German Studies Association

WIen lIe Sondevveg BeIale LeJl Us

AulIov|s) HeInul WaIsev SnilI
Souvce Oevnan Sludies Beviev, VoI. 31, No. 2 |Ma, 2008), pp. 225-240
FuIIisIed I German Studies Association
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WIen lIe
Sondevveg
BeIale LeJl Us
HeInul WaIsev SnilI
VandevIiIl
Univevsil
Cvilicisn oJ lIe
Sondevveg
lIesis,
vIiIe
enaIIing IisloviogvapIie innovalion,
veaIened ouv
sense oJ lIe conlinuilies oJ Oevnan
Iislov.
TIis occuvved Iecause no lenaIIe
conlinuil
lIesis vas
pul
in ils
pIace
and Iecause lIe
conlinuil
lIesis
evenluaII
oJJeved?nol lo 1933
Iul lo AuscIvilz?iII accounled Jov JundanenlaI
aspecls
oJ lIe TIivd BeicI's
calaslvopIic
vioIence. A
Consequence
oJ lIis
anli-Sov/de/veg
consensus is nol a JovesIovlened sense
oJ Oevnan
Iislov
as
sucI,
Iul oJ a Oevnan
Iislov
lIal
IeIps expIain lvenlielI-cenluv
Iovvovs.
Oevnan
Iislov
Ias lvavevsed a
Iong, conpIicaled
levvain,
vilI lIe
BeJovnalion,
lIe convuIsions oJ lIe
veIigious
vavs,
lIe
pvecavious
IoId oJ lIe
EnIigIlennenl,
lIe sIocI oJ
NapoIeonic
invasion,
lIe JaiIed BevoIulion oJ
1848,
and lIe
inpacl
oJ BisnavcI as
inpovlanl
navIevs oJ a lovluous
pasl
lIal
ended,
insoJav as
Iislov
can
end,
in
coIIapse.
TIe TIivd BeicI vas nol
pvedelevnined I
lIis
Iislov,
Iul
is unlIinIaIIe vilIoul il.
OlIevvise,
lIe Nazi
peviod
seens divovced Jvon
an
conneclion lo a
Iongev
viev oJ Oevnan
Iislov
and cuIluve.
To nosl
veadevs,
lIe aIove
na
seen sensiIIe
enougI.
FvoJessionaI
Iislovians,
especiaII
in lIe
AngIo-Anevican
IvancI oJ lIe
guiId,
ave oJlen oJ a
diJJevenl
opinion,
vilI lIe
pvevaiIing
viev
seeing
lIe
caIanil
oJ NalionaI SociaIisn
as a
pvoducl
oJ eilIev
an
apocaIplic
lvenlielI
cenluv
ov a davI
nodevnil
connenc
ing
in lIe 1890s. NiaII
Fevguson's
TIe Wav
oJ
lIe
WovIds,
puIIisIed
in
2006,
is
onI
lIe nosl
vecenl,
popuIav,
and
upJvonl
vovI lo laIe lIe Jivsl
posilion. Fevguson
insisls lIal lIe
IIoodIelling
oJ lIe lvenlielI
cenluv
cannol Ie lvaced lo lIe
exlvene
ideoIogies
oJ lIe
nineleenlI,
ov lIe
dnanics
oJ nalionaI
slales,
ov lIe
coIIapse
oJ an inlevnalionaI
sslen
IocIed in coIoniaI
conpelilion,
Iul inslead
lo a
conIinalion oJ Jaclovs?elInic
disinlegvalion,
econonic
voIaliIil,
and lIe
coIIapse
oJ
enpives?lIal
occuvved in lIe Iasl Iundved
eavs.1
TIe veaI conlexl
oJ vIal FviedvicI MeinecIe caIIed lIe Oevnan
CalaslvopIe
is,
in lIis
veading,
nol
Oevnan
al aII.2 As
a
pIenonenon
oJ
IisloviogvapI,
lIis is
sonelIing
nev.
Fvevious
genevalions
oJ Oevnan
Iislovians,
slavling
Jvon FviedvicI MeinecIe
and OevIavd
Billev,
and
incIuding
Hans
BosenIevg
and
Hajo
HoIIovn,
possessed
an acule sense oJ lIe
cIvonoIogicaI deplI
oJ Oevnan and
Euvopean Iislov.
Bul
lIis sense Ias IeJl us.
WI?
TIeve
ave
pvosaic
ansvevs. TIe nineleenlI
cenluv
is JavlIev
ava
lIan il
vas Jov MeinecIe and
Billev,
IolI oJ vIon veve Iovn in lIe nineleenlI
cenluv,
Iul aIso Jov
BosenIevg
and
HoIIovn,
Iovn in lIe Jivsl decade oJ lIe lvenlielI.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
226
Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
Moveovev,
Jov
nan Iislovians,
1989 ended lIe
sIovl,
vioIenl lvenlielI
cenluv,
lIe
age
oJ
exlvenes,
and Jovced
us lo laIe a
sland on vIen il
Iegan.3
As lIe
age
oJ exlvenes vas
paIpaII
navIed
I gIoIaI
vavJave,
genocide,
and
con
pelilion anong
ideoIogicaII
dviven
Enpives,
lIe Fivsl WovId Wav Iecane lIe
JundanenlaI IveaI. TIe
pvessuves
oJ lIal vav
engendeved
lIe
coIIapse
oJ lIe
Bussian
Enpive
and aIIoved
a
Connunisl seizuve oJ
povev.
TIe vav
aIso lIvusl
nosl oJ
Euvope
easl oJ lIe BIine inlo
vevoIulion,
love Easl CenlvaI
Euvope
inlo
a
sevies oJ
nalion-slales, gave
covev Jov lIe Avnenian
genocide,
and
IvougIl
lIe U.S. inlo vovId
poIilics
and
niIilav slvuggIe
on a
gvand
scaIe. TIen
loo,
lIeve vas lIe senseIess
sIaugIlev
Jov an oId IilcI
gone
in lIe leelI/a IolcIed
civiIizalion,
as Ezva Found
pul
il.4
Fov lIe sIovl lvenlielI
cenluv,
lIe Fivsl WovId Wav naIes as nucI sense as
a
navIev oJ ils
inceplion
as does lIe FvencI BevoIulion Jov lIe
Iong
nineleenlI.
Bul as
an
sucI
navIev,
il aIso oIscuves ouv
viev,
and so ve
na
veII asI vIal
lIe nev navIev neans
Jov
ouv
undevslanding
oJ lIe
cenluv
lIal
pveceded
lIe
age
oJ exlvenes. TIis seens
aII lIe nove
uvgenl
in Oevnan
Iislov,
vIeve a
povevJuI IisloviogvapI
once
connecled lIe nineleenlI lo lIe lvenlielI
cenluv.
TIis vas a
IisloviogvapI vepvesenled
on
IolI sides oJ lIe AlIanlic. Fvilz Slevn
Iegins
lIe Jivsl nain
cIaplev
oJ Iis
vecenlI puIIisIed
nenoivs vilI lIe
avvesling
senlence,
TIeve Iave Ieen Jive
Oevnans
I Iave Inovn since
n
IivlI in
1926,
Iul il is lIe
Oevnan
I don'l
Inov,
lIe
Oevnan
oJ lIe
eavs
IeJove WovId Wav
I,
lIal I lIinI I undevsland Iesl.5 Il vas
lIe
Oevnan
oJ Iis
pvoJessionaI
IiJe,
dviven
I
an
aIiding
sense lIal
nineleenlI-cenluv Oevnan
oJJeved lIe
Ies
lo
undevslanding
lIe
lvenlielI-cenluv calaslvopIe.
He vas nol
aIone,
even iJ
olIev Anevican scIoIavs navIed lIe
dividing
Iines
diJJevenlI.
Fov Felev
Oa,
lIe
pIace
oJ
EnIigIlennenl
venained
cenlvaI,
even as Ie
insisled lIal lIe KaisevveicI vas lo
conlenpovavies anlIing
Iul a cIanIev
oJ
polenliaI
Iovvovs. Fov
Oa,
lIe
enIigIlened spivil
oJ IiIevaI aIevlness and
unveIenling
Iul conslvuclive
cvilicisn,
vIicI deJined Weinav's
connunil
oJ
veason
|lIe
oulsidevs oJ WiIIeIninian
Oevnan
as insidevs in lIe
1920s),
vas
nol
JinaII
Jovced inlo
dealI,
ov
exiIe,
unliI 1933.6 Move
pondevousI, Hajo
HoIIovn
pIaced
lIe decisive
inlevpvelive
slvess on
lIe end oJ Oevnan
ideaIisn,
civca
1840,
vIen Oevnan inleIIecluaIs JaiIed lo addvess lIe sociaI
queslion,
naI
ing
il
inpossiIIe
Jov Oevnan ideaIisn lo eIevale ilseIJ lo lIe IeveI oJ a nalionaI
cuIluve and soIve lIe
pvaclicaI
and inleIIecluaI
pvoIIens
oJ aII cIasses.7 LiIe
Slevn and
Oa |and
Oeovge
Mosse and Hans
KoIn),
HoIIovn sIaved a sense
lIal in lIe nineleenlI
cenluv
lIe lvacI
svilcIed,
lo use Max WeIev's Janous
nelapIov,
even iJ lIe JinaI deslinalion oJ
calaslvopIe
vas nol cIeav unliI 193 3.8
A
pavaIIeI
lvadilion
enpIasized
nol lIe inleIIecluaI Iul lIe sociaI dinension oJ
nineleenlI-cenluv ovigins.
Hans
BosenIevg,
lo laIe
onI
lIe nosl
Janous and
inJIuenliaI
exanpIe, avgued
lIal lIe
agvavian
conslilulion oJ Easl
EIIia,
even iJ
Jovned nucI
eavIiev,
nevevlIeIess
pvoved especiaII
deIelevious in lIe conlexl oJ
nineleenlI-cenluv
induslviaIizalion,
cvealing
lIe slvucluvaI naIJovnalions lIal
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HeInul WaIsev SnilI
227
Ied,
uIlinaleI,
lo
calaslvopIe.9
AIexandev OevscIenIvon and
Bavvinglon
Moove,
IislovicaI
socioIogisls
Jov vIon il vas axionalic lIal
nineleenlI-cenluv
slvuc
luves
sIaped lvenlielI-cenluv
oulcones,
JoIIoved siniIav Iines oJ
veasoning.10
TIis sense oJ lIe
povevJuI sIaping
Jovce oJ lIe nineleenlI
cenluv
is nov
passing,
and il is
passing
in
Oevnan
loo. TIis
passing
Ias
vecenlI
Ieen lIe
suIjecl
oJ a
vide-vanging
IislovicaI veJIeclion
I
FauI
NoIle,
enlilIed AIscIied
von 19.
JaIvIundevl
AuJ dev SucIe nacI einev andeven Modevne.11 SuJJice Ieve
lIal in lIe FedevaI
BepuIIic
a
povevJuI IisloviogvapIicaI
lvadilion
anaIlicaII
lied lIe
deep
slvucluves oJ lIe nineleenlI
cenluv
lo lIe
calaslvopIes
oJ lIe
lvenlielI. TIis lvadilion incIuded Wevnev
Conze,
vIo sav lIe Vovn?vz as lIe
IavIingev
oJ a nev
induslviaI
civiIizalion:
FviedvicI
MeinecIe,
vIo discevned a
decisive IveaI vIen Oevnan nalionaIisn Iosl ils ideaIisl
conponenl:
and Fvilz
FiscIev,
vIo lvaced
slvong
conlinuilies Jvon lIe WiIIeIninian lo lIe Nazi
peviod.
Il aIso incIuded OevIavd
Billev,
vIo sav lIe denocvalic nonenl oJ lIe
FvencI BevoIulion as lIe decisive IveaI inlo a davI
nodevnil?a
viev
lIal,
vilI diJJevenl
poIilics
and diJJevenl cIanneIs oJ
inJIuence,
sliII
vesonales,
espe
ciaII
in IsvaeI and Fvance.12 In
Oevnan,
lIe lvadilion oJ
seeing
lIe nineleenlI
cenluv
as
pvoJoundI slvucluving
Jov lIe lvenlielI ancIoved lIe nonunenlaI
snlIelic
vovIs oJ HeinvicI
Augusl
WinIIev and Hans-UIvicI WeIIev.13 TIeiv
inlevpvelalions
oJ lIe
Iongue
duv?e oJ Oevnan
Iislov,
Iovevev diJJevenl in
nallevs oJ
delaiI,
luvned on
nineleenlI-cenluv deveIopnenls,
lIe nalion-slale
and induslviaI
IveaIlIvougI,
and a
nissed vevoIulion in civiI
sociel.
TIis
vas,
oJ
couvse,
lIe cenlvaI lIesis oJ lIe Oevnan
Sondevveg,
vIicI Iad
appeaved
in
nan
guises,
Jvon lIe seIJ-cvilicaI veJIeclions oJ Evnsl
TvoeIlscI,
lo lIe
sveeping,
cIvonoIogicaII deep, Euvopean-vide inlevpvelalion
oJ
Eugen BosenslocI-Huess,
lo lIe
pvoJound
iJ
idiosncvalic essas
oJ HeInulI FIessnev.14 Bul novIeve did
il
appeav
vilI sucI concenlvaled
vigov
as in lIe vovI oJ a
gvoup
oJ
Iislovians,
incIuding
WinIIev and
WeIIev,
Iul aIso
J?vgen
KocIa and VoIIev
BevgIaIn,
vIo
enpIasized Oevnan's speciaI palI
lo
nodevnil.
In vIal
JoIIovs,
I viII
avgue
lIal cvilicisn oJ lIe
Sondevveg
lIesis,
vIiIe
enaIIing IisloviogvapIicaI
innovalion,
aIso veaIened ouv sense oJ lIe conlinu
ilies oJ Oevnan
Iislov.
TIis occuvved Iecause 1. no
lenaIIe
conlinuil
lIesis
vas
pul
in ils
pIace,
and I. lIe
conlinuil
lIesis
evenluaII
oJJeved?nol lo 1933
Iul lo AuscIvilz?iII accounled Jov JundanenlaI
aspecls
oJ lIe TIivd BeicI's
calaslvopIic
vioIence. In ils
pIace,
Oevnan Iislovians Iave
Iegun
lo
accepl
an
anli-Sondevveg
consensus
IeveJl oJ a sense
Jov lIe
deep
conlinuilies oJ Oevnan
Iislov.
TIe vesuIl is a
JovesIovlened sense nol oJ Oevnan
Iislov
as
sucI,
Iul
oJ a Oevnan
Iislov
lIal sevves lo
expIain lvenlielI-cenluv
Iovvovs.
I
TIe
Sondevveg
cane undev
allacI,
nol aJlev
1989,
Iul in lIe
eavI eigIlies.
In
ovdev lo undevsland lIe cuvvenl
IisloviogvapIicaI
nonenl?cIavaclevized
I
lIe aIsence oJ
slvong connecling
lIveads Ielveen lIe nineleenlI and lvenlielI
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228 Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
cenluvies?il is
necessav
lo veluvn lo lIal
Sondevveg
deIale.
AIlIougI
lIeve
veve
nan
Jaceles lo lIis
deIale,
il
cvslaIIized
as a conlesl oJ lvo venavIaIIe
IooIs,
Hans-UIvicI WeIIev's Bas deulscIe
KaisevveicI,
and Bavid BIacIIouvn and OeoJJ
EIe's
TIe FecuIiavilies
oJ
Oevnan
Hislov.15
As is
veII-Inovn,
in TIe Oevnan
KaisevveicI,
Hans-UIvicI WeIIev
posiled
lIe
poIilicaI pvedoninance
oJ lIe
noIiIil
ovev lIe niddIe cIasses in a
peviod
oJ
vapid
induslviaI
cIange,
and lIis
poIilicaI pvedoninance,
cenenled in conslilu
lions and in
poIilicaI
cuIluve
aIiIe,
undevnined
allenpls
al
acIieving denocvac.
Il aIso
genevaled
a
pvopensil
lo doneslic and inlevnalionaI vioIence lIal
Ied,
via a IIind
JIigIl
Jovvavd,
inlo lIe cIaos and IIoodsIed oJ WovId Wav I. TIe
speciaI palI
consisled oJ
Oevnan's
veIalive
poIilicaI
IacIvavdness,
especiaII
vis-?-vis
EngIand,
and lIis
expvessed
ilseIJ nosl
pvoJoundI
in a JaiIed
Iouvgeois
vevoIulion,
a JeudaIized
Iouvgeoisie,
and
an avislocvalic casle vIo conlvoIIed
Ie
inslilulions oJ
govevnnenl, incIuding
lIe
avn
and
Iuveaucvac.
Nol
Oevnan's
nodevnil,
lIen,
Iul ils IacI oJ il delevnined
suIsequenl
disaslevs. BIacIIouvn
and
EIe, convevseI, enpIasized
lIe
nodevnil
oJ lIe
KaisevveicI,
lIe veIalive
slvenglI
oJ lIe
Iouvgeoisie,
and lIe
inpovlance
oJ lIe 1890s as a
poIilicaI
caesuva
in vIicI
popuIisl poIilics
JIouvisIed.
TIe
aIso slvessed lIe Jovnalion oJ
poIilicaI
novenenls vesislanl lo eIile
nanipuIalion
and
poIilicaI ideoIogies
lIal cIaI
Ienged
valIev lIan slaIiIized lIe slalus
quo.
IJ WeIIev
poinled
lo lIe scIevosis
oJ JeudaI
slvucluves,
BIacIIouvn and
EIe
undevscoved lIe
disvuplive inpacl
oJ
nodevn
capilaIisn.
TIe
nodevnizevs,
nol lIe JeudaI
eIile,
veve lIus lIe nain
cavvievs oJ
conlinuil.
NevevlIeIess,
IolI sides
enpIasized conlinuil
Ielveen
lIe Second and TIivd
Enpives,
and
I
exlension Ielveen lIe nineleenlI and
lvenlielI cenluvies. Fov WeIIev lIese conlinuilies vesled
nainI
vilI a JeudaI
eIile
geogvapIicaII
cenleved easl oJ lIe
EIIe:
Jov BIacIIouvn and
EIe,
cavvi
evs oJ
conlinuil
veve nove
lpicaII
Iocaled in lIe
soulI, vesl,
and cenlev oJ
Oevnan
valIev lIan in lIe
easl,
and veve nove
inpovlanl
lo civiI
sociel
valIev
lIan lo lIe slale as sucI.
Al lIe
line,
lIese
posilions poIavized
lIe
discipIine.
Nov,
nove
lIan 25
eavs Ialev,
siniIavilies
appeav
vilI
gvealev cIavil.
In lIe
eavI eigIlies,
IolI
sides sIaved
an avevsion lo sland-aIone inleIIecluaI
ov
poIilicaI Iislov,
and
neilIev side
enpIasized dipIonalic
ov
niIilav Iislov
ov lIe cvuciaI
inpacl
oJ
lIe vioIence oJ
vav. TIe
deIale,
in
Jacl,
IavgeI
luvned
on
lIe Jovn oJ doneslic
poIilics,
vIelIev
nanipuIalion
Jvon aIove ov
gvass
vools noIiIizalion Jvon
IeIov. TIe nalion slale venained lIe
Jvane,
vilI lIe
pvoIIen
oJ Iov nalions
and socielies
pevneale
eacI olIev
IavgeI
unaddvessed.16
SiniIavI,
coIoniaIisn
vas
inpovlanl
Jov veasons oJ doneslic
poIilics
Iul neilIev as
expevience
nov as
lIe
pvaclice
oJ doninalion. Mosl
decisiveI,
lIe HoIocausl
vas nol a veJevence
poinl.
In lIe JinaI
anaIsis,
lIe
Sondevveg
deIale
vas aIoul
1933,
nol
1941,
aIoul
poIilics,
nol nass nuvdev.
TIe
gveal
conlviIulion oJ das deulscIe KaisevveicI vas lo ancIov
an
anaIsis
oJ
slale
povev
in a slvucluvaI
anaIsis
oJ
econon
and
sociel,
and lo denonslvale
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
HeInul WaIsev SnilI
229
pvoJound
conlinuilies
acvoss lIe
signiJicanl
vupluves
oJ
vav, vevoIulion,
and lIe
lenpovav
slaIiIizalion oJ
Iouvgeois Euvope.
Il aIso ansveved lIe
queslion,
cenlvaI
lo lIe
genevalion
oJ HoIIovn and
BosenIevg, vI Oevnan
veeved Jvon lIe
Wesl in ils
passage
lo
nodevnil.
FecuIiavilies,
I
conlvasl,
dininisIed lIe
inpov
lance oJ lIis
veeving,
and
convincingI
sIoved lIal lIe nodeI
depended
on an
ideaIized
undevslanding
oJ
EngIisI deveIopnenls.
Bul BIacIIouvn and
EIe
did
nove lIan cvilicize a
caveJuII vvougIl
ediJice. In
FecuIiavilies,
lIe
aIso evecled
a nev
JvanevovI,
cenleved
on a nev
slIe
oJ
poIilics
and lIe nodevn eIenenls
oJ
InpeviaI sociel,
and
lIis,
in
luvn,
opened
a
space
lIal aIIoved Iislovians lo
connecl lIe KaisevveicI lo lIe TIivd BeicI in innovalive
vas.
CiviI
sociel,
in
WeIIev's
anaIsis nanipuIaled
Jvon
aIove,
suddenI
seened lo nallev on ils ovn
levns. As
a
vesuIl,
lIe vesl oJ
Oevnan,
and nol
jusl
Fvussia,
cane inlo
sIavpev
Jocus,
vIiIe
veIigion,
IocaI
idenlilies,
associalionaI
IiJe,
and lIe Iav aII assuned
a
nev
uvgenc.
To Ie
suve,
lIese
lopics
Iad Ieen lIe
suIjecl
oJ inlensive veseavcI
IeJove,
Iul lIe nev veseavcI couId nov cIain
cenlvaIil.
TIis vas
Iead
sluJJ,
and il
inspived
a
gveal
deaI oJ nev
veseavcI,
sone
oJ
vIicI,
especiaII
lIe veseavcI oJ
Janes BelaIIacI,
Ias concIuded lIal lIe
oviginaI
deIale cenleved
on JaIse dicIolonies and lIal BIacIIouvn and
EIe iniliaII
un
deveslinaled lIe
inpovlance
oJ IallIes
von
I
consevvalives and oveveslinaled
lIe
aIiIil
oJ
popuIisls
in lIe 1890s lo noIiIize lIe nasses.17
NevevlIeIess,
oung
scIoIavs in lIe Iale
eigIlies
IeneJiled
innenseI
Jvon lIe
possiIiIilies
lIal
BIacIIouvn and
EIe's cIaIIenge opened,
in lIe sane
va
lIal
pvevious
scIoIavs
Iad used WeIIev's KaisevveicI
as a
slvucluving
device and a soundIoavd.
Yel lIe connilnenl in FecuIiavilies lo Oevnan conlinuilies vas nove an
IivaIenl lIan lIe
iniliaII IiIevaling enpIasis
on lIe
nodevnil
oJ
poIilics
in
lIe 1890s
inpIied.
TIis is
pavlI
Iecause lIis connilnenl aIso cane
paived
vilI
an
expIicil aInegalion
oJ
Iongev-levn
Oevnan conlinuilies. On lIis
poinl
EIe
vas
especiaII
cIeav,
insisling
lIal lIe
avgunenl
in FecuIiavilies vedivecls
pvinav
allenlion
ava
Jvon lIe
deepev
IislovicaI conlinuilies and lovavds
lIe innediale
Jascisn-pvoducing conjuncluves.
18
SpeciJicaII,
lIis
enlaiIed,
accovding
lo
EIe, pIacing
lIe slvess
[on]
lIe nove innediale civcunslances
undev vIicI lIe Nazis vose lo
povev?naneI,
lIe
succeeding conjucluves
oJ
lIe Fivsl WovId
Wav,
lIe
poslvav
cvisis oJ
1917-1923,
and lIe vovId econonic
cvisis aJlev 1929.19 In Iis
vecenlI puIIisIed
vovI,
A CvooIed Line Fvon CuIluvaI
Hislov
lo lIe
Hislov oJ Sociel, EIe
veluvned
lo lIis
issue,
conlending
lIal lIe
pvoIIen
oJ lIe
Sondevveg
vesled in ils anli-Mavxisl
lIvusl,
especiaII
evidenl
in ils
enpIasis
on lIe
pevsislence
oJ JeudaI and
pve-induslviaI
slvucluves in ex
pIanalions
oJ Nazisn.
B
lIese
neans,
Ie
vviles,
capilaIisn
vas
Ieing
Iel oJJ
lIe IooI.20 BIacIIouvn's
suIsequenlI puIIisIed
veJIeclions Iave
Iedged
lIe
queslion
oJ
conlinuil
vilI nove
civcunspeclion,
Iul aIso vilI nove
equivo
calion.
InpIicilI,
ouv
queslioning
oJ lIe
vigid conlinuil
Jvon BisnavcIian
Oevnan
lo 1933 Ied
us lo undevIine lIe
inpovlance
oJ lIe Fivsl WovId Wav as
a
caesuva?
BIacIIouvn
expIained
in an inlevviev vilI lIe
jouvnaI
Oevnan
Hislov
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
230
Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
in 2004. He lIen added lIal one oJ lIe nosl
inlevesling
issues
loda
is Iov
ve can veconciIe lIe undouIled
inpovlance
oJ conlinuilies
lIvougI
lIe
peviod
1890-1930,
lIe eva
oJ'cIassic
nodevnil'.21
ExpIicil
avlicuIalions
onI
leII
pavl
oJ lIe
slov,
Iovevev. TIe slvucluve oJ lIe
avgunenl
in FecuIiavilies aIso sIiJled considevaIIe
veigIl ava
Jvon lIe Iale 18 7
0s,
lIe second Joundalion oJ lIe
Enpive,
and lo lIe
1890s,
vIicI lIen
Iecane,
lo use
FauI NoIle's
levn,
lIe
Ie
eIenenl oJ a
Iavgev inlevpvelalion
oJ
Iislov.22
Bul
Iov did lIe 1890s
acluaII
slvucluve
suIsequenl Iislov,
insoJav as lIal
Iislov
Iad
sonelIing
lo
sa
aIoul 1933?
EIe,
nove lIan
BIacIIouvn,
Ias
allenpled
lo ansvev
lIe
queslion expIicilI.
In
Jacl,
Ie Ias
given
lvo
ansvevs,
one indeIled
lo a
nodiJied Mavxisl
anaIsis,
lIe olIev lo BelIev FeuIevl. TIe Jivsl ansvev
vas Jocused on
1933
as
sucI,
lIe second on lIe
IvulaIil
oJ lIe TIivd BeicI.
n
EIe's
Jivsl
ansvev,
avlicuIaled in WIal Fvoduces
Fascisn,
poinled
nol lo lIe
IodiI expevience
oJ
vav,
Iul lo
capilaIisl coIIapse
as a
vesuIl oJ vav and vevoIulion.
TIis
coIIapse
occuvved Jivsl in lIe cvisis oJ 1917 lo
1923,
lIen in lIe
Bepvession
oJ 1929. TIese ave
EIe's
innediale
conjuncluves lIe
luvned,
in Iis
anaIsis,
nol on an ivon veIalion Ielveen slvucluve and
supevslvucluve, econon
and
ideoIog,
Iul on a
cvisis oJ
vepvesenlalion
and a cvisis oJ
Iegenon.23
TIe
Jivsl veJevved lo lIe
inaIiIil
oJ
econonicaII
doninanl cIasses and lIeiv
najov
econonic Jvaclions lo
puvsue
lIeiv inlevesls in a
denocvalic
Jvane,
lIe second
lo lIe
coIIapse
oJ denocvalic
Iegilinac.
TIe doninanl
cIasses,
vIicI in
EIe's
anaIsis
veve nol
pve-JeudaI
eIiles Iul
capilaIisls,
lIen
sougIl
vadicaI soIulions
lo lIe lvin cvisis oJ
vepvesenlalion
and
Iegenon.
Move lIan
an
olIev
cIass,
lIe
Iouvgeoisie
noIiIized lIe vide JieId oJ civiI
sociel,
and in lIis
va
cane lo
exevcise
a
Iind oJ
Iegenon
Iased on
anli-SociaIisn,
inlensiJied aJlev lIe Bus
sian
BevoIulion,
and lIe Jvuslvalions oJ deJealed nalionaIisn. CIass venained lIe
dviving
Jovce oJ lIis
anaIsis,
as il Iad Ieen Jov
Ovansci,
and
povev
is Iocaled nol
vilI lIe slale Iul in civiI
sociel.24
TIe 1890s venained an
inlevpvelive Iinge,
as
lIis vas lIe decade in vIicI civiI
sociel
Iecane
veIaliveI
aulononous Jvon
lIe
slale,
vIicI Jov Ovansci Iad Ieen a
pvecondilion
oJ
Iegenon
in lIe sense
Ie inlended lIe levn.
EIe's
Jivsl
ansvev,
oJJeved as a
pvovisionaI pvogvan
Jov Juluve
veJIeclion,
nevev
acIieved
scIoIavI
assenl?nol Iecause oJ lIe
anaIsis
oJ lIe
1890s,
vIicI
venained
conpeIIinig,
Iul Iecause il
pvoved inpossiIIe
lo sIov lIal econoni
caII
doninanl cIasses and lIeiv
najov
econonic Jvaclions
ovganized
lIe vise oJ
HilIev ov Iis seizuve oJ
povev.25 Big
Iusiness Ienl scanl naleviaI
suppovl
lo lIe
NalionaI SociaIisls
duving
lIe Weinav
BepuIIic
and lIe
pvesidenliaI
caIinels.
Even in
1932,
JinanciaI suIsidies venained
insigniJicanl conpaved
lo conlviIu
lions lIe Nazis
gavneved
Jvon
gvass
vools
ovganizing
and snaII and nediun-sized
Iusinesses.26
Hedging
lIeiv
Iels,
Oevnan's Iig
Iusinesses
spvead
lIeiv
none
anong
non-sociaIisl
pavlies.27
Nov is il evidenl lIal inJIuenliaI Iusiness Ieadevs
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HeInul WaIsev SnilI
231
pIaed
a
signiJicanl
voIe in lIe
MacIlevgveiJung.
Inslead,
niIilav
and
agvavian
eIiles,
especiaII
lIose cIose lo
HindenIuvg,
veve
decisive Jov lIe inlevnaI na
neuveving
lIal
IvougIl
HilIev lo
povev.28
Moveovev, an
anaIsis
oJ
conlinuil
lIal
pIaced
an
enpIasis
on
sociaI cIass and nodevn cavvievs oJ
conlinuil
Iad lo
conJvonl lIe vesuIls oJ
J?vgen
FaIlev's
invesligalions
oJ lIe Iasis oJ Nazi eIeclovaI
success. TIese vesuIls sIov lIal nol sociaI cIass Iul
pvevious poIilics |especiaII
consevvalive
slvongIoIds)
and
veIigious
conJession
pvoved
lIe nosl
povevJuI
indicalovs oJ
suppovl
Jov lIe
NSBAF:
and lIal lIe Nazis veceived
signiJicanlI
IigIev
IeveIs oJ
suppovl
lIan
pveviousI
assuned Jvon induslviaI
vovIevs,
and
signiJicanlI
Iess Jvon vIile-coIIav
enpIoees.
TIe Nazis veve
aIso
ovevvepve
senled
anong
educaled eIiles and vuvaI Fvoleslanl
volevs,
especiaII
in novlIevn
Oevnan.29
In lIe
end,
neilIev lIe
success oJ lIe
NSBAF,
nov ils
appeaI,
nov
HilIev's
MacIlevgveiJung
couId Ie
cIoseI
veIaled lo
capilaIisl
cvisis, excepl
in
lIe
genevic
and seIJ-evidenl sense lIal lIe Oveal
Bepvession
consliluled lIe
Ivoad
IacIgvound againsl
vIicI evenls
unJoIded,
and lIal anli-SociaIisn and
anliconnunisn
gIued
HilIev's
suppovlevs logelIev.
TIe causaI
expIanalion
lIal IinIed lIe aIlevnalive navvalive oJ FecuIiavilies
Jovvavd lo lIe vise oJ Jascisn
JaiIed, lIeveJove,
lo
convince,
and
vas nol
puvsued,
as Jav as I an
avave,
in a
suslained
nannev
lIvougIoul
lIe ninelies. Yel lIe nev
Jocus
on lIe cvilicaI
inpovlance
oJ lIe 1890s as a caesuva oJ nodevn Oevnan
Iislov
Iecane
signiJicanl
in
a
diJJevenl conlexl. Il vas lIe iniliaI decade oJ
cIassicaI
nodevnil?a
levn lIal BelIev FeuIevl Iovvoved Jvon avl
Iislov
lo
denole a
peviod
oJ incveased
conpIexil
and
signiJicanl
lvansJovnalions in scien
liJic
veseavcI,
sociaI
veJovn,
cil pIanning,
consunev
IeIaviov,
popuIav poIilics,
lIe
avls,
and nucI eIse.30 WilIin lIis
vuIvic,
a JIood oJ
iIIuninaling
veseavcI
pvovided
Iislovians vilI a JuIIev sense oJ lIe sociaI and inleIIecluaI
expevinenla
lion lIal avcIed acvoss lIvee
decades,
giving
us an
inJinileI
vicIev
picluve
oJ lIe
WiIIeIninian
peviod
and lIe Weinav
BepuIIic.31
Moveovev,
Iislovians Jvaned
lIal
picluve
vilIin
a
lIeovelicaII
vevsaliIe
conceplion
oJ
nodevnil,
and
lIis,
in
luvn,
Ias Ienl lIe
speciaIized
veseavcI videv
appeaI.
Hislovians
nov dvav Iines
oJ conlinuilies Jvon WiIIeIninian
Oevnan lIvougI
lIe Weinav
BepuIIic,
sonelines lo lIe TIivd
BeicI,
Iul as oJlen lo lIe FedevaI
BepuIIic
oJ
Oevnan.32
Conpavisons
vilI olIev veslevn counlvies ave nol
sinpI negalive,
and indeed
lIe conlvadiclions oJ Weinav Iave laIen on lIe sIeen oJ lIe univevsaI.
Yel in ils iniliaI
JovnuIalion,
lIe
avgunenl
Jov cIassicaI
nodevnil posiled
cIose conneclions Ielveen cuIluvaI and
poIilicaI
cvisis. In Bie Weinavev
BepuIIiI,
Jov
exanpIe,
BelIev FeuIevl navvaled lIe end oJ lIe Weinav
BepuIIic
as an
allenpl
lo conIine lecInocvalic
eJJicienc
vilI aulIovilavian nelIods oJ sociaI
conlvoI in ovdev lo vesoIve lIe lensions lIal Iad Ieen cvealed
I
nodevnizalion
and
IeigIlened I
lIe cIvonic cvises oJ lIe 1920s. FeuIevl looI
up
insigIls
oJ
MicIeI
FoucauIl,
as veII as
oJ
J?vgen
HaIevnas and NovIevl EIias. He
enpIa
sized lIe
cenlvaIil
oJ concenlvaled
allenpls
al
nanagenenl
and sociaI
discipIine
in a
sociel
sIol
lIvougI
vilI conlvadiclion. And Ie
pIaced
inslvunenlaI
veason
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
232 Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
and lIe
spivil
oJ science al lIe cenlev oJ lIe Weinav
Expevience.
Moveovev,
Iis
insigIls
venain
venavIaII suggeslive, especiaII
Jov lIe niddIe
eav
oJ lIe
Weinav
BepuIIic.
Yel vIal
inpvesses
al lIe end oJ Weinav is nol conlvoI Iul Ioss oJ
il,
and es
peciaII
lIe Ioss oJ inilialive lo lIe
pvincipIed ideoIogicaI pavlies
oJ IeJl and
vigIl,
vIose soIulions veve
sslenic
and IvulaI.33 FeuIevl
convincingI avgued
lIal
I
1930 lIe
BepuIIic pvoved
unaIIe lo sIouIdev lIe nodevn veIJave
pvovisions
on vIicI il Iad Iased
pavl
oJ ils
Iegilinac.
In lIis
va,
a nodevnisl
expevinenl
gone avv
JueIed JuvlIev disconlenl. Yel lIis
insigIl
leIIs us aIoul
JuI
1930,
vIen
lIe
BeicIslag
dissoIved ovev lIe
inaIiIil
oJ
capilaI
and IaIov lo
conpvonise
on
sociaI
insuvance,
nol
SeplenIev
oJ lIe sane
eav,
vIen lIe NSBAF acIieved
ils Jivsl
signiJicanl
eIeclovaI
viclov.
Moveovev,
even aJlev
SeplenIev
1930,
a
Jascisl oulcone vas
IavdI pvedelevnined.
Bul inslead oJ
JoIIoving poIilics
al
lIe
cenlev,
and
asIing
aIoul lIe
possiIiIil
oJ an aulIovilavian couvse
|vIicI,
Iovevev IoalIsone
given
lIe denocvalic
pvonise
oJ
Weinav,
vouId
suveI
Iave
Ieen
pveJevaIIe
lo a
genocidaI vegine),
FeuIevl sIiJled lIe
enpIasis
lo
poIilicaI
cuIluve,
vIicI Ie lIen JoIded inlo a cvisis oJ cuIluvaI
nodevnil.
His
expIanalion
enpIasized
Ivoad
poIilicaI slIe
valIev lIan concvele
poIilicaI pvogvans,
nodevnisl
apocaIplic
visions valIev lIan oIdev
ideoIogies.34
NalionaIisn, niIilavisn,
and
anlisenilisn
ave,
Jov
exanpIe, IavgeI
aIsenl in Iis
expIanalion,
vIicI leIIs us
nove aIoul lIe
Iapse
inlo
IavIavil
lIan lIe seizuve oJ
povev
as sucI. In
Jacl,
lIe
lIesis oJ cIassicaI
nodevnil
eIided lIe vovlex oJ lIe
vanisIing poinl
oJ 1933.35
WilI Jev
exceplions, suIsequenl
veseavcI Ias vovIed vilI a sIiJled
vanisIing
poinl,
and,
in lIis
conlexl,
EIe's
second
avgunenl,
vIicI
pIaced
lIe 1890s as
navIing
lIe onsel oJ
an anIivaIenl Iul davI
nodevnil,
assuned JundanenlaI
inpovlance.
As Edvavd Boss BicIenson Ias
avgued,
lIis lIesis
vepvesenls
lIe
oulIines oJ a nev naslev navvalive oJ nodevn Oevnan
Iislov,
and lIal nav
valive Ias a Junclion in Oevnan
IisloviogvapI
siniIav lo lIal
Iong vivluaII
nonopoIized I
lIe
Sondevveg
lIesis.36 TIis
pavadign,
vIicI
gives pvoninence
lo
valionaIil,
science,
and lIe
discipIining
oJ lIe
Iod
in
avgunenls
Jov conlinu
il,
vendevs Oevnan
Iislov
as a
pavlicuIav
vavianl oJ
nodevnil,
and
Oevnan
in lIe
eavI
lvenlielI
cenluv
nol as a nalion
Iaving
lvouIIe
nodevnizing,
Iul
as a nalion oJ
lvouIIing nodevnil.37
TIe
pavadign
vesls on a
vaviel
oJ
scIoIavI
conlviIulions,
Iul ils lIeovelicaI
Ieavings
ave aIso indeIled lo BelIev
FeuIevl,
and in
pavlicuIav
Iis seninaI
essa,
TIe Oenesis oJ lIe FinaI SoIulion Jvon lIe
Spivil
oJ
Science,
Jivsl
puIIisIed
in
1988. In
Oenesis,
FeuIevl
posiled
a
JalaII
vacisl
dnanic |JalaIen
vassisliscIen
EnlvicIIungsdnaniI)
lIal luvned on lIe
pvaclicaI
diIennas oJ
pvogvessive
sociaI
veJovn and lIe lIeovelicaI
posilions
slaIed oul
I
lIe
luvn-oJ-lIe-cenluv
Iu
nan sciences.
FalaII
nev,
accovding
lo
FeuIevl,
vas lIe
quaIilalive
division oJ
Iunanil
inlo
vovlI
and vovlIIess
peopIe, coupIed
vilI a viev lIal nol nan is
lIe
neasuve,
sliII Iess individuaI nen and
vonen,
Iul lIe
Iod
oJ lIe nalion ov
lIe vace. FeuIevl advanced lIis
avgunenl
in a
Iecluve in
1987,
in lIe aJlevnalI
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HeInul WaIsev SnilI
233
oJ lIe
HisloviIevslveil,
and il
Iegins I cenleving
lIe discussion nol on
1933,
ov
on lIe cIavaclev oJ
Jascisn,
Iul
on AuscIvilz. TIis is one veason
vI
lIe lexl is
so cvuciaI il navIs
an
inpovlanl
nonenl in lIe sIiJl oJ lIe
vanisIing poinl
oJ
Oevnan
Iislov
Jvon 1933 lo 1941/2. FeuIevl lIen deJines lIe cenlvaI
queslion
as vIal
nigIl expIain
lIe
ovigins
oJ lIe
decision,
unpavaIIeIed
in Iunan Iis
lov,
lo use
IigI lecInoIog
lo anniIiIale cevlain
aIslvaclI
deJined
calegovies
oJ
viclins.38 TIe nodevnisl lIvusl inIeves in lIe
enpIasis
FeuIevl
puls
on
IigI
lecInoIog
Iul aIso
on
aIslvaclI
deJined
calegovies
oJ viclins. TIe Iallev
levn siluales lIe viclins oJ lIe HoIocausl in lIe conlexl oJ an
enIigIlennenl
pvojecl
oJ
naning
and
counling
individuaIs in levns oJ
cilizensIip, elInicil,
and
sexuaIil.
WIeve
veIigion
Jils in lIis scIene is nove diJJicuIl lo
discevn,
and
one senses lIal FeuIevl JeIl lIe lension as veII. He
expIicilI avgued
Iis
case
againsl
lIe lvadilionaI
Iislov
oJ anlisenilisn and lIe
pevseculion
oJ lIe
Jevs, despile
lIe Jacl lIal
JevisI
viclins consliluled
I
Jav lIe
Iavgesl
gvoup
on lIe
cIavge-sIeel
oJ Nazi levvov
up
lo 1945.
39
Nol lIal FeuIevl denied lIe
inJIuence oJ
anlisenilisn: valIev,
Ie suIsuned il undev
a Ivoadev
calegov
oJ a
JalaII
vacisl
dnanisn pvesenl
vilIin lIe Iunan and sociaI sciences.40
TeIIing,
in lIis
conlexl,
veve luvns oJ
pIvase
sucI as
anlIvopoIogicaI
vacisn?vilI ils
cenlevpiece,
anlisenilisn.41
WIeve does lIe
diJJicuIl
Iie?
SeIJ-evidenlI,
FeuIevl undevslood lIal anli
senilisn and elInic
anlagonisn
Iave a
Iongev Iislov
lIan
luvn-oJ-lIe-cenluv
JovnuIalions dvavn Jvon lIe Iunan sciences. TIe
queslion,
Iovevev,
is vIelIev
Iis
expIanalion
can
incovpovale
lIen in lIeovelicaI levns.42 Heve lIe ansvev is
Iess
cIeav,
and in
an
case
incovpovaling
lIe
Iongev
Iislovies vouId necessilale
aIandoning
lIe
cIvonoIogicaI
navIev,
lIe
svilcIing poinl,
vIicI FeuIevl
pIaces
civca 1900. Il is
possiIIe
lo
avgue,
Jov
exanpIe,
lIal nalionaIisn and anlisenilisn
veve nol
pavlicuIavI
vivuIenl in
Oevnan:
lIal
lIe
veve nove
deepI
ancIoved
in
Fvance,
and
nove vioIenl in Bussia. TIe oIdev
ideoIogies,
in lIis Iine oJ
avgu
nenlalion,
vouId conslilule
pavl
oJ a
genevaI IacIgvound
Iul veve nol as causaI
vilI
vespecl
lo
genocide.
Bul
lIen,
given
lIe
svilcIing poinl
oJ
1900,
il venains
inpovlanl
lo sIov
a causaI conneclion Ielveen Oevnan
nodevnil,
as
navIed
I
lIe Iunan
sciences,
and lIe HoIocausl. TIe
evidenliav
voad
lpicaII
lvav
eIed vuns
lIvougI
nuvdevous
IiopoIilics
vaciaI
Igiene,
sleviIizalion
canpaigns,
eulIanasia, T-4, BeIzec,
and lIe exlevninalion
canps
oJ
Opevalion
BeinIavd,
vIicI dvev ils
speciaIisls dispvopovlionaleI
Jvon lIe eulIanasia
canpaign.
In
lIis
va,
lIe HoIocausl
can Ie
geneaIogicaII
veIaled
|BicIinson)
lo luvn-oJ
lIe-cenluv IiopoIilics?lIe
vaciaI
Igiene
oJ AIJved
FIoelz,
Jov
exanpIe.
TIis venains
an
inpovlanl
and
suggeslive
Iine oJ
veasoning.
Yel il nevils
vecaIIing
lIal lIe Oevnan
Sociel
Jov BaciaI
Hgiene
Iad Iul 425 nenIevs
in
1913,
and Jevev in lIe Weinav
BepuIIic.43 B
conlvasl,
lIe
Iavge
nalionaIisl
associalions counled lIeiv nunIevs in lIe Iundveds oJ
lIousands,
and incveased
in
popuIavil
in lIe Weinav
BepuIIic.
TIe anlisenilic Oevnan BeJense and
OJJense
League
)ScIulz-
und
TvulzIund),
Jov
exanpIe,
veacIed
neavI
200,000
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234 Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
nenIevs vIen il vas Ianned in
1922:
in
1930,
lIe
SlaIIIeIn,
oviginaII
an
ovga
nizalion oJ Jovnev JvonlIine
soIdievs,
counled ils
nenIevsIip
al civca 5
00,000.44
Nov did
eugenics
Iave a discevnaIIe eJJecl
on
govevnnenl IegisIalion.
TIe
BeicIslag
did nol
appvove
a
singIe eugenics
neasuve,
vIelIev in lIe KaisevveicI
ov in lIe Weinav
BepuIIic?in
conlvasl,
Jov
exanpIe,
lo a
nunIev oJ Anevican
slales,
IiIe
Indiana,
vIicI
passed conpuIsov
sleviIizalion
IegisIalion
in
1907,
and
CaIiJovnia,
vIicI
passed
sucI
IegisIalion
in 1909.45 In
Oevnan,
lIeve vas
one acadenic cIaiv Jov vaciaI
Igiene,
eslaIIisIed in MunicI in
1923,
and lvo
inslilules Jov lIe
slud
oJ Iunan
Ievedil
lIe Kaisev WiIIeIn Insliliule oJ
AnlIvopoIog,
Hunan
Hevedil,
and
Oenelics,
Jounded in BevIin in
1927,
and
Evnsl B?din's
pscIialvic
Inslilule in MunicI. A discouvse oJ
eugenics cevlainI
exisled
pviov
lo
1933:
il even
gained
nonenlun in lIe Iasl
eavs
oJ lIe Weinav
BepuIIic.
Bul il venained
inslilulionaII navginaI
and vilIoul inJIuence on
lIe sociaI
IegisIalion
so
cenlvaI lo FeuIevl's Ivoadev
anaIsis.46
In
Jacl,
il nevev
acIieved
signiJicanl
successes unliI AdoIJ HilIev cane lo
povev.
TIin veeds oJ
conlinuil,
vaciaI
Igiene
and sleviIizalion
canpaigns
cannol Ieav lIe
anaIlicaI
veigIl
lIe
IiopoIilics pavadign
Ias
assigned
lo lIen.
One aIso vondevs aIoul lIe
pIace
oJ
IigI lecInoIog
in lIe
expIanalion
oJ
lIe anlecedenls oJ lIe HoIocausl. Heve lIe
Jiguve
oJ AuscIvilz as a
vanisIing poinl
exevls a
gveal
deaI oJ Jovce. Bul IvulaI Jace-lo-Jace
IiIIings I
lIe
WeIvnacIl,
lIe ElInic Oevnan BeJense
Jovces,
lIe Ovdev
FoIice,
and lIe
Einsalzgvuppen
pveceded
AuscIvilz.47 BeJove
AuscIvilz,
lIeve veve aIso lIe Iase and IvulaI
sIaugIlevs
al Fonav
|ViInius),
Fovl I7
|Kovno),
and BaIi Yav
|Kiev).
TIeve veve
counlIess unnaned
IiIIings
al lIe
edge
oJ naIesIiJl
pils,
vavines,
and anlilanI
dilcIes
lIvougIoul
Easlevn
Euvope.
And lIeve vas lIe
expIicilI
coIoniaI laclic
oJ
concenlvaling
viclins in
gIellos
and
aIIoving
lIen lo
slavve,
a
poIic
lIal
Iavd-Iine allvilionisls advocaled
againsl
lIe nove
econonicaII
valionaI
oc
cupalionaI
aulIovilies,
lIe
pvoduclionisls,
vIo
Ioped
lo use lIe
JevisI gIellos
lo enIance
JevisI
econonic
polenliaI
in lIe sevvice oJ lIe BeicI.48 Even lIe
iniliaI exlevninalion
canps,
CIeInno and lIe
canps
oJ
Opevalion
BeinIavd
|BeIzec, SoIiIov,
and
TveIIinca)
IiIIed
Jevs
nol vilI
IigI lecInoIog
Iul vilI
cavIon nonoxide
vunning
oJJ inlevnaI conIuslion
engines,
a
nineleenlI-cenluv
lecInoIog aIvead pul
lo nass use in lIe aulonoIiIe al lIe
Ieginning
oJ lIe
lvenlielI
cenluv. Conpavalive
considevalion, noveovev,
suggesls
lIal
genocide
vequives
nol
IigI lecInoIog
Iul
exlvene,
iJ
nonenlav, dispavilies
oJ
povev.
In
Bvanda,
niIilanl Hulu
gvoups
IiIIed ovev
500,000
and
pevIaps
as
nan
as a
niIIion Tulsi Ielveen
eavI ApviI
and
nid-JuI
1994.
Jusl
as in
1994,
nosl
Jevs
IiIIed
I
1943 veve viclins oJ avcIaic Jovns oJ nuvdev and
ovdinav
Iinds oJ
lecInoIog.
TIe
HoIocausl,
accovding
lo UIvicI
HevIevl,
vas in a
pvonounced
va
a
pvocess
oJ Iunan deslvuclion oJ
vev lvadilionaI,
indeed avcIaic Jovns vilI
a
covvespondingI IigI
nunIev oJ divecl
pevpelvalovs.49
TIese avcIaic Jovns
seen as
inpovlanl
as lIe HoIocausl's vauIled
nodevnil: lIe
aIso Iave
a
Iislov,
in
pavlicuIav
vilI
vespecl
lo
Jevs,
Iul aIso vilI
vespecl
lo elInic
anlagonisn.
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HeInul WaIsev SnilI
235
EIe's
second
avgunenl
veIies
IeaviI
on
FeuIevl,
and vovIs IacIvavds
Jvon lIe sIiJled
vanisIing poinl
oJ lIe TIivd BeicI's nuvdevous
poIicies.
Fov
EIe |lIe
nosl avlicuIale and JovceJuI
pvoponenl
oJ a
videv
viev), IioIogicaI
poIilics
ave a
uniJing pvincipIe
oJ Nazi
pvaclice, IinIing
anlisenilisn and
lIe vaciaIisl oJJensive oJ lIe
vav
eavs
lo a
conpIex
oJ
poIicies
IeJove
1939,
incIuding popuIalion pIanning, puIIic
IeaIlI,
veIJave
poIicies
divecled al
vonen,
eulIanasia, sleviIizalion,
and
eugenics.50
LiIe
FeuIevl,
EIe sougIl
lo
siluale lIe nuvdevous
dnanic
oJ lIe TIivd BeicI in novnaI IiJe and lo sIiJl
enpIasis ava
Jvon lIe
exegelicaI
Jocus on HilIev's and olIev Nazi Ieadev's
innediale ideas and lIeiv
elnoIog.51
As vilI
FeuIevl,
lIe inlenlion is lo
enconpass
lIeovelicaII
lIe
vange
oJ viclins. Bul lIe vesuIl is a HoIocausl
vilI nininaI veJevence lo anlisenilisn.
Inslead,
lIe nuvdev oJ
Jevs
and olIev
gvoups
is
pIaced
in a
Ivoadev conlexl oJ a
vaciaIized
sociaI-poIic conpIex
in
ideas and innovalions lIal
go
IacI lo lIe Weinav
BepuIIic
and even
JuvlIev,
lo
lIe
peviod
IeJove 1914.52 In lIis
veading,
lIe
queslion
oJ
vI
lIe
Jevs |vIo
consliluled lIe
ovevvIeIning
nunIev oJ nuvdeved
nonconIalanls)
is ansveved
I
veJevence lo lIeiv slalus as one oJ a nunIev oJ
cuIluvaII
conslvucled
lavgel
gvoups. Medicine,
sociaI
poIic, eugenics, Igiene?lIese
ave
lIe
nolovs,
lIe
nuvdev oJ lIe
Euvopean Jevs
lIe eJJecl.
Moveovev,
lIe diJJusion oJ
eugenicisl
and veIaled
ideoIogies
oJ sociaI
engineeving...Iad pevnealed
lIe
lIinIing
oJ
sociaI
poIic
and IeaIlI-cave
pvoJessionaIs Iong
IeJove lIe Nazis lIenseIves
Iad avvived.53 Ful
diJJevenlI, lIe
ave
causaII pviov
lo lIe vadicaI nalionaIisl
and anlisenilic
ideoIogies
lIal,
in a diJJevenl
navvalion,
nigIl
Ie conslvued as
independenl
Jovces in an
expIanalion
oJ lIe HoIocausl.
III
I Iave
avgued
lIal lIe end oJ lIe
Sondevveg
deIale Ias IeJl us vilI IislovicaI
expIanalions
Jov lIe Oevnan
calaslvopIe
oJ Iiniled
cIvonoIogicaI
veacI and
vilI a
conpavaliveI
snaII
socioIogicaI
Iasis.
TIis,
in
luvn,
Ias Iad lIe eJJecl
oJ
culling
oJJ nucI oJ lIe nineleenlI
cenluv
Jvon lIe evenls oJ lIe
eavI
lvenlielI,
vilI lIe JuvlIev
consequence
oJ a IislovicaI navvalive lIal does nol
adequaleI
siluale NalionaI SociaIisn in a
Iong-levn
navvalive oJ Oevnan
Iislov.
Bul is il even
possiIIe,
in lIe aIsence oJ a Oevnan
Sondevveg,
lo
posil deepev
IislovicaI conneclions lo lIe nineleenlI
cenluv?
TIe
ansvev,
I vouId
suInil,
depends
on ouv
conceplion
oJ
conlinuil
in Oevnan
Iislov.
In a
juslI
ceIeIvaled
avlicIe,
AIexandev OevscIenIvon deIinealed Jive deJinilions oJ IislovicaI
conlinuil
lIe
conslanc
oJ
diveclion,
lIe
peviodicil
oJ
evenls,
endogenous
cIange,
lIe
IenglI
oJ causaI
vegvess,
and lIe
slaIiIil
oJ lIe vale oJ
cIange.1'4 B
conslanc
oJ
diveclion,
Ie neanl conlinuaI
cIange
in lIe sane
diveclion. TIe
second
deJinilion,
lIe
peviodicil
oJ
evenls,
invoIves lIe veilevalion oJ lIe
pasl,
vilI IislovicaI evenls
vepvesenling
a veenaclnenl oJ eavIiev occuvvences?as in
a
IacIvnose leIIing
oJ
Iislov,
sucI lIal sees anlisenilisn as a
Iong, essenliaII
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236
Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
uncIanging
Ialved. TIe lIivd
deJinilion,
endogenous cIange, suggesls
lIal
IislovicaI
deveIopnenl,
ov
deJovnalion,
vesuIls Jvon
vecuvving
necIanisns
lIal inIeve vilIin a
given sslen
lIe
poIilicaI pvepondevance
oJ
agvavian
eIiles
in a
dnanic
induslviaI
econon
vilialing allenpls
al
acIieving denocvac,
Jov
exanpIe.
TIis
va
oJ
lIinIing
aIoul
conlinuil
vas
cenlvaI lo WeIIev's
eavI
JovnuIalions oJ lIe
Sondevveg,
since lIe causaI IinI vas
Iocaled in lIe
sslen,
and
exogenous sIocIs,
IiIe lIe
inpacl
oJ
vav,
onI
aJJecled lIe vale oJ
cIange,
nol
lIe necIanisn
pev
se. TIen lIeve is lIe
IenglI
oJ causaI
vegvess,
OevscIenIvon's
JouvlI
calegov.
Il
posils
lIal
cogenl
IislovicaI
avgunenlalion vequives
lIal
causes Ie JoIIoved
IacIvavds,
nol
inJinileI,
Iul
signiJicanlI.
TIe innediale
ovigins
oJ lIe Bussian
BevoIulion,
Jov
exanpIe, na
Ie discevned in WovId Wav
I ov in lIe JaiIuve oJ lIe BeJovns oJ
1905,
Iul lIe BevoIulion's
deepev
causes
Iie in lIe Bussian ovdeaI oJ sevJdon and
aIsoIulisn:
and lIeveJove ils
ovigins
can Ie lvaced lo lIe econonic
poIicies
oJ CalIevine II?
poIicies
lIal IeneJiled
vuvaI Iovds and lIe lvade in sevJs al lIe
expense
oJ niddIe cIass nevcIanls.55
TIe
expIanalion
does nol
necessaviI pvesuppose
Bussian
uniqueness, onI
lIal
sevJdon and aIsoIulisn
vepvesenl povevJuI
causaI slveans.
FinaII,
lIeve is
slaIiIil
in lIe vale oJ
cIange.
Heve lIe
queslion
concevns
lIe
signiJicanl
IinI
in
conlinuil,
lIe
nelapIov
laIen Jvon econonic laIe-oJJ in a IacIvavds
econon,
vilI lIe eIenenl oJ
conlinuil
neasuved Jvon lIe
signiJicanl
sIiJl in
lIe sevies.
Conlinuil,
OevscIenIvon
insisled,
is a levn oJ
scIoIavsIip,
nol
poIilics:
aII
Jive nodeIs ave
ovdeving
devices, pvogvans
Jov veseavcI. And
lIe
ave cvuciaI
Jov
sIaping
lIe IislovicaI JieId. TIe
Sondevveg,
Jov
exanpIe,
necessilaled lIal
Iislovians sIov nol
onI
lIe Jovce oJ a causaI
Jaclov,
IiIe
nalionaIisn,
Iul aIso
ils
pecuIiav
Jovce in veIalion lo olIev counlvies. Il aIso
expIained cIange
in
aInosl
excIusiveI endogenous
levns. Yel vIelIev in
vegavds
lo
Oevnan's
aulIovilavian
lvadilions,
ils slvidenl
nalionaIisn,
ov ils vivuIenl
anlisenilisn,
a
gveal
deaI oJ IislovicaI veseavcI Ias
cIipped ava
al ouv sense oJ Oevnan
singuIavil.
Bul nol al lIe saIience oJ lIe causaI Jaclovs lIenseIves. TIis seens
lo ne a cvuciaI dislinclion. Il aIIovs us lo
enpIasize
nalionaIisn and elInic
anlagonisn |in
lIe
easl,
Jov
exanpIe)
as
povevJuI
cuvvenls in lIe causaI
slvean
|OevscIenIvon)
vilIoul
cIaining
Jov Oevnan vavialions on
Euvopean
ideoIogies
a
unique
slalus.56 TIis enaIIes a
veconsidevalion oJ lIe Jovce oJ oIdev
ideoIogies,
vIicI lIe
nodevnil
lIesis Iad IiIevise
veIegaled
lo lIeovelicaI
IoIding
slalions?in
pavl
Iecause oJ lIe need lo
enpIasize
lIe
nodevnil
oJ
lIe HoIocausl
ilseIJ,
in
pavl
Iecause oJ an
enpIasis
on
lIe nodevn cavvievs oJ
conlinuil.
Bul vIen ve see lIe HoIocausl as a IvulaI nix oJ avcIaic vioIence
and
ovdinav lecInoIog
and ils
pevpelvalovs
as nove
ideoIogicaII
nolivaled
lIan lIe
nodevnil pavadign
aIIoved,
lIe
inpovlance
oJ
nalionaIisn,
elInic
and
veIigious ennil,
and aIsoIule deslvuclion as a
niIilav
elIos,
cone nove
sIavpI
inlo viev.57
Beond
lIe
Sondevveg,
lIen,
is a
concepl
oJ
conlinuil
as
lIe
IenglI
oJ causaI
vegvess.
Il aIIovs us lo
inpavl
a
deepev cIvonoIogicaI
sense
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HeInul WaIsev SnilI
237
lo ouv
expIanalions
oJ lIe lvenlielI
cenluv,
and il
opens
lIe
possiIiIil
lIal
in ouv
expIanalion
oJ Oevnan
Iislov,
and lIe
lvenlielI-cenluv calaslvopIe
il
IvougIl
JovlI,
ve Iave lo siluale lIe Oevnan
pasl
in a
densev veave oJ
inlevnalionaI and lvansnalionaI
Iislov.
1
NiaII
Fevguson,
TIe Wav
oJ
lIe WovId
TvenlielI-Cenluv ConJIicl
and lIe Bescenl
oJ
lIe
Wesl
|London
AIIen
Lane, 2006),
1-2.
2
FviedvicI
MeinecIe,
Bie deulscIe
KalaslvopIe. BelvacIlungen
und
Evinnevungen
|Wies
Iaden E.
BvocIIaus, 1946).
3
Evic
J. HoIsIavn,
TIe
Age oJ
Exlvenes A
Hislov oJ
lIe
WovId,
1914-1991
|Nev
YovI
FanlIeon
BooIs, 1994).
Fov
penelvaling
veJIeclions,
ManJved
HellIing,
Bev
MlIos
des
Iuvzen 20.
JaIvIundevls,
SaecuIun.
JaIvIucI J?v UnivevsaIgescIicIle
49
|1998) 321-A5:
Fevv
Andevson,
TIe
Age
oJ
EJH,
London Beviev
oJ
BooIs
|OcloIev 3, 2002),
5.
4
Ezva
Found,
HugI SeIvn MauIevI,
in SeIecled Foens
oJ
Ezva Found
|Nev
YovI
J.
LaugIIin, 1957),
64.
5
Fvilz
Slevn,
Five
Oevnans
I Iave Knovn
|Nev
YovI
Favvav,
Slvaus and
Oivoux, 2006),
1.
6
Felev
Oa,
Fveud,
Jevs
and OlIev Oevnans Maslevs and Viclins in Modevnisl CuIluve
|Nev
YovI OxJovd
Univevsil
Fvess, 1978), 19:
Felev
Oa,
Weinav CuIluve TIe Oulsidev
as Insidev
|NevYovI Havpev
&
Bov, 1968),
145.
7
Hajo
HoIIovn,
Oevnan IdeaIisn in
LigIl
oJ SociaI
Hislov,
in
HoIIovn,
Oevnan
and
Euvope
HislovicaI
Essas |Oavden Cil,
NY.

BouIIeda, 1970),
4.TIis
essa
vas Jivsl
puIIisIed
in Oevnan in HisloviscIe
ZeilscIviJl 174|1952)
359-84. See aIso
Hajo
HoIIovn,
A
Hislov oJ
Modevn
Oevnan,
voI.
2,1648-1840 |Fvincelon
Fvincelon
Univevsil
Fvess,
1964), 513,531,
vIeve lIe decisive navIevs cone vilI
HegeI,
vIose
pIiIosopI vejecls
lIe vIoIe lvadilion oJ naluvaI
Iav,
vIicI Iad consliluled one
oJ lIe
slvongesl IiIevaIizing
Jovces in veslevn
civiIizalion,
and vilI lIe JaiIuve oJ lIe ideaIislic
aspivalions
oJ
1848,
causing
lIe
videspvead
Ioss oJ ideaIislic JailI. In lIis
veading,
lIe enIvace oJ
puve
povev
divovced Jvon
ideaIs,
deJined lIe nexl IaIJ
cenluv
and casl lIe die.
8
Fov an aslule veviev oJ lIis
Iilevaluve,
see VoIIev
BevgIaIn,
BeulscIIandIiIdev
1945-1965
AngIo-aneviIaniscIe
HisloviIev und nodevne deulscIe
OescIicIle,
in
BeulscIe
OescIicIlsvissenscIaJl
nacI den Zveilen
WeIlIvieg
|1945-1965),
Evnsl
SIuIin,
ed.
|MunicI
B.
OIdenIouvg, 1989),
239-72.
9
OevIavd A.
Billev,
Bie
enigvievlen
MeinecIe-ScI?Iev in den
Veveiniglen
Slaalen.
LeIen und
OescIicIlsscIveiIung
in
SpannungsJeId
zviscIen BeulscIIand und dev
neuen Heinal
Hajo
HoIIovn,
FeIix
OiIIevl,
BielvicI
OevIavd,
Hans
BosenIevg,
HisloviscIe
ZeilscIviJl
284/1
|2007)
59-102. See aIso lIe conlviIulions in lIe
speciaI
edilion,
dedicaled lo Hans
BosenIevg,
oJ CenlvaI
Euvopean Hislov
24
|1991).
10
AIexandev
OevscIenIvon,
Bvead and
Benocvac
in
Oevnan |BevIeIe Univevsil
oJ
CaIiJovnia
Fvess,
1943
:
Bavvinglon
Moove,
TIe SociaI
Ovigins oJ BiclalovsIip
and
Benocvac
|Boslon
Beacon
Fvess, 1966).
11
FauI
NoIle,
AIscIied von 19.
JaIvIundevl,
in
Wege
dev
OeseIIscIaJlsgescIicIle, J?vgen
OslevIanneI,
Bielev
LangeviescIe
and FauI
NoIle,
eds.
|O?llingen
VandenIoecI &
BupvecIl, 2006),
103-32.
12
See
JacoI TaInon,
TIe
Ovigins oJTolaIilavian Benocvac, |Boslon
Beacon
Fvess, 1952):
Fvancois
Fuvel,
TIe
Fassing oJ
an IIIusion TIe Idea
oJ
Connunisn in lIe TvenlielI
Cenluv
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
238
Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
|CIicago Univevsil
oJ
CIicago
Fvess, 1999): and,
exlveneI
JvuilJuI and
suggeslive,
AIain
FinIieIIvaul,
VevIusl dev MenscIIicIIeil. VevsucI ?Iev das 20.
JaIvIundevl,
Susanne
ScIapev,
lvans.
|Slullgavl
BeulscIe
VevIags-AnslaIl, 1998).
13
MonunenlaI and vilI
signiJicanl puIIic
vesonance
HeinvicI
Augusl
WinIIev,
Bev
Iange Weg
nacI Weslen. BeulscIe OescIicIle von Ende des AIlen BeicIes Iis zun
Unlevgang
dev Weinavev
BepuIIiI,
2 voIs.
|MunicI
C.H.
BecI, 2000):
Hans-UIvicI
WeIIev,
BeulscIe
OeseIIscIaJlsgescIicIle,
voI. 1-4
|MunicI
C.H.
BecI, 1987-2003).
14
Fov
TvoeIlscI,
see Iis
ScIviJlen
zuv FoIiliI und
KuIluvpIiIosopIie |1918-1923), OangoIJ
H?Iingev
in ZusannenavIeil
nilJoIannesMiIuleil,
eds.
|BevIin
W. de
Ovulev,
2002).
Evnsl TvoeIlscI KviliscIe
OesanlausgaIe
FviedvicI WiIIeIn
OvaJ,
VoIIev
BveIsen,
OangoIJ H?Iingev,
Tvulz
BendlovJJ,
eds. in
AuJlvag
dev
HeideIIevgev
AIadenie dev
WissenscIaJlen
|BevIin
WaIlev de
Ovulev, 2002).
On
Eugen BosenslocI-Huess,
Bie
euvop?iscIen
BevoIulionen. VoIIscIavaIleve und
SlaalenIiIdung
|Jena
E.
BiedevicIs, 1931):
and Jov lIe
inpovlance
oJ lIis IooI lo Ialev JovnuIalions oJ lIe
Sondevveg
lIesis, espe
ciaII
WeIIev's Iine oJ
avgunenlalion,
see Hans-UIvicI
WeIIev,
Eine
IeIIaJle KanpJsilu
alion. Ein
Oespv?cI
nil
ManJved HellIing
und CovneIius
Tovp |MunicI
C.H.
BecI, 2006),
66. On
FIessnev,
see CavoIa
Bielze,
NacIgeIoIles
LeIen HeInulI FIessnev
|1892-1985)
|O?llingen
WaIIslein, 2006).
15
Hans-UIvicI
WeIIev,
Bas deulscIe KaisevveicI 1871-1918
|O?llingen
VandenIoecI &
BupvecIl,
1973:
Bavid BIacIIouvn and OeoJJ
EIe,
TIe FecuIiavilies
oJ
Oevnan
Hislov
Bouvgeois Sociel
and FoIilics in
NineleenlI-Cenluv Oevnan |OxJovd
OxJovd
Univevsil
Fvess, 1984).
16
Fov lIe diJJevence Ielveen
conpavalive Iislov,
lIe nelIod sIaved
I
WeIIev,
EIe
and BIacIIouvn al lIe line oJ lIe
deIale,
and a lvansnalionaI
Iislov
lIal deaIs
cenlvaII
vilI lIe
pvoIIen
oJ nuluaI inJIuence
|OaIlon's pvoIIen),
see
J?vgen
OslevIanneI,
OescIicIlsvissenscIaJl jenseils
des NalionaIslaals Sludien zu
BezieIungsgescIicIle
und ZiviIi
salionsvevgIeicI |O?llingen
VandenIoecI &
BupvecIl, 2001),
39-43.
17
See
especiaII
Janes BelaIIacI,
TIe Oevnan
BigIl,
1860-1920 FoIilicaI Linils
oJ
lIe
AulIovilavian
Inaginalion
|Tovonlo Univevsil
oJ Tovonlo
Fvess, 2006), 77-78:
aIso
Bogev CIicIeving, Language
and lIe SociaI Foundalions oJ BadicaI NalionaIisn in lIe
WiIIeInine
Eva,
in 1870/71-1989/90. Oevnan
UniJicalions
and lIe
CIange oJ Lilevav
Biscouvse,
WaIlev
Fape,
ed.
|BevIin
W. de
Ovulev, 1993),
61-78.
18
BIacIIouvn and
EIe,
FecuIiavilies,
50.
19
IIid., 154-55:
aIso OeoJJ
EIe,
WIal Fvoduces Fascisn Fve-InduslviaI Tvadilions
ov a Cvisis oJ lIe
CapilaIisl
Slale? in
EIe,
Fvon
UniJicalion
lo Nazisn
Beinlevpveling
lIe Oevnan Fasl
|Boslon
AIIen &
Unvin, 1986),
272.
20
OeoJJ
EIe,
A CvooIed Line Fvon CuIluvaI
Hislov
lo lIe
Hislov oJ Sociel |Ann
AvIov
Univevsil
oJ
MicIigan
Fvess, 2005),
81.
21
Bavid BIacIIouvn in Fovun An inlevviev vilI Bavid BIacIIouvn and OeoJJ
EIe,
Oevnan
Hislov
22/2
|2004)
233.
22NoIle,
106.
23
EIe,
WIal Fvoduces
Fascisn,
273.
24
On lIe voIe oJ Ovansci in lIese JovnuIalions see nov
OeoJJ
EIe
and KeilI
NeiId,
TIe Fuluve
oJ
CIass in
Hisloj.
WIal s
LeJl oJ
lIe SociaI
|Ann
AvIov
Univevsil
oJ
MicIigan
Fvess, 2007),
143-47. Bul see
aIso TIonas
Nippevde,
vIo in Iis veviev o? FecuIiavilies
vvI
noled,
IcI nuss
gesleIen,
icI Iese
EIe
oIne
Ovansci,
und BIacIIouvn oIne die
FvanIJuvlev ScIuIe.
Nippevde
in HisloviscIe
ZeilscIviJl
249
|1989)
436.
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HeInul WaIsev SnilI
239
25
EIe,
WIal Fvoduces
Fascisn,
273.
26
Henv
A. Tuvnev
Jv.,
Oevnan
Big
Business and lIe Bise
oJ
HilIev
|Nev
YovI OxJovd
Univevsil
Fvess, 1985),
340-49.
27
IIid.
28
So
loo,
and nove lIan
pveviousI
assuned,
veve lIe
noIiIil.
See
SlepIan MaIinovsIi,
Von
K?nig
zun F?Ivev. SoziaIev
Niedevgang
und
poIiliscIe BadiIaIisievung
in deulscI en AdeI
zviscIen KaisevveicI und NS-Slaal
|BevIin
AIadenie
VevIag, 2003).
29
J?vgen
FaIlev,
HilIevs
W?IIev, |MunicI
C. H.
BecI, 1991), 177-88, 357, esp.
255.
30
BelIev
J.K. FeuIevl,
Bie Weinavev
BepuIIiI. KvisenjaIve
dev IIassicIen Modevne
|FvanI
Juvl
an Main
SuIvIanp, 1987).
Fov a
judicious appvaisaI
oJ FeuIevl's
conlviIulion,
see
Bavid
Cvev,
TIe
FalIoIogies
oJ
Modevnil
BelIev FeuIevl on
Oevnan's
TvenlielI
Cenluv,
SociaI
Hislov
17
|1992)
319-28.
31
In Iieu oJ
a nounlain oJ
Iilevaluve,
Suzanne MavcIand and Bavid
LindenJeId,
Oevnan
al lIe Fin de Si?cIe.
CuIluve, FoIilics,
and Ideas
|Balon
Bouge
Louisiana Slale
Univevsil
Fvess, 2004): Augusl
Ni
lscIIe,
OevIavd A.
Billev,
BelIev
J.K. FeuIevl,
and
B?digev
von
BvucI,
JaIvIundevlvende
Bev
AuJIvucI
in die
Modevne, 1880-1930,2
voIs.
|BeinIecI
Iei
HanIuvg
BovoIIl, 1990): FeuIevl,
Bie Weinavev
BepuIIiI.
32
TIis is aIso lvue oJ
poIilics. ExenpIav,
in lIis
vegavd,
is TIonas
MevgeI,
FavIanen
laviscIe KuIluv in dev Weinavev
BepuIIiI.
FoIiliscIe
KonnuniIalion,
snIoIiscIe
FoIiliI und
?JJenlIicIIeil
in
BeicIslag
|B?sseIdovJ Bvosle, 2002).
33
On lIe
conlvasl,
see iIid.
34
CJ.
WeIIev,
BeulscIe
OeseIIscIaJlsgescIicIle,
voI.
4,589,
vIeve lIe
expIanalov enpIasis
is aIso on cvisis and
poIilicaI cuIluve,
Iul vilI a
veaJJivnalion oJ lIe
Sondevveg?nan
counlvies
slvuggIed
vilI lIe conlvadiclions oJ
nodevnil
and
capilaIisn,
Iul
onI
Oevnan
succunIed lo Jascisl
diclalovsIip?and
a sense oJ lIe
deep gvounding
oJ
lIe
pvoIIen.
35
On lIe
concepl
oJ
vanisIing poinl,
see
HeInul WaIsev
SnilI,
TIe
VanisIing
Foinl oJ
Oevnan
Hislov
An
Essa
on
Fevspeclive, Hislov
and
Menov
17/1-2
|2005)
269-95.
36
Edvavd Boss
BicIinson,
BiopoIilics, Fascisn,
Benocvac
Sone BeJIeclions on Ouv
Biscouvse AIoul
Modevnil,
CenlvaI
Euvopean Hislov
37/1
|2004)
1. Tin Mason
na
Iave Ieen lIe Jivsl lo see lIis as a nev
pavadign
Nazisn as an
expvession
oJ
IioIogicaI
poIilics.
See CIavIes S.
Maiev, Fovevovd,
in
BeevaIualing
lIe TIivd
BeicI,
TIonas
CIiIdevs and
Jane CapIan,
eds.
|Nev
YovI HoInes &
Meiev, 1993),
xiv.
37
IIid.,
5.
38
BelIev
J.K. FeuIevl,
Bie Oenesis dev
'EndI?sung'
aus den Oeisl dev
WissenscIaJl,
in
FeuIevl,
Max WeIevs
Biagnose
dev Modevne
|O?llingen
VandenIoecI &
BupvecIl,
1989),
104.
39
IIid. TIeve
is, noveovev,
a
slvong
sense in vIicI FeuIevl assuned a
lIovougII
secuIavized,
densliJied
Oevnan
nodevnil.
40
IIid.
41
FeuIevl, Oenesis,
103.
42
Accovding
lo CIavIes
Maiev, Fovevovd, xiv,
lIe Iislovian Mavion
KapIan
Iad
aIvead
vaised lIe
queslion
in 1998 oJ vIelIev FeuIevl's
inlevpvelalion
lIvealened lo Iecone
a
HoIocausl vilIoul
Jevs.
43
Fov lIe
nenIevsIip Jiguves,
and lIe
ovevvIeIningI
acadenic and nedicaI
con
posilion
oJ ils
nenIevs,
see FauI
WeindIing,
HeaIlI, Bace,
and Oevnan FoIilics Belveen
NalionaI
UniJicalion
and
Nazisn,
1810-1945
|CanIvidge CanIvidge Univevsil
Fvess,
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
240 Oevnan Sludies Beviev 31/2
|2008)
1989),
146-49.
44
MenIevsIip Jiguves
in
WeIIev,
BeulscIe
OeseIIscIaJlsgescIicIle,
voI.
4,
502 and 391.
45
Ian BoIevl
BovIiggin,
A
MevciJuI
End. TIe EulIanasia Movenenl in Modevn Anevica
|Nev
YovI OxJovd
Univevsil
Fvess, 2003).
46
BicIinson,
BiopoIilics.
47
TIis
vendeving
anonnous
vas
IavdI unique
lo FeuIevl. See lIe
genevaI cvilique
in
AIJ
L?dlIe,
Bev Bann dev W?vlev 'TodesJaIviIen.' Von Beden ?Iev den NS V?IIev
novd?das aucI ein
VevscIveigen
isl,
WevIslaal OescIicIle 5
|1996)
13. Fov a
cvilique
oJ lIe
genevaI appvoacI
Jvon lIe
pevspeclive
oJ lIe nev veseavcI on
pevpelvalovs,
OevIavd
FauI,
Bie T?lev dev SIoaI in
SpiegeI
dev
FovscIung,
in Bie T?lev dev SIoaI.
FanaliscIe NalionaIsoziaIislen odev
ganz
novnaIe BeulscIe? OevIavd
FauI,
ed.
|O?llingen
WaIIslein, 2002), 24?27,
41. AIso MicIaeI
Mann,
TIe BavI Side
oJ Benocvac. ExpIain
ing
ElInic
CIeansing |CanIvidge CanIvidge Univevsil
Fvess, 2005), 242,
vIeve lIe
cvilicisn is divecled al
Zgnunl
Baunann,
Modevnil
and lIe HoIocausl
|IlIaca
CovneII
Univevsil
Fvess, 1989).
48
CIvislopIev
B.
Bvovning,
TIe
Ovigins oJ
lIe FinaI SoIulion. TIe EvoIulion
oJ
Nazi
JevisI
FoIic, SeplenIev
1939-MavcI 1942
|LincoIn Univevsil
oJ NeIvasIa
Fvess, 2004),
113.
49
See UIvicI
HevIevl,
VevnicIlungspoIiliI.
Neue Anlvovlen und
Fvagen
zuv Oe
scIicIle des
'HoIocausl',
in NalionaIsoziaIisliscIe
VevnicIlungspoIiliI
1939-1945, HevIevl,
ed.
|FvanIJuvl
an Main
FiscIev, 1998),
57. WilI sliII nove
vaIidil,
lIe sane
na
Ie
said oJ
genocide
nove
IvoadI.
Fov
genocide,
as
Onev Bavlov
vviles, is,
uIlinaleI,
aIso aIoul lIe encounlev Ielveen lIe IiIIev and lIe
IiIIed,
usuaII
vilI a Jaiv nunIev
oJ
speclalovs slanding I.
Bavlov,
SeeIing
lIe Bools oJ Modevn Oenocide On lIe
Macvo- and
MicvoIislov
oJ Mass
Muvdev,
in TIe
Speclev oJ
Oenocide Mass Muvdev in
HislovicaI
Fevspeclive,
BoIevl
OeIIaleI
and Ben
Kievnan,
eds.
|CanIvidge CanIvidge
Univevsil
Fvess, 2003),
96.
50
OeoJJ
EIe,
Inlvoduclion Is TIeve a
Hislov
oJ lIe
KaisevveicI?,
in
Sociel,
CuI
luve,
and lIe Slale in
Oevnan,
1870-1930,
OeoJJ
EIe,
ed.
|Ann
AvIov
Univevsil
oJ
MicIigan
Fvess, 1996),
27-28.
51
IIid,
28.
52
IIid.
53
IIid.
54
AIexandev
OevscIenIvon,
Conlinuil
in
Hislov
and olIev
Essas |CanIvidge BeIInap
Fvess oJ Havvavd
Univevsil
Fvess, 1968),
21.1 used lIe exacl
vovding
oJ Iis levns.
55
IIid,
31.
56
WeIIev's
OeseIIscIaJlsgescIicIle,
voI.
4,
is venavIaIIe Jov
nan
veasons,
Iul
pevIaps
nosl oJ aII Iecause il conJvonls lIe
queslion
oJ
conlinuil
vilI
insislence,
and
avgues
lIal nalionaIisn
vas al lIe cove oJ lIe
pvoIIen. AIigned
vilI HilIev's cIavisnalic vuIe
and an
incveasingI
nuvdevous
anlisenilisn,
nalionaIisn accounled Jov Nazisn's
aIiIil
lo noIiIize
Iavge
nunIevs oJ
peopIe.
TIe Oevnan
slov suggesls
lIe
convevgence
oJ
Jaclovs,
Iul vIelIev lIe individuaI Iislovies oJ
nalionaIisn, anlisenilisn,
ov
lIe
puII
oJ
cIavisnalic
aulIovil
ave Oevnan ov
Euvopean
is
pevIaps
anolIev nallev.
57
CvuciaI vecenl lexls Jov
veconsideving
lIis
queslion
ave,
anong nan olIevs,
IsaIeI V.
HuII,
AIsoIule Beslvuclion.
MiIilav
CuIluve and lIe Fvaclices
oJ
Wav in
InpeviaI Oevnan
|IlIaca
CovneII
Univevsil
Fvess, 2005): Mann,
TIe BavI Side.
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