plane as a parametric one, enabling the calculus to be applied. This is the point of view taken here for the Joukowski and KarmanTrefftz transformations. One naive question that often arises when one first studies complex numbers is why the need for two forms of complex numbers (Cartesian form and polar form) and the importance of obtaining one form from the other. One of the main reasons for the two forms is that addition and subtraction are easier with Cartesian form, while multiplication and division and particularly powers are easier with polar form. The KarmanTrefftz transformation is an excellent example of this to obtain the mapping both forms are required. To illustrate the basic idea and method considered here, consider the polar form of a simple cardioid [10], r() 1 cos, where x rcos and y rsin. This represents a parametric function with parameter , and a plot of y versus x yields a heart-like shape with a cusp at  . Using the chain rule, the derivative dy/dx is found to be dy 1 cos 1 2 cos  : dx sin 1 2 cos  Therefore the cardioid has horizontal tangents when  /3 and 5/3 and vertical tangents when  2/3 and 4/3. When   the derivative dy/dx has the indeterminate form 0 0, and using lHospitals rule we find that as  ! , dy/dx ! 0, thus there is a horizontal tangent at the cusp and the derivative is a continuous function of  around  . In the following sections the Joukowski and KarmanTrefftz transformations are studied. For the Joukowski transformation a spreadsheet program is used to obtain the mappings. The derivative of the mapping is calculated to show that there is a cusp at the trailing edge. For the KarmanTrefftz transformation a spreadsheet

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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 45 program is again utilized, and the derivative of the mapping is calculated using a symbolic software package to show the existence of distinct tangents at the trailing edge.

2. Joukowski transformation The Joukowski transformation is a complex function that maps a circle into a shape resembling the cross-section of an aerofoil. The conformal nature of the transformation has been studied in detail [6], and here we simply look at it from a purely geometric and calculus point of view. That is, we think of the mapping as defining a parametric curve in two-dimensional space. First, some conventions: the complex plane which contains the set of complex numbers z x iy to be mapped is called the z-plane with axes labelled (x, y) (Re(z), Im(z)). The mapping is written as w u iv f (z), and the complex plane which contains the set of mapped complex numbers w u iv is called the w-plane with axes labelled (u, v) (Re(w), Im(w)). We will consider mappings of a circle (x a)2 (y b)2 R2 with centre (a, b) and radius R, and the mapping is 1 wz , z 2:1

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which is known as the Joukowski transformation. For any complex number z x iy the Joukowski transformation, Equation (2.1), may be written in Cartesian form as     1 1 w u iv x 1 2 iy 1 2 , x y2 x y2 so that equating the real and imaginary parts we have     1 1 ux 1 2 , v y 1 2 : x y2 x y2

2:2

It will be more convenient to use polar coordinates x r()cos, y r()sin to describe the circle, where q 2:3 r a cos  b sin  a cos  b sin 2 R2 a2 b2 , provided R24a2 b2. Then from Equation (2.2) we have     1 1 u r cos , v r sin : r r

2:4

To obtain the shape of an aerofoil, we demand that the circle being mapped passes through the point z 1, which implies that the mapping w will pass through the point w z 1/z 2. The point z 1 implies x 1, y 0 which implies from (x a)2 (y b)2 R2 that q 1 a2 0 b2 R2 ) R a 12 b2 ,

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which implies that 2a 140 from the condition R24a2 b2, that is a4 1/2. Then Equation (2.3) becomes q r  a cos  b sin  a cos  b sin 2 2a 1: 2:5 It is a relatively simple matter to perform the mapping in a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel. By specifying values a and b and a column of degrees, , starting from 0.5 and going to 359.5 in increments of 1 for a total of 359 data points (the reason for the half degrees will become clear when we look at the point 180 ), a column of r() is created, then columns of x rcos and y r sin, and u r(1 1/r)cos and v r(1 1/r)sin may be calculated. By plotting y versus x and v versus u, the original circle and the mapped image may be visualized. Take note of how the regions 0   and   2 of the circle (shown in black and grey, respectively, in all figures) are mapped to their respective portions. For a 0 b the circle has its centre at the origin with radius 1 and passes through the points z 1. The mapping is simply the u-axis between 2 and 2, which is obvious from Equation (2.4) for r 1 where u 2 cos and v 0. For1 1/25a50 and b 0 we get a symmetric profile with a rounded edge (at the leading edge) and a cusp (at the trailing edge). The mapping starts out very large and reduces in size as a gets closer to zero, and the leading edge always passes through the u-axis beyond u 2. For a40 and b 0 we again get a symmetric profile with a rounded leading edge and a cusp at the trailing edge, which are thinner than those for 1/25a50 for the same value of jaj. These mappings are useful for profiles of fins, rudders and struts [6]. As a increases, we obtain larger profiles. Note that for a40 the regions 0   and   2 of the circle are mapped to the upper and lower portion of the profile, while for 1/25a50 they are mapped to the lower and upper portion of the profile, respectively. These mappings are shown in Figures 1 and 2 for a 0, 0.2, 0.4. For a 0 and and fixed b the mapping produces a curved line spanning 2 u 2 above the u-axis for b40 and symmetrically below for b50. This single line may be used as the mean camber line (the line drawn midway between the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil). Later we will show how to obtain the mean camber line for a particular aerofoil. These mappings are shown in Figure 3 for b 0, 0.2 For a 6 0 and b40 the mapping generates an aerofoil shape, which are known as Joukowski aerofoils. If we concentrate on the point w 2, which corresponds to the trailing edge of the aerofoil, we see that the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil seem to be tangent to each other. This of course is well known from a conformal mapping point of view [6], where the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil meet at an angle of zero (i.e. a cusp). One way to visualize this is to consider the case a 0 for a fixed b this makes the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil collapse onto a single line, which is often said to approximate the mean camber line [6] and is tangent to the upper and lower portions for a 6 0. These mappings are shown in Figure 4 for b 0.25 and a 0, 0.2. Using calculus, we can show that the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil do indeed meet at an angle of zero, but the case a 0 and b fixed is not tangent to these

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International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 47

2.5
2 1.5

y
1 0.5

0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

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1.5
2 2.5

(I)
2.5 2
1.5

1 0.5 0

2.5

1.5

0.5 0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

(II)

Figure 1. The mapped circles (I) and Joukowski transformations (II) for b 0 and a 0.4, 0.2, 0.

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M.T. Matthews
2.5
2 1.5

y
1 0.5

0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

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1.5
2 2.5

(I)
2.5 2
1.5

1 0.5 0

2.5

1.5

0.5 0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

(II)

Figure 2. The mapped circles (I) and Joukowski transformations (II) for b 0 and a 0, 0.2, 0.4.

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 49

2.5
2 1.5

y
1 0.5

0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

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1.5
2 2.5

(I)
2.5 2
1.5

1 0.5 0

2.5

1.5

0.5 0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

(II)

Figure 3. The mapped circles (I) and Joukowski transformations (II) for a 0 and b 0.25, 0, 0.25.

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2.5
2 1.5

y
1 0.5

0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

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1.5
2 2.5

(I)
2.5 2
1.5

1 0.5 0

2.5

1.5

0.5 0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

(II)

Figure 4. The mapped circles (I) and Joukowski transformations (II) for b 0.25 and a 0.2, 0, 0.2.

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 51 portions. What we require is the derivative dv/du as a function of  using the chain rule we have
dv dv d  du , du d

where u and v are given by Equation (2.4) and r is given by Equation (2.5). It can be shown that dr rb cos  a sin  , d r a cos  b sin  and     du dr 1 1 1 2 cos  r sin , d d r r     dv dr 1 1 1 2 sin  r cos : d d r r Therefore we have dv r2 r cos  a r cos  a cos2 b sin2 : du r2 b r sin  r sin  a sin2 b cos2 2:6

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We can also plot Equation (2.6) in the spreadsheet, which shows that the derivative is a continuous function of , which implies that the gradient of the mapping as  !  and  !  are equal, which implies that the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil meet at an angle of zero at the trailing edge. As  ! , we have r ! 1 and dv/du has the indeterminate form 0 0, so using lHospitals we have d dr 2 Top 3r 1 cos  2ra r sin  1 r2 d d 2a sin2 2b cos2, d dr Bottom 2rb 3r2 1 sin  r cos  1 r2 d d 2a cos2 2b sin2: Now, as  !  we have r ! 1, dr/d ! b/(a 1), and d Top ! 4b, d therefore
! du

d 2a 12 2b2 Bottom ! , d a1

lim

dv

2ba 1 : a 12 b2

2:7

Notice that the slope at the point   is dependent on a, so setting a 0 for a fixed b yields different slopes. To get the mean camber line corresponding to particular

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^ such that the cases a 6 0 and a a 0 values of a and b, we need to find a value of b have the same slope at  . From Equation (2.7) we have ^ 2ba 1 2b ^ b 4 0, )b 2 2 2 ^ a1 a 1 b 1b where we have taken the positive root since b40. This implies   dv dv b 0, lim a, b lim : ! du ! du a1 Therefore, for an aerofoil with a 6 0 and b40, its mean camber line is that where ^ b=a 1. a 0 and b A plot of the derivatives are shown in Figure 5 for (a, b) (0.2, 0.25), (0, 0.25) ^ where a 0, b ^ b=a 1. The case a 0 is symmetric (see Figure 3) and ^, b and a the cases (0.2, 0.25), 0, 00::25 and (0.2, 0.25), 0, 01::25 intersect at 180 , while 8 2 the cases (0.2, 0.25) and (0, 0.25) intersect at an angle less than 180 . A plot of the Joukowski aerofoils and their corresponding mean camber lines are shown in Figure 6. We have therefore shown that the angle at the trailing edge of the aerofoil is zero by calculating the derivative dv/du as a function of  and showing that it is continuous, in particularly it is continuous at  . From an engineering point of view, a zero angle at the trailing edge is impossible to construct and in reality there will be a non-zero angle at the trailing edge. A transformation that accomplishes this is known as the KarmanTrefftz transformation.

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3. KarmanTrefftz transformation From Equation (2.1) we have w2 z 12 , z w2   z 12 w2 z1 2 ) : w2 z1 z 3:1

The KarmanTrefftz transformation is a modification of the Joukowski transformation and is defined as !   wn z1 n z 1n z 1n , )wn 3:2 wn z1 z 1n z 1n where n is slightly less than 2, and reduces to the Joulowski transformation when n 2. Since n is not an integer for the KarmanTrefftz transformation, evaluating the real and imaginary parts of the transformation is a little tricky looking at Equation (3.1), if we let w1 z z1 nz 1 , w2 z zn , w3 z , z1 z1

then we have w(z) w3(w2(w1(z))). (The expression for w3 comes from solving (w n)/(w n) z for w.) We do this to make the transformations easier, and shows why we use two forms of complex numbers Cartesian form a ib is easier for addition and subtraction (like z 1), and polar form rei is easier for powers (like zn).

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 53

1

0.5

dv/du

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

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0.5

(I)
1

0.5

dv/du

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

0.5

(II)

Figure 5. Derivatives dv/dv of the Joukowski transformations for a 0.2 (I) and a 0.2 ^ b=a 1. (II), for b 0.25 and a 0, b

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2.5 2
1.5

1 0.5 0

2.5

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0.5 0.5
1

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2.5

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1 1.5 2 2.5

(I)
2.5 2
1.5

1 0.5 0

2.5

1.5

0.5 0.5
1 1.5 2 2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

(II)

Figure 6. The Joukowski transformations and correct mean camber lines for b 0.25 and a 0.1 (I) and a 0.1 (II).

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 55 For a complex number z x iy the Cartesian forms of w1 and w3 are x2 y2 1 2y i , x 1 2 y2 x 12 y2 n x2 y2 1 2ny w3 z u3 iv3 i , 2 2 x 1 y x 12 y2 w1 z u1 iv1 while the real and imaginary parts of w2 u2 iv2 are found using De Moivres theorem. Therefore, starting with z x iy we find w1 u1 iv1 where u1 x2 y2 1 , x 12 y2 v1 2y , x 12 y2

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then convert w1 to polar form w1 r1(cos1 isin1) where   q 1 v1 2 2 r1 u1 v1 , 1 tan , u1 then find w2 u2 iv2 where u2 r n 1 cosn1 , then find w3 u3 iv3 where 2 n u2 2 v2 1 u3 , u2 12 v2 2 v2 r n 1 sinn1 ,

v3

2nv2 : u2 12 v2 2

Like with the Jouowski transformation, it is a relatively simple matter to perform the mapping in a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel (using the ATAN2 function in Mircosoft Excel for the polar form of w1). By specifying values of a, b and n and a column of degrees, , starting from 0.5 and going to 359.5 in increments of 1 , a column of r() is created using Equation (2.5), then columns of x r cos and y rsin, and u1, v1, r1, 1, u2, v2, u3 and v3 may be calculated. By plotting y versus x and v3 versus u3, the original circle and the mapped image may be seen. It is also possible to view each intermediate mapping v1 versus u1 and v2 versus u2. By setting n 2 we obtain the original Joukowski aerofoil. For a 0 b the circle has its centre at the origin with radius 1 and passes through the points z 1. For n 2 the mapping is simply the u3-axis between 2 and 2, like for the Joukowski aerofoil. For n42 the mapping forms two arcs above and below the u3-axis outside the interval 25u352, and as n increases, the mapping approached a circle. For 15n52 the same thing happens but now the arcs are inside the interval 25u352. When n 1 the mapping is identical to the original circle, which is obvious from Equation (3.2) which yields w z for n 1. For 05n51 the mapping forms a figure eight shape, and the mappings for n50 are identical (in shape) as those for n40. These mappings are shown in Figure 7 for n 0.5, 1.2, 1.9 and 2.5. For2 1/25a50 and b 0 we get a symmetric profile. For 05n51 we get a figure eight shape that is not closed for positive u3, and for 15n52 we see that the mapping crosses itself forming a loop for small n and does not meet for larger n. For n42 the mapping intersects for small n and is not closed for large n.

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2.5 2 1.5 v3 1 0.5 0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 1 u3 1.5 2 2.5

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1 1.5 2 2.5

Figure 7. KarmanTrefftz transformations for a 0 b and n 0.5, 1.2, 1.9, 2.5.

These mappings are shown in Figure 8 for a 0.2 and n 0.5, 1.2, 1.9 and 2.2. Obviously, none of these mappings resembles an aerofoil! For a40 and b 0 we get a symmetric profile. For 05n51 we get a cardioid-like figure like that in Section 1. For 15n52 we obtain a mapping with a rounded leading edge and a sharp point at the trailing edge. For n near 2, the mappings are useful for profiles of fins, rudders and struts [6]. As a increases, we obtain larger profiles. For n42 the mapping crosses itself forming two loops, the relative sizes of the loops changing as n increases further. These mappings are shown in Figure 8 for a 0.2 and n 0.5, 1.2, 1.9 and 2.2. For a 0 and and fixed b the mapping produces two curved lines. For 05n51 the curves are above and below the u3-axis, like a figure eight. For 15n52 the curve below the u3-axis moves upward, eventually moving above the u3-axis so the mapping forms a crescent. When n 2 the curves meet (so we get a single arc, like the Joukowski aerofoil), and for n42 the crescent returns. Replacing b with b just reflects the mapping in the u3-axis. These mappings are shown in Figure 9 for a 0, b 0.25 and n 0.5, 1.2, 1.9 and 2.2. For a 6 0, b40 and 3/25n52 the mapping generates an aerofoil shape, which are known as KarmanTrefftz aerofoils. If we concentrate on the trailing edge of the aerofoil (which no longer corresponds to the point w 2 for n 6 2 from Equation (3.2), but to the point w n) we see that the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil seem to be not quite tangent to each other. This of course is well known from a conformal mapping point of view [6], where the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil meet at an angle of (2 n). For aerofoils the only angle of interest

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 57

2.5 2 1.5 v3 1 0.5 0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 (I) 0 0.5 1 u3 1.5 2 2.5

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2.5 2 1.5 v3 1 0.5 0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 (II) 0 0.5 1 u3 1.5 2 2.5

Figure 8. KarmanTrefftz transformations for a 0.2 (I) and a 0.2 (II) for b 0 and n 0.5, 1.2, 1.9, 2.2.

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2.5 2 1.5 v3 1 0.5 0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 1 u3 1.5 2 2.5

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1 1.5 2 2.5

Figure 9. KarmanTrefftz transformations for a 0, b 0.25 and n 0.5, 1.2, 1.9, 2.2.

is when 05(2 n)5/2, or 3/25n52. One way to visualize this non-zero angle is to consider the case a 0 for a fixed b this makes the upper and lower portions of the form a crescent, which is often said to approximate the core of the aerofoil3 and is tangent to the upper and lower portions for a 6 0. These mappings are shown in Figure 10 for a 0.2, b 0.25 and n 1.55, 1.75 and 1.95. For completeness, Figure 11 shows original circle, intermediate mappings and aerofoil for a 0.1, b 0.25, n 1.95 and the approximate core of the aerofoil corresponding to a 0. We see that the original circles are first mapped to a circlelike figure and a straight line, then a cardioid-like figure and two straight lines, then finally to the aerofoil and the core. For n 2 the intermediate mappings are a circle and a cardioid. Again using calculus we can show that the upper and lower portions of the aerofoil do indeed meet at a non-zero angle, but the case a 0 and b fixed is not tangent to these portions. What we require is the derivative dv3/du3 (dv3/d)/ (du3/d) as a function of  using the chain rule this would involve calculating    ! dX @X @u2 @r1 @u2 @1 @X @v2 @r1 @v2 @1 d @u2 @r1 @u1 @1 @u1 @v2 @r1 @u1 @1 @u1     @u1 dx @u1 dy @X @u2 @r1 @u2 @1 @u2 @r1 @v1 @1 @v1 @x d @y d  !  @X @v2 @r1 @v2 @1 @v1 dx @v1 dy , @v2 @r1 @v1 @1 @v1 @x d @y d

International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 59

2.5 2 1.5 v3 1 0.5 0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 1 u3 1.5 2 2.5

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1 1.5 2 2.5

Figure 10. KarmanTrefftz transformations for a 0.2, b 0.25 and n 1.55, 1.75, 1.95.

where X u3,v3. The numerator and denominator of dv3/du3 would each have 16 terms, and would have to be differentiated with respect to  since the limit  !  would again be an indeterminate form of type 0 0. This is a formidable task especially since n is not an integer! Instead, we employ the use of a symbolic software package, such as MAPLE. Setting the values of a, b and n, we then define r() first, then defining x, y, u1, v1, r1, 1, u2, v2, u3 and v3. MAPLE will calculate the derivative dv3/du3 as a function of  (the formula is exceedingly long), and using MAPLEs standard4 plot command a plot of dv3/du3 versus  is produced. The MAPLE plots are shown in Figure 12 for a 0.1, b 0.25 and n 1.95 and 2, and in Figure 13 for a 0, b 0.25 and n 1.95. The case n 2 corresponds to what was found previously in the spreadsheet, and for n 1.95 there is a jump discontinuity at  . Therefore the limits  !  and  !  are no longer equal. Notice that the slopes at the point   are dependent on a, so setting a 0 for a fixed b yields the same gap but different slopes (compare Figure 12 (II) and Figure 13 (II)). We may roughly calculate the angle each limit makes from the derivative, since the derivative in its most basic form is rise run and the angle  the tangent makes with the rise . Therefore the angle of the positive x-axis (or u3-axis in this case) satisfies tan  run 1 derivative is tan (dv3/du3), and we find that        dv3  1 dv3   tan1 tan % 2 n: du3 ! du3 !

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2.5 2 1.5 y 1 0.5 0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 1 x 1.5 2 2.5

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1 1.5 2 2.5 (I) 8

6 v1 4

0 2 2 0 2 4 6 u1 8 10 12

6 (II)

Figure 11. The mapped circle, intermediate mappings and KarmanTrefftz transformation for n 1.95, b 0.25 and a 0.1, 0.

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125 105 85 v2 65 45 25 5 50 30

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10 15 35 55 75

10

30

50

70 u2

90

110

130

150

(III) 2.5 2 1.5 v3 1 0.5 0 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 (IV) 0 0.5 1 1.5 u3 2 2.5

Figure 11. Continued.

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Figure 12. Derivatives dv3/du3 of the KarmanTrefftz transformation for 0 near   (II) for a 0.1, b 0.25 and n 1.95 (grey) and n 2 (black).

2 (I) and

To find the core of the aerofoil with the same slopes at the trailing edge is a matter of trial and error it appears that it is approximately the same as for the ^ b=a 1, but Joukowski aerofoil, its mean camber line is that where a 0 and b surely it would depend on n also.

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Figure 13. Derivatives dv3/du3 of the KarmanTrefftz transformation for 0 near   (II) for a 0, b 0.25 and n 1.95.

2 (I) and

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M.T. Matthews

We have therefore shown that the angle at the trailing edge of the aerofoil is non-zero by calculating the derivative dv3/du3 as a function of  and showing that it has a jump discontinuity at  .

4. Modelling the flow past the aerofoils With the spreadsheets created it is possible to study the flow past an aerofoil (or many of the other shapes generated) using the known results for the streamfunction and velocity potential for the flow past a circle [2,6] and the (complex) derivative of the mappings dw/dz. Of course, the mappings now must be conformal it may be shown that the mappings for a40 are in fact conformal [3,6].

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5. Conclusion In this article two applications of conformal mapping to aerofoil theory, namely the Joulowski and KarmanTrefftz transformations, are studied from a geometric and calculus point of view. A spreadsheet program (an often underrated but extremely powerful tool for mathematics education) and knowledge of parametric equations, complex numbers and calculus is all that is required for the most part, and is suitable for undergraduate teaching in terms of a project or extended piece of work. Some interesting mappings are generated, and by calculating the derivative of the mapped aerofoil, some interesting analytical results are obtained for the Joulowski aerofoil, and numerical results for the KarmanTrefftz aerofoil.

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank colleague A/Prof. Ute Mueller for providing the original article by Kidwell Bolger delivered at the Queensland Association of Mathematics Teachers (QAMT) Conference in 1994 which inspired this work, and undergraduate project student Shanaleigh Okely. The authors also acknowledge the helpful suggestions of the referees whose comments materially improved the presentation.

Notes
1. 2. 3. 4. The mapping is actually not conformal for this case [3]. Again, the mapping is actually not conformal for this case [3]. The midpoint of the core would then be the mean camber line. By standard we mean that no extra commands, arguments or tricks are used to tell MAPLE there is a jump discontinuity.

References
[1] R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1960. [2] G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000. [3] R.V. Churchill and J.W. Brown, Complex Variables and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, Tokyo, 1984.

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[4] N. Joukowski, On the profiles of aerofoils, Z. Flugtech. Motorluftschiffahrt 1 (1910), p. 281. [5] N. Joukowski, On the profiles of aerofoils, Z. Flugtech. Motorluftschiffahrt 3 (1912), p. 81. [6] L.M. Milne-Thomson, Theoretical Aerodynamics, 4th ed., Dover, New York, 1973. [7] T. von Karman and E. Trefftz, Potential flow round aerofoil profiles, Z. Flugtech. Motorluftschiffahrt 9 (1918), p. 111. [8] W. Kutta, On plane circulation flows and their applications to aeronautics, Sitz. Ber. Ak.-Wiss., Math. Phys. Kl. 41 (1911), p. 65. [9] E.N. Jacobs, K.E. Ward, and R.M. Pinkerton, The characteristics of 78 related airfoil sections from tests in the variable density wind tunnel, NACA Report #460, 1933. [10] J. Stewart, Calculus, 6th ed., Thomson Brooks/Cole, Toronto, 2007.

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