C O N T E N T S: Fall-Winter 2005 Volume 24, Number 1

FALLWINTER 2005
VOLUME 24, NUMBER 1
APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION
Comments from the Editor Ruth V. B rittin 3 CHORAL DIVISION Ch ara cteristics of T eacher-Directed M ode ling in Hig h Schoo l Chora l Reh earsals Fredna Grimland 5 GENERAL MUSIC DIVISION Use of Classwide Peer Tutoring in the General M usic Classroom Alice-Ann Darrow, Pamela Gibbs, and Sarah Wedel 15 An Investigation of the Association between the M usic Aptitude of Elementary Students and Their Biological Parents Susan C. Guerrini 27 INSTRUMENTAL DIVISION Instrumental Aptitude Versus Academic Ability as a Predictor of Beginning Instrumental M usic Achievement and Retention: Research and Implications Kristyn Kuhlman 34 SPECIAL TOPICS DIVISION Cognition and M otor Execution in Piano Sight-Reading: A Review of Literature Brenda Wristen 44 Sight-Reading Ability in Wind and Percussion Students: A Review of Recent Literature S. Daniel Galyen 57 Anno uncements 71
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Applications of Research in Music Education
Editor Ruth V . Brittin University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA Choral Division Mary Kennedy University of V ictoria, B ritish Co lumbia M ENC Staff Patricia Co sta Kim Seattle Symp hony, S eattle, W A Elementary Division Dennis Siebenaler California State UniversityFullerton Nancy S. Rasmussen W alworth Elementary Sch ool, W alworth, W I General Music Division Cynthia M. Colwell University of Kansas, Lawrence Carlos Ab ril Northwestern University, Evanston, IL Instrumental Division Colleen Conway University of Michigan, Ann Arbor UP DA TE: Applications o f Research in M usic Education (ISSN 8 755 -123 3) is published twice yearly by M EN C: T he N ational Association for M usic Education, 1806 Robert Fulton Drive, Reston, VA 20191 -4348. Cop yright 200 5 by M ENC . Readers may make one copy of any article in this journal for personal use. Published by the School of Music of the University of South Carolina from 1982 to 1989. Evelyn Orman Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge Special Topics Division John M. Geringer Florida State University, Tallahassee Susan Tarnowski C olle ge of St. Schola stic a, D uluth, M N
Executive Director John J. Mahlmann Deputy Executive Director Michael Blakeslee Director of Editorial Services Christine Stinson Assistant Editor Dorothy Wagener
Comments from the Editor

Ruth V. Brittin
Welcome to the fallwinter issue of Update. This issue brings a cornucopia of research (There. I could not resist the autumnal reference!). Update: Applications of Research in Music Education is fortunate to have a superb panel of reviewers who represent different specializations: choral, instrumental, elementary, general music, and special topics. Editors are nominated and selected because of their expertise within these specializations, but they are prized for their view across areas, too. Many of our reviewers have experience in more than one category, and thus they see how projects may be useful to readers from a variety of perspectives. Of course, we value the ability to make transfers, i.e., to relate information from one situation to another, and we encourage Update readers to make these transfers. Towards that end, these papers address a multitude of teaching situations. Alice-Ann Darrow, Pamela Gibbs, and Sarah Wedel have focused on the general music classroom, examining peer tutoring. Of course, peer tutoring is an approach that might be adapted to rehearsal settings (sectionals, anyone?) in band, orchestra, or choir. Teachers at all levels, pre-k through doctoral study, might benefit from incorporating peer tutor strategies. The authors cannot address details of peer tutoring for every situation within one paper, of course, but their literature review and data give us the seeds for new ideas. Of all our categories, we typically receive the fewest submissions in choral music education; thus I am delighted to include Fredna Grimlands work on choral conductor modeling. With a qualitative methodology, she uses videotapes and interviews to better understand three high school choral directors rehearsals throughout a semester. Reading her discussion points, I ponder how this relates to ensembles with younger singers and how instrumental specialists might learn from her study. We have two literature reviews on sight-reading, but through different lenses. Brenda Wristen examines studies on cognition and motor execution, focusing on research with pianists. S. Daniel Galyen also reviews the sight-reading research literature, but with wind and percussion students. You may notice some commonalities but also some differences in their findings; considering these may lead to reflection on a number of issues, such as ensemble versus solo playing, age and training of sight-readers, and how sight-reading is assessed. For the inquisitive reader, other questions may arise as well, such as how this information applies to vocalists of different ages and experiences. Our last two papers address music aptitude, again through different approaches. Kristyn Kuhlman explores the literature on musical aptitude and academic ability, regarding how these
UP DA TE, FallWinter 2005 , 3
relate to music achievement. She has chosen the literature on beginning instrumental music for this review. Susan Guerrini examines the association between music aptitude of parents and their children, with a sample of 169 participants. Many people wonder about such an association; I applaud this author for collecting and publishing data on this question. We have all seen educators who say, It seems to me but go no further to explore the relationship in an objective, transparent fashion. While no single paper will definitively solve the puzzle of talent, it is rewarding to see new data on this age-old question. So enjoy reading all these studies. Consider them within your usual circumstances and get out of the box, too. If a topic catches your attention, study up on it by consulting the authors reference section. Try out some of the authors suggestions. And by all means, if you then have further questions for any of these authors, contact them to learn more! Ruth Brittin, Editor, Update
Characteristics of Teacher-Directed Modeling in High School Choral Rehearsals

Fredna Grimland
Fredna Grimland is an assistant professor and director of music education at Southern Oregon University, Ashland. Each year, university music educators are faced with the task of teaching prospective music teachers how to teach. Once aspects of the act of teaching are defined, explained, and practiced in undergraduate courses of study, preservice teachers can assimilate a repertory of methods and strategies to use in teaching and directing choral music in ensemble settings. It has been my experience that music teachers often engage in modelingthat is, demonstrating certain desirable or undesirable performance techniques or behaviorsas a way of facilitating students responses to desired musical outcomes. Interspersed with verbal instructions, imagery, and the nonverbal gestures involved in conducting, teachers purposefully demonstrate such examples to their students. Demonstration or modeling, aural and visual discrimination skills, and diagnostic and prescriptive skills are three categories in the literature delineating teaching competencies (Sang, 1982, 1987). Garretson (1981), Gonzo (1977), and Watkins (1986) categorized modeling as a teaching mode, whereas Dickey (1991), Thurman (1977), and Tyson (1988) categorized modeling as a descriptor of instructional function or rehearsal technique. In their research, Watkins and Tyson found that modeling behaviors were in evidence in the choral rehearsal practices of their participants, and Tyson distinguished between what he termed positive and negative modeling. Goolsby (1997) studied three groups of teachers: expert, novice, and student. Expert teachers devoted more time to overall ensemble sound, including demonstrations, instructions and explanations regarding intonation, and guided listening. Results indicated that expert teachers frequently specified student exemplars as models for intonation and uniform articulation. Gumm (1993) identified dimensions of teaching style based on related types of teaching behaviors. One of the 10 dimensions identified, sequential instruction, was characterized by the teacher singing examples of challenging musical passages for the students. Sang (1987) concluded that teachers ability to model and the degree to which they used demonstrations in instrumental classes were associated with students performance outcomes; to my knowledge, however, no study has thoroughly described or categorized activities that constitute models demonstrating or suggesting performance techniques or behaviors during the course of choral ensemble class rehearsals. Schn (1987) reported that reflective practices cannot be developed in professional curriculums. These indeterminate zones of practice can best be studied by carefully examining
the performance of competent teachers in contexts that define instructional behaviors as a gesture, or protocol, of the professional. Hence the question arises, How do choral directors use modeling as a mode of instruction in the choral rehearsal? The purpose of this study was to analyze characteristics of teacher-directed modeling as evidenced in the practices of three experienced high school choral directors. Three questions served to guide the inquiry. First, what modeling activities were exhibited in each teachers rehearsals? Second, when they viewed a 45-minute composite videotape of the instructional activities they used in rehearsals, what instructional behaviors did the directors recognize and identify as modeling? Third, what instructional episodes on the videotape not identified by the teachers contained elements of modeling as determined according to their own descriptions and categorizations?
Method
Snowball (or chain) sampling is the process of networking: talking with one person who then recommends another, who subsequently recommends yet another, and so on (Patton, 1990). Eligible directors were selected through this process, and a pool of 10 secondary choral music educators was formed. I began with directors with whom I was familiar and added names recommended by colleagues, including the supervisor of student teachers at a local university. Each of the directors in the resulting pool was interviewed regarding the instructional processes he or she used in choral ensemble classes. The directors discussed their philosophies, pedagogical priorities, academic preparation, and musical experiences. These responses became the criteria for the maximum variation sampling (Patton, 1990) technique used here, and the three individuals representing the most diverse sample of instructional practices were selected. They differed according to gender, age, school system of employment, demographics of the student population in their schools, philosophy regarding the process and priorities of teaching, and major area of performance proficiency. Each agreed to take part in the study. Phil (names are pseudonyms) was a choral director who also had college experience conducting and playing a band instrument. Brett defined himself as a choral director, had served as a director/clinician for numerous honor choirs across the state, and was a consultant and contributor to a secondary choral music text. Kate was principally a pianist/accompanist who had received her masters degree in conducting. An expert reviewed the interview data to confirm my choices and the assessment process. Administrators were then contacted, and permission was obtained from the directors schools for their inclusion in the study. During the spring semester, the three directors were observed and videotaped once weekly during the course of rehearsals, and observations and impressions of the milieu were recorded in
field notes. Rehearsals were transcribed from three time frames in the semester: as the repertoire was initially presented, at the midpoint of concert preparation, and immediately before the performance. Since observations were sustained over a 14-week period, three rehearsals constituted approximately 20% of all rehearsals taped. From the transcripts, I identified episodes that reflected teachers descriptions of their instructional practices as detailed in their initial interviews and included my own identification of episodes of modeling. Because identification of episodes was dependent on teachers interview responses, I was careful to adhere to their own descriptions of their practices. However, I also identified episodes that were outside of these selfdescribed dimensions. In an attempt to ensure the integrity of the findings, I used the criteria for naturalistic inquiry proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985): credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The credibility criterion, requiring prolonged engagement in the field, was satisfied through observation and video recording weekly over the duration of an entire semester. Triangulation was achieved through interviewing participants in regard to their perspectives. Resulting analytic categories, interpretations, and conclusions were reviewed with an expert to fulfill the requirements of member checking and expert review (Glesne, 1999; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Transferabilitythe extent to which the researcher ensures that readers can make their own inferences (Bresler & Stake, 1992)was achieved through thick descriptions of the directors activities and their use of and identification of episodes of modeling. The dependability criterion was satisfied through an audit trail (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) in which a reader not otherwise associated with the study reviewed videos and transcriptions for accuracy. An expert choral music educator examined analytical categories. Finally, confirmability was achieved through (a) the diversity of the participants selected, (b) the external audit, and (c) the expert examination of external categories. The episodes of modeling identified were used as a means of introducing each participant according to his or her story, a process true to the nature of case study and qualitative research. Labels referenced by the directors themselves when they viewed their respective videotapes were used in organizing the data. Participants were provided a copy of their own tape so that they could correct any mistakes in my reporting. In addition, an expert judge viewed the videotapes, scrutinized my categorizations, and compared modeling episodes with the descriptions of each category. The judge examined the analytical categories and their definitions and affirmed concurrence with my observations.
Findings
Throughout the semester, whether in regard to the rigors of contest or the informal occasion of
a spring concert, modeling behaviors were present in the rehearsal strategies of each of the three choral directors observed. The directors were observed using visible and audible modeling to demonstrate posture, breathing, and vocal production. Each director modeled melodic intervals, rhythmic patterns, and musical nuance, and Brett and Kate modeled sight-reading strategies. Diction and phrasing were modeled by each director audibly and visibly during concert repertoire rehearsals. While it was obvious that the teachers, in communication with students, were the generators of modeling, there were occasions in each directors rehearsals in which individuals or groups of individuals were acknowledged as exemplary performers and were called upon to demonstrate for the rest of the choir. For example, Brett called upon his accompanist to model the musicality of a phrase he was conducting. None of the three directors were observed using recordings as models, although they had indicated in the preliminary interview that they might do so. There were several pedagogical purposes in terms of the choice of modeling as an instructional strategy. For example, each teacher used modeling to prepare students for a musical task, and all modeled examples to refine musical performances. As a point of emphasis, each teacher imitated incorrect aspects of performances in an effort to clarify what not to do, and sometimes this mimicry was exaggerated. In addition, all three teachers used modeling simultaneously with student singing to reinforce and guide appropriate performances. Brett categorized the modeling activities in which he engaged as audible, visible, and process activities, similar to the terms referenced by Kelly (1997)music modeling, aural modeling, and physical modelingin labeling modeling techniques involving nonverbal communication. I subsequently adopted Bretts terms as analytical labels for this study. As the name suggests, audible models are instructional activities that require students to listen; visible models rely on students watching the source of the model; and process models are those that offer a step-by-step method for completing a musical task. Although they are discussed separately here, it must be noted that the participants combined audible and visible models on different occasions. Audible Models. Audible models were always teacher generated, either because teachers themselves demonstrated or because they asked their students to demonstrate. Audible modeling, communicated through examples that students could hear, included speech, chant, rhythmic renderings, rhythmic readings, and pitched renderings. Speech was used to isolate correct pronunciation through unpitched replication of vowels or words without relation to rhythm. Words were spoken briskly or elongated for the purpose of emphasis. Vowel shape and color or diction and pronunciation of text also were addressed in speech models. Chant combined aspects of the speech model but occurred in the rhythm prescribed by the music. In addition, both speech and chant were used to model dynamic
modifications, and chant was used to model phrasing. The three teachers used their singing voices for two types of pitched renderings. First, they modeled isolated, single-pitched examples. For example, Phil would often rehearse one vowel, working to form the vowel with the correct shaping of the lips, and Kate and Phil modeled placing the vowel with a lift of the soft palate. When correcting foreign language pronunciation, the three teachers would sing only the particular word in need of change. Diphthongs were sung with careful attention to the longest and strongest vowel. Cutoffs of consonant endings at the ends of phrases were modeled by singing only the final word of the phrase without regard to its rhythmic value. I referred to this technique as static phonation. Second, the participants modeled by singing vowels, words, or phrases in musical context. They corrected a pattern or phrase with attention to rhythmic notation and tempo and sang entire phrases to model rhythms. Intervallic relationships were modeled when the teacher sang one part in isolation from other parts. Dynamic contours were modeled by a rhythmic and melodic performance of an excerpt of a single voice part. I referred to this technique as dynamic phonation. Visible Models. Bretts second label, visible models, referred to acts that students saw. These acts were demonstrations of musical performances communicated by physical gestures or conducted cues. Kelly (1997) included facial and physical gesturing that were aspects of formal conducting gestures as physical modeling. Similarly, Brett suggested that certain conducting gestures served as models. For example, he circled his hand over the crown of his head, identifying this gesture as a model of placement. Thus, results showed that all three participants recognized episodes in their instruction that involved physical activities and identified them as modeling. Visible models were subdivided as physical models or facial models. Physical models were further divided into two descriptive categories: technical (involving the use of the body to instruct nonmusical aspects of performance) and musical (communicated through conducting gestures). For instance, a demonstration of correct posture represented a physical-technical model. Kate identified her soft-palate hand gesture, in which she placed her downturned, cupped hand at her cheek, as a model intended to modify aspects of vocal production by suggesting the lift of the soft palate. The soft-palate hand was an analogue cue, a physicaltechnical model that reminded students to shape the inside of the pharyngeal cavity in a similar way when singing. Other visible models produced via physical examples included conducting gestures, perhaps akin to those referred to by Blocker, Greenwood, and Shellahamer (1997) as helpful nonverbal gestures. I referred to such models as physical-musical models. These gestures provided visible
examples that simulated musical ideas. While viewing his composite videotape, Brett noted, When you think about it, conducting is modeling. You try to make a physical gesture that will alter an audible sound, trying to create where visible imitates audible. You try to alter the audible by what you do with the visible. Students sang as the gestures suggested, and the gestures illustrated the desired sound. Gestures were musical-physical models that visibly indicated how the audible component was to be produced in the context of the musical event, apart from simple conducting techniques of, for example, entrance cues, beat patterns, and cutoffs. All three participants also recognized facial expressions as models and categorized them as visible facial models. Kate and Phil provided extensive instruction on shapes and placements of vowels. They modeled shapes on their lips while their students sang. Such modeling appeared in the course of instruction as a tool used in refining sound, as well as during performances as a reminder, cue, and example of correct shape. Brett called for his students to open their eyes when intonation fell under pitch. As students sang, Brett opened his eyes as he wanted them to do, and they responded by imitating his facial expression. Mouthing of text was the model for pronunciation of foreign lyrics, and this technique was used in both rehearsals and performances. Facial expressions were used to model mood, reflecting interpretation of texts. The use of facial expression as a visible model was preceded or followed by verbal instruction in rehearsals, and this type of modeling evolved to function as a performance cue. Process Models. Process models, demonstrations of the steps involved in completing musical tasks, included combinations of acquired musical skills and knowledge sequenced to solve musical problems. All three teachers recognized episodes in their rehearsals wherein a process for completing a musical task was modeled. This process occurred in multiple steps that the teacher identified for the students and led them through in completing the prescribed task. These models addressed aspects of musical performance and were meant to contribute to students autonomy as musicians. Both Kate and Phil modeled the process of finding a note in a specific voice part by examining other parts, including the accompaniment. Brett used a process model in demonstrating for the members of the choir how his conducting gestures would signal their entrance in an irregular meter. Verbal instruction and visible and audible models were used as steps within the process model. In concurrence with the findings of others, my results suggest that modeling indeed includes directors use of their singing voice as suitable for imitation (Gonzo, 1977; Pfautsch, 1973; Thurman, 1977; Watkins, 1986). However, my observations also go beyond the extant literature on modeling in rehearsals to include the use of speech, chant, and rhythmic renderings to model aspects of musical execution. Pitched renderings appeared either as static phonation, when models involved isolated, singular sounds, or as dynamic phonation, when they were presented in
UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 10
the context of the musical phrase. Furthermore, both visible and process models were used, the latter of which has not been acknowledged by other researchers. Finally, conducting was identified as a visible model serving as an example of what directors would like to hear.
Discussion
Only three high school choral directors were observed in this study. Replication with a larger sample is needed before the present findings can be generalized as common patterns. In addition, further research may assist in substantiating the patterns described, refining the results obtained, and providing new insights. In Figure 1, I have charted the categories of models and descriptions of modeling acts derived from this study for use as an observation tool in music education classes. Teacher educators may find these categories useful in providing instructional strategies for music education students or practicing choral educators. Reflection on action (Elliott, 1995)in which teachers examine prior rehearsals and contemplate subsequent actionsis important in the process of teaching. Awareness of the ways other than singing to use modeling during a rehearsal may increase teachers options in regard to instructional strategies that can meet the needs of the varieties of learners represented in choral classrooms. Teachers may find it useful to engage in modeling techniques involving tools other than their own voices. The choral music teachers who served as participants in this study modeled complex skilldevelopment strategies and called for students to replicate processes designed to solve problems in much the same way that math teachers present the proofs of theorems as part of instruction in a geometry class. Ordering simple skills to complete these more complex musical tasks develops performance autonomy, and, when demonstrated by the teacher, such techniques can be referred to as process models. I also suggest that we consider the possibility that modeling occurs as different types of everincreasing cognitive complexity required on the part of either the teacher or the student. This complexity, or awareness, may span from an intuitive teacher action that occurs in immediate response to a students performance during a rehearsal to a complex ordering of steps designed to conquer a musical challenge. There may be another type of modeling, one that works in tandem with verbal instruction as students apply principles of correct musical performance. For example, teachers who define the soft palate by describing the position inside the mouth, explaining the importance of maintaining a raised soft palate while singing, and showing students their soft-palate hand are engaging in visible modeling, and students can use the information provided in developing their own skills. In the course of this interaction, comparisons can be drawn between incorrect and correct
attempts. Such modeling can lead to opportunities for both evaluation and conscious learning. Teachers might also consider instructional activities that require students to discriminate between different conducting gestures, interpret conducting gestures in the context of the music in question, and implement these insights into their performance. Hence, conducting gestures can be thought of as a third type of model, one in which musical performances are interpreted. Conducting students would distinguish between conducting patterns as formulas and as models of the shape of music, and teachers would need to take time to explain the gestures used in their modeling. In delineating the steps necessary to improve musical performances, teachers may engage in modeling in which they reproduce these steps in sequence. The forms of modeling described here may or may not be included in such demonstrations; however, these complex steps can become part of a problem-solving strategy in the process of preparing for musical performances. Undergraduate choral methods classes must provide preservice teachers with guidelines regarding efficient rehearsal procedures and communication skills. Correct modeling of examples of musical performances can help students improve their singing techniques, and imitations of incorrect student performances represent examples by which students can evaluate themselves and make judgments. In addition, students may generalize these practices to situations, assimilating new, learned behaviors into subsequent performances. Prospective teachers should be encouraged to develop and apply modeling skills.
References
Blocker, L., Greenwood, R., & Shellahamer, B. (1997). Teaching behaviors of middle school and high school band directors in the rehearsal setting. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 457469. Bresler, L., & Stake, R. E. (1992). Qualitative research methodology in music education. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 7590). New York: Schirmer Books. Dickey, M. R. (1991). A comparison of verbal instruction and nonverbal teacher-student modeling in instrumental ensembles. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39, 132142. Elliott, D. J. (1995). Music matters: A new philosophy of music education. New York: Oxford University Press. Garretson, R. L. (1981). Conducting choral music (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Glesne, C. (1999). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley. Goolsby, T. (1997). Verbal instruction in instrumental rehearsals: A comparison of three career levels and preservice teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 2140. Gonzo, C. L. (1977). Metaphoric behavior in choral conducting. Choral Journal, 17(7), 812.
Gumm, A. J. (1993). The development of a model and assessment instrument of choral music teaching styles. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41, 181199. Kelly, S. N. (1997). Effects of conducting instruction on the musical performance of beginning band students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 295305. Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Pfautsch. L. (1973). The choral conductor and the rehearsal. In H. A. Decker & J. Herford (Eds.), Choral conducting: A symposium (pp. 5692). New York: Appleton Century Crofts. Sang, R. C. (1982). Modified path analysis of a skills-based instructional effectiveness model for beginning teachers in instrumental music education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Sang, R. C. (1987). A study of the relationship between instrumental music teachers modeling skills and pupil performance behaviors. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 91, 155159. Schn, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Thurman, V. L. (1977). The frequency and time description of selected rehearsal behaviors used by five choral conductors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Tyson, T. L. (1988). A descriptive case study of a master teachers verbal behavior in a high school choral rehearsal. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Watkins, R. E. (1986). A descriptive study of high school choral directors use of modeling, metaphorical language, and musical/technical language related to student attentiveness. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.
Fig ure 1. Ca teg ories of M od els and Descrip tion s of M od eling Acts. Ea ch colum n re presents a single m odeling event in the observe d re hearsal. In each colum n, m ark a check if the text detailed on the left describes that particular modeling event. Not all descriptors will apply to each event, and there will be one column per event observed. Because there may be multiple events in the rehearsal, you may need more than one chart for a complete description of the director's episodes of modeling. context in rehearsal sequence : warm-up sight reading song preparation mod eled behavior via: speaking singing rhythmic rendering (clappe d, tapped, or other percus sive reproduction of notated rhythm melodic rendering (static phonation, as in correcting a singular vowel or a vocal production issue; performance of a pattern or phrase chanting (spoken rhythmic rendering) physical exam ple mo deled b y: teacher student recording oth er (specify) modeled for imitation by : sopranos altos tenors basses all imm ediate imitatio n by singers : yes no pedagogical objective: preparatory corrective ideal performance for imitation mim icry of student error (specify if hyperbolic) guide/reinforcem ent (teach er pe rform s tas k simultane ous with stud ents . Serves a s a m ode l only if teach er instructs pup ils to imitate as they he ar an d sing .) musically-related pedagogical purpose : posture instruction in techniques o f breathing/breath support vocal technique instruction in diction rhythmic reading melodic reading exp ressive e lem ents physical gesture to reinforce model (e.g., placing hands on cheek bones for placement cue. This gesture, apart from conducting gestures, may be repeated independent of model as a reminder to studen ts of the m ode l.) UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 14
Use of Classwide Peer Tutoring in the General Music Classroom

Alice-Ann Darrow, Pamela Gibbs, and Sarah Wedel
Alice-Ann Darrow is Irvin Cooper Professor of Music at Florida State University, Tallahassee. Pamela Gibbs is a music teacher at Quail Run Elementary School in Lawrence, Kansas. Sarah Wedel is a music teacher at Deerfield Elementary School in Lawrence, Kansas. It has been posited that no one learns more than a teacher. If this is so, then a logical notion is to make the student the teacher. Peer tutoring, an arrangement in which two students work together on an academic activity, with one student providing assistance, instruction, and feedback to the other (Greenwood, Maheady, & Carta, 1991), is now an accepted strategy to promote learning and academic achievement across the curriculum (Fulk & King, 2001; Greenwood et al., 2001). Several models of peer tutoring have been developed that differ in terms of instructional focus (acquisition or practice), structure (reciprocal or nonreciprocal), age (cross age or same age), and procedural components (e.g., method of pairing students, number of sessions) (Strain, 1996). All of these models have been found to be effective in fostering academic achievement (Harper, Maheady, & Mallette, 1994; Utley, Mortweet, & Greenwood, 1997) and student interactions (Jellison, Brooks, & Huck, 1984; Utley et al., 1997). It appears that when students work cooperatively, they develop an understanding of the need to help and support each others learning, along with greater unanimity regarding the purpose of learning specific skills (Sharan & Shaulov, 1990). Peer-tutoring models appear to have benefits for tutors as well as tutees. Students who instruct their peers must organize and clarify the learning material so that they feel comfortable in their own understanding. Peer tutoring encourages tutors to stay on task, articulate the problem, and lead the tutee to the correct responseall of which assist in their own comprehension of the material. The benefits to the tutee are increased interactions with the teacher and more opportunities to respond. The combination of these two benefits, according to several researchers (Delquadri & Greenwood, 1981; Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1984; Hall, Delquadri, Greenwood, & Thurston, 1982), is a necessary condition for academic achievement. Previous research has also revealed a relationship between student achievement outcomes and number of teacher and student interactions, as well as students response levels (Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1989). In addition, Webb and Farivar (1994) suggested that peers are often more aware than their teachers of what other students do not understand, that they can focus on the relevant features of the problem, and that they can provide easily understood explanations. According to Damon and Phelps (1989):
Unlike adult-child instruction, in peer tutoring, the expert party is not very far removed from the novice party in authority or knowledge; nor has the expert party any special claims to instructional competence. Being closer in knowledge and status, the tutee in a peer relation feels freer to express opinions, ask questions, and risk untested solutions. The interaction between the instructor and pupil is more balanced and more lively. Conversations between peer tutors and their tutees are high in mutuality even though the relationship is not exactly equal in status. (p. 138) The extensive research literature on peer and cross-age tutoring has revealed positive outcomes when these instructional strategies have been used in classrooms (Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982; Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, & Simmons, 1997; Mathes, Grek, Howard, Babyak, & Allen, 1999). Tutoring models have been used to promote learning in subjects such as mathematics (Britz, Dixon, & McLaughlin, 1989), language arts (Mathes & Fuchs, 1994), science (Rosenthal, 1994), social studies (Maheady, Sacca, & Harper, 1988), and art (Thurston, 1994). There is also extensive evidence regarding the benefits of cooperative learning, a strategy similar to peermediated learning but involving less defined participant roles (Edwards & Stout, 1989; Slavin, 1984, 1989; Slavin, Madden, & Stevens, 1989). Variations in the cross-age and peer-tutoring formats include reciprocal instructional arrangements. One model, the Classwide Peer Tutoring Program (Kamps, Barbetta, Leonard, & Delquadri, 1994), consists of student dyads tutoring each other on predetermined curriculum content as a supplement to the teachers instruction. During peer-tutoring sessions, students work in dyads, intermittently reversing the roles of tutor and tutee. Tutors have the responsibility for teaching the given task and for practicing the task with their tutee. Tutoring sessions are structured, with both tutor and tutee having assigned roles. Before the tutoring sessions, the teacher provides materials and activities for tutoring and demonstrates prompting, cueing, and provision of feedback. The teachers role during tutoring sessions is to monitor each pair, provide feedback to tutors, reinforce desired tutoring behaviors, and collect tutoring data. Several authors have discussed the benefits of cooperative learning and peer tutoring in music learning (Kaplan & Stauffer, 1994; Sheldon, 1997, 2001); however, only two data-based music studies specific to peer or cross-age tutoring can be found in the literature (Alexander & Dorow, 1983; Madsen, Smith, & Feeman, 1988). Alexander and Dorow (1983) conducted two related investigations within the same overall study. In the first experiment, they compared pretest and posttest performance scores of peer-tutored band students with the scores of students receiving regular band instruction. There was no significant posttest difference between the tutors and the students receiving regular band instruction; however, tutees scored significantly higher on the posttest than did students receiving regular band instruction. In the second experiment,
Alexander and Dorow controlled for the tutors use of approval and disapproval. They found that tutees in the approval condition scored significantly higher than did tutees in the control condition; however, there was no significant difference between tutees in the disapproval condition and tutees in the control condition. The findings of these two experiments indicate that peer tutorial sessions may be helpful to beginning band students and that the use of approval can play an important role in tutorial relationships. In a second related study, Madsen et al. (1988) found cross-age tutoring to be effective in promoting positive interactions between disruptive older special education students and kindergarten students who were also identified as being low in terms of social and academic skills. After viewing videotapes of tutorial sessions, naive observers perceived tutors to be somewhat gifted, positive, socially appropriate, and above grade level. These findings suggest that placing troubled students in a helping role can create the opportunity for them to be reinforced for doing good work, to be viewed more positively by others, and to feel good about themselves. Other researchers have also found low-achieving students to be effective cross-age tutors, and similar conclusions have been reached regarding the benefits to the tutor as well as the tutee (Giesecke, Cartledge, & Gardner, 1993). Furthermore, research findings indicate that allowing low-achieving and at-risk students the opportunity to serve as tutors improves their attitude toward school (Cardenas, Harris, del Refugio, & Supik, 1991) and their social skills (Mathur & Rutherford, 1991) as well as reducing their rates of dropout, truancy, and tardiness (Cardenas et al., 1991; Lazerson, Foster, Brown, & Hummerl, 1988). Although there are substantial findings in the special education and general education literature supporting a classwide peer-tutoring model (Delquadri, Greenwood, Whorton, Cara, & Hall, 1986; Greenwood & Delquadri, 1995; Greenwood, Terry, Utley, Montagna, & Walker, 1993), only two studies can be found in the music education literature in which peer-instructional models were used. These studies examined the role of peer tutoring in band and the use of crossage peer tutoring. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of peer tutoring on music learning in the elementary general music classroom and to assess the use of a classwide peer tutoring model.
Method
Participants. Participants in the study were 104 fifth-grade students (48 girls and 56 boys) at two elementary schools in a midwestern college town. They ranged in age from 9 to 11 years, with a mean age of 10.6 years. All of the participants were part of a districtwide general music program in which music classes meet for 40 minutes three times a week. Assessments. After examining the districtwide elementary music curriculum, the music
specialists at both schools selected study of key signatures as the subject matter for the present investigation. All participants were tested before and after the tutoring sessions. The test was divided into two subtests: flat key signatures and sharp key signatures. Subtest items were randomly ordered on the pretests and posttests. In addition to the pretests and posttests, participants were administered the appropriate subtest (flat or sharp key signature test) immediately after they participated in the corresponding tutorial sessions. Procedure. During the first session of the project, all participants were pretested on their knowledge of key signatures. After the pretest, teachers reviewed information requisite to determining key signatures, including clef and accidental names and names of treble clef lines, spaces, and appropriate ledger lines. During the initial tutorial training, the teachers used explanation, modeling, and practice with feedback to explain the tutorial procedures. The teachers began by explaining the procedures for tutoring and the roles of tutors and tutees. They then demonstrated tutoring by having one student from the class act as the tutee while they played the role of the tutor. The teachers also demonstrated the delivery of reinforcement and error-correction procedures. Finally, they selected two more students who tutored one another for several minutes as their classmates watched; afterward, teachers provided feedback regarding these sessions. Intervention Strategy. In Part 1 of the intervention, students were randomly assigned to one of two groups: tutors or tutees. Tutors were given flat key worksheets with carefully scripted prompts for determining each signature as well as the answers to each prompt and question. Tutees were given a regular worksheet without the scripted prompts or answers. Students then engaged in a 40-minute tutorial session (taking place during the usual music class period) in which tutors went through the worksheet with their tutee partner, giving prompts and asking questions. Teachers moved among the dyads, providing feedback or assistance as needed. At the completion of the flat key tutorial session, the flat signature subtest was administered to both tutors and tutees. In Part 2 of the intervention, the roles were reversed; tutors became the tutees, and tutees became the tutors. The same instructional process with scripted worksheets was used to teach the sharp key signatures. After the sharp key tutorial session, the sharp signature subtest was administered to both tutors and tutees. One week after completion of the two tutorial sessions, the posttest, which included both flat and sharp key signatures, was administered to all participants. The test format was fill-in-the-blank. Participants identified the written signatures and labeled each by name. Tests were scored for number of correct responses. Participants were also asked to write comments to their teacher about the tutorial sessions. There were no prompts as to the purpose of the comments.
Results
Pretest and posttest data, flat and sharp key signature subtest data, and student comments were used to analyze the effectiveness of the peer-mediated intervention strategy. Only data collected from students who completed all of the testing and tutorial sessions were used in the analyses. No significant differences were found on pretest scores between classes or between the two schools; therefore, all data were pooled for further analysis. Results indicated a significant difference between the pretest and posttest data for all students, t(103) = 15.43, p < .001. These data are not overly impressive considering that the pretest scores were so low, with a mean of 0.09 and a standard deviation of 0.44. Pretest scores indicated that very few participants knew any key signatures. The posttest mean was 6.66 (out of a possible score of 10) with a standard deviation of 4.39, indicating that the mean for correct responses was approximately 60% of the test items, a dramatic improvement over the pretest; however, the 4.39 standard deviation indicated that some students obviously still scored low on the posttest. Subtests were administered to participants to allow comparisons of tutors and tutees after each tutorial session. No significant difference was found between the scores of tutors and tutees on the flat key signature test. A significant difference was found between the scores of tutors and tutees on the sharp key signature test, t(103) = 2.30, p = .023, with tutees scoring significantly higher than tutors. However, no significant difference was found between tutors and tutees on the sharp signature portion of the posttest, indicating that tutees immediate recall of information was significantly greater but not significantly greater over a longer period of time. The means and standard deviations for pretest/posttest and subtest scores are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations for Pretest/Posttest and Subtest Scores Test Pretest on key signatures Flat key signature test Tutors Tutees Sharp key signature test Tutors Tutees Posttest on key signatures 3.52 4.75 6.66 2.55 2.91 4.39 5.02 5.09 2.79 2.83 M 0.09 SD 0.44
Finally, participants comments were analyzed to assess positive and negative statements (as classified by the researchers) they made regarding the tutorial sessions. Analysis of these data indicated that 71% of all comments made were positive, 9% were neutral, and 20% were negative. Seventy-eight percent of the negative comments were from one of the two schools. Participants gave various reasons for liking or disliking the sessions. Examples of these reasons are reported in Appendixes A and B.
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of classwide peer tutoring on music learning in the elementary general music classroom. Pretest/posttest data indicated that (a) classwide peer-tutoring strategy was effective in teaching key signatures, (b) children are capable of teaching one another musical concepts, and (c) children are capable of learning themselves as they teach. The peer-tutoring methodology was not compared with traditional teacher-led instruction; therefore, no conclusions can be made in comparing the two methodologies. In the future, researchers may wish to examine both types of instruction to determine which is more effective. It may be that the effectiveness of each methodology is dependent on the type of material to be learned. Because pretest scores were so low, a significant improvement from pretest to posttest was not surprising. The tests following the flat key intervention revealed no difference between the groups, indicating that tutors and tutees both learned the material. In fact, mean scores for the two groups were virtually identical. There was, however, a significant difference between the two groups after the second intervention, the sharp key tutorial session. In this case, the tutees scored much higher on the sharp key subtest than the tutors didindicating that tutors gave prompts and feedback from the scripted lesson but were not necessarily learning the material themselves. However, the difference between the tutors and tutees was short lived, as there was no significant difference between the groups on the sharp subsection of the posttest. Differences in the flat and sharp subtests were probably due to the prompted process used by the teachers in determining signatures: Identifying flat signatures (second to last flat) was easier than identifying sharp signatures (half step up from last sharp). The reasons students stated for liking the tutorial sessions were varied in nature. A number of students reported that they liked the tutorial sessions because they enjoyed helping their classmatesan admirable reason and one that has implications for positive peer relations. Nevertheless, the helping role should be structured with caution. One of the advantages of classwide peer tutoring is that all students are tutors as well as tutees. A potential weakness of nonreciprocal peer tutoring is that it creates inequitable relationships between students. That is,
rather than creating an environment encouraging mutually beneficial interactions, nonreciprocal tutoring sets up a relationship in which one student always plays a subordinate role. Nonreciprocal tutoring is often used with children who have disabilities. All children should have the opportunity to experience the joy of helping another individual. The problem in such an arrangement is the heterogeneity of student skill levels. One solution may be to have a peer coach help lower-functioning students deliver tutoring points and provide corrections. A number of students stated that they liked the tutorial sessions but would have preferred to select their partner. Allowing students to do so creates the likelihood that some students may never be selected. One of the advantages of the classwide peer-tutoring model is that it is inclusive. All students, regardless of popularity status or skill level, have the opportunity to assist their classmates. Most of the participants (more than 70%) liked the tutorial sessions. Those who did not thought the sessions were boring; however, these students went on to say that they liked the tutoring but thought learning key signatures was boring. These responses suggest that it was the subject matter that participants found boring and not the actual peer-tutoring activity. Learning key signatures was selected by the teachers and was a part of the districts fifth-grade music curriculum, which is structured to prepare students for participation in middle school performance ensembles. In regard to negative comments, it should also be noted that 78% of these comments came from one of the two schools. The present data suggest that the way peer tutoring is presented and carried out is important and that teachers play a role in how peer tutoring is perceived by students. If the literature is any indication, few music educators are employing peer tutoring in their classrooms. It may be that some music material is more suitable for peer tutoring than other material. An important principle in the use of classwide peer-tutoring systems is the selection of academic target behaviors and skills (Sheldon, 2001). The study of music is primarily a performance activity. Preparing students to serve as performance tutors is a more difficult task than preparing them to function in a general music classroom. Another reason that music teachers and others may not implement peer-tutoring procedures in their classroom is the time required to prepare for such activities. The teachers involved in the present study commented on the amount of time required to set up the peer-tutoring sessions. Instructional materials often need to be adapted if they are to be effective within the classwide peer-tutoring model. In addition to preparing materials, teachers must prepare tutors, monitor for instructional quality, and facilitate interactions. Other researchers have also speculated that the demands placed on teacher time (Giesecke et al., 1993, p. 34) may be part of the reason why peer tutoring is not used more widely. Foot, Morgan, and Shute (1990) indicated as well that
teachers tend to be concerned about the time and effort needed to train tutors. Preparing tutors and tutorial materials requires attention and time. If programs such as peer tutoring are to be used successfully in the school environment, the question becomes one of how to devise programs that do not add to but, rather, lessen the teachers workload. Sheldon (2001) offered helpful guidelines for implementation of such a program as well as for the most effective use of peer tutors in the music classroom. Classwide peer-tutoring studies are noticeably absent in the music education literature; therefore, the field should be fruitful for further investigation regarding the effects of peer tutoring. Future researchers may wish to examine the effects of peer tutoring versus traditional teacher-led instruction, the influence of peer tutoring on performance skills and nonmusical behaviors, and the impact of selective pairing of students. Peer tutoring, cross-age tutoring, and cooperative-learning arrangements are becoming increasingly commonplace. Educators in other academic areas are recognizing these programs as a means of fostering positive student interactions and increasing academic achievement. The results of this investigation indicate that such strategies may be useful to music educators as well.
References
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cross-age tutoring with truant, junior high school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 253255. Madsen, C. K., Smith, D. S., & Feeman, C. C. (1988). The use of music cross-age tutoring within special education settings. Journal of Music Therapy, 25, 135144. Maheady, L., Sacca, M. K., & Harper, G. F. (1988). Classwide peer tutoring with mildly handicapped high school students. Exceptional Children, 55, 5259. Mathes, P. G., & Fuchs, L. S. (1994). The efficacy of peer tutoring in reading for students with mild disabilities: A best-evidence synthesis. School Psychology Review, 23, 5980. Mathes, P. G., Grek, M. L., Howard, J. K., Babyak, A. E., & Allen, S. H. (1999). Peer assisted learning strategies for first-grade readers: A tool for preventing early reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 14, 5060. Mathur, S. R., & Rutherford, R. B. (1991). Peer mediated interventions promoting social skills of children and youth with behavior disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 14, 227242. Rosenthal, S. (1994). Students as teachers. Thrust for Educational Leadership, 23(6), 3638. Sharan, S., & Shaulov, A. (1990). Cooperative learning, motivation to learn, and academic achievement. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Cooperative learning theory and research (pp. 173202). New York: Praeger. Sheldon, D. A. (1997). Research into practice: Peer-tutoringStudents helping students. Illinois Music Educator, 57(3), 4445. Sheldon, D. A. (2001). Peer and cross-age tutoring in music. Music Educators Journal, 87(6), 3338. Slavin, R. E. (1984). Students motivating students to excel: Cooperative incentives, cooperative tasks, and student achievement. Elementary School Journal, 85, 5363. Slavin, R. E. (1989). Research on cooperative learning: Consensus and controversy. Educational Leadership, 47(4), 5254. Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. E., & Stevens, R. J. (1989). Cooperative learning models for the 3 Rs. Educational Leadership, 47(4), 2228. Strain, P. (1996). The utilization of classroom peers as behavior change agents. New York: Plenum. Thurston, J. K. (1994). Art partners: A new focus on peer tutoring. School Arts, 94, 4142. Utley, C. A., Mortweet, S. L., & Greenwood, C. R. (1997). Classwide peer tutoring and interventions. Focus on Exceptional Children, 29(5), 123. Webb, N., & Farivar, S. (1994). Promoting helping behavior in cooperative small groups in middle school mathematics. American Educational Psychology, 87, 406423.
Appendix A: Examples of Students Reasons for Liking Peer-Tutoring Sessions

When I was the teacher, I could see the answers and remember them. It was more fun than learning by yourself. It was cool to be taught by another kid. I liked working with a classmate, and you got more one-on-one time to learn from each other. It was neat to do something different. I thought it was fun working with partners because you can learn a little more without other classmates interrupting while you are coming up with an answer or while listening to the question. It was more fun than listening to the teacher all day! The time went quicker. It was easier to learn with a friend. It was good because it was one on one. I thought it was fun because it was like you are the boss. I liked being the teacher. I like being the student because you learn more. I think it is good because working with partners you build a society with people. It was better than sitting on your butt. It was a good idea because it helped us learn. It let people have better cooperation skills. I liked seeing what the other person knew and being able to help that person. It was challenging and then I got better! I had a good partner and he taught me very well! I thought it was great because you got to interact with others. I liked it because it was different. I think I learned more working with a peer.
Appendix B: Examples of Students Reasons for Not Liking Peer Tutoring Sessions
It was boring. I didnt like my partner. I dont like key signatures. I did not like it because it was stupid. It took too long. I dont care about key signatures. I didnt like being the teacher or the student. It was too easy. I dont really like that kind of music. It was stupid and dull. I didnt like it because I didnt understand. I didnt like it because I did not like the test. The test was too hard. None of it was fun. I hated having to learn something I didnt know anything about. I thought the test was too long. My partner was not helpful. I disliked the whole idea. I was not interested. I didnt like it because I dont get it. I dont like working with anybody. I learn better in the class. I would rather sing.
An Investigation of the Association between the Music Aptitude of Elementary Students and Their Biological Parents
Susan C. Guerrini
Susan C. Guerrini is Chair of the Music Education Program at Mason Gross School of the Arts at RutgersThe State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick. Babies are musical beings. They coo, babble, and even tend to cry around one central pitch (Gordon, 1996, Woodward, 1994). But at birth, infants have many developmental struggles to overcome. Among the first things they must accomplish is acquiring control over their bodies and gaining the capacity to communicate with their new world. And yet, these newborn babies have the ability to hear and respond to pitch and rhythm. Prenatal research indicates that hearing has developed in the growing fetus by the twenty-fifth week and that within the uterus the fetus is able to hear a vast array of sounds, including music (Woodward, 1994). The unborn child already possesses complex auditory abilities in discriminating the frequency, timbre, intensity, and duration of sound (Wilkin, 1993). Therefore, each child who is born and is classified as normal and hearing possesses the potential to develop musically. But not all children develop musically according to the same timetable, nor do they all become discriminating or functioning musicians despite the fact that most children are born with the same tools. Researchers believe that, between the ages of 24 and 48 months, some children will be able to sing apart from a music stimulus, have control and use of a vocal mechanism, and coordinate the upper body to the beat of a song for one or two phrases (Levinowitz & Guilmartin, 1993). But many preschool teachers offer anecdotal evidence that half or more of the children in their classes have difficulty matching the pitch and keeping a steady beat of any given song. By elementary school, the gulf widens between those who exhibit a degree of musical ability by matching pitch and keeping a beat and those students who even at the age of 7 or 8 find these simple tasks difficult. Some music researchers have studied the pitch accuracy of young children in various circumstances and found that this accuracy varies widely (Goetze & Horii, 1989; Greene, 1994; Rutkowski, 1990). Why is there such disparity in ability? Is it possible that some children are genetically predisposed to be more musical than others? To attempt to answer these questions, it is first necessary to make a distinction between music aptitude and music achievement. Gordon indicates that music aptitude is the potential that a person has to be a musician, using audiation, tonal, and rhythmic recognition skills (Gordon, 1987). Music achievement, on the other hand, is the manner in which some people with music
aptitude are able to fulfill this music aptitude, often by either singing or playing an instrument. But Gordon is careful to point out that there are many musicians (that is, those who play instruments or sing) who do not have a high degree of music aptitude, as well as many people who do not consider themselves musicians who, when tested, exhibit a high degree of music aptitude. Gordon notes that as early as 1911, pioneers such as Stumf, Pear, Pevexz, Rupp, and Mjoen & Mjoen were attempting to establish that music aptitude was an inborn or innate characteristic. But this belief was based on research that appears to be flawed. Gordon indicates that these early studies examined only the families of professional and musical prodigies. These scholars, therefore, were confusing music achievement with music aptitude. Music achievement was also the issue in two further studies. In 1922, 85 members of 6 families who had at least one professional musician among them were studied (Stanton, 1935). Family members were administered the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent (1919), and Stanton found generally higher scores among the participants than one might expect to find in the general population. Results of a similar study, conducted in 1956, agreed with those of the Stanton study (Scheinfeld, 1956). However, both these studies neglected to address the issue of true music aptitude and instead based their data on music achievement. Shuter-Dyson (1966) investigated hereditary and environmental issues using new procedures. She chose a different set of aptitude tests by Wing (1948) and analyzed the data using more standardized research methods of the 1960s. She also sought data from the general population, rather than focusing on talented musicians. Unlike previous studies, Shuter-Dyson found no strong correlation between parents aptitude and their childrens aptitude. However, the researcher believed she did not have a representative sample and indicated that with a more heterogeneous group she might have obtained higher correlations (Shuter-Dyson & Gabriel, 1981). Because no definitive conclusions can be drawn from the previous studies, it is clear there is a need for additional research.
Method
The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the role of nature versus nurture in the distribution of music aptitude. The research question to be answered was Is there an association between the music aptitude of children and the music aptitude of their biological parents? Students attended a suburban elementary school, located in New Jersey. The school population was approximately 525 students, in kindergarten through Grade 5. Class size was approximately 22 students per class. Most students were from a middle-class, white-collar
environment. All students spoke English fluently. Each child in Grades 1 through 5 received 50 consecutive minutes of music instruction per week from the same certified music specialist. The total sample in the study consisted of 169 people, with 88 students and 81 parents included. The researcher did not include the results of two families because the parents were not biologically related to their children. Two other parents had difficulty with the English language, and their tests were not part of the reported results. The results of one other family were omitted because the parent took the test while inebriated. The Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA) (Gordon, 1986) was administered to students who were in Grades 1 through 3. Students in Grades 4 and 5 took the Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA) (Gordon, 1986). The music teacher administered the tonal portions of the tests during the students regularly assigned music period. She administered the rhythm portion the following week, also during the regularly assigned music period. There were a few children who were absent during the two weeks of school testing, and those tests were made up during the following two weeks. The Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA) (Gordon, 1989) was selected to be administered to any parents who volunteered to take part in the study. This test was chosen for several reasons. The test can be administered in a relatively short amount of time (usually 20 minutes), which might appeal to any prospective volunteers. In that short amount of time, both tonal and rhythm aptitude can be determined. The reliabilities for the test were also convincingly high. To ensure continuity within the study, all tests administered to all subjects, both adult and children, were created by the same author. The researcher, who was also the classroom music teacher, composed a letter directed to parents of students in Grades 1 through 5 who attended the school. The letter contained information about the study, stated how the test would be conducted, estimated the length of time needed to take the test, and requested that parents who were interested in participating in the study fill out an enclosed form. Within one week, the researcher received 103 positive responses. During the next week, the PTA newsletter published a short article on the study. The researcher also discussed the study with her students. A short speech was given describing the study and requesting the children deliver the letter that would be sent home with them. As part of an ongoing reward system, the researcher promised a popular hard candy to any student whose parents volunteered to take the test. This generated interest among the children and helped the students remember, over the twoweek period that the testing of parents was taking place. This kept the research topic alive in class and piqued the students interest. Ten test sessions were set up for the parents who volunteered to take the test. The groups
taking the test varied in size from 1 to 20. Each time, the test was administered in the music room, with tables and chairs especially set up to create an environment conducive to taking an auditory test. The AMMA test was played through a stereo tape system with four speakers, which produced a clear, audible sound. The researcher waited about 10 minutes for all parents to attend the session, then closed the door and began the test. The room was soundproof, and the researcher noted that each session continued without incident or interruption. After the first session, it became quite clear to the researcher that a high level of frustration was present among the adult test takers. Many expressed feelings of inadequacy and spoke of not wishing to see the results of their test because they believed the results would be low. Wishing to bolster the musical self-confidence of the volunteer parents, the researcher quickly marked the tests and sent the results home the following day. There was an ulterior motive for providing results so quickly. The researcher was concerned that there might be negative talk in the community about the test if the volunteer parents were not shown quickly that they had scored much better on the test than they realized. This could have had a negative effect on the rest of the volunteer parents who were scheduled to come later during the two weeks of testing.
Results
To interpret the association among the students music aptitude and their parents music aptitude, the data were divided into low, medium, and high categories. A chi-square statistic was then applied to seek an association for Tonal, Rhythm, and Composite Music Aptitude between children and parents. Each parent/child dyad was assigned to its respective place within three separate 3-by-3 crossbreaks designs for each of the subtests of Tonal, Rhythm, and Composite, respectively. A chisquare analysis with .05 level of confidence was computed for all three cross-breaks designs. If a hereditary association were significant on examination of the chi-square charts (Tables 1, 2, and 3), the researcher would expect the chi-square chart to show a greater similarity between children and parents of like aptitude; that is, one would expect to see more students in the diagonal with fewer numbers outside the diagonal. For tonal aptitude, the observed frequencies and chi-square statistics for the 3-by-3 contingency table are presented in Table 1, with no statistically significant difference found (p > .05). For rhythm aptitude, the observed frequencies and chi-square statistics for the 3-by-3 contingency table are presented in Table 2, with no statistically significant difference found (p>.05). For composite aptitude, the observed frequencies and chi-square statistics for the 3-by-3
Table 1. Chi-Square Data of Tonal Aptitude Low-Apt. Parent Low-Ap t. Child Med.-Apt C hild High.-Apt. C hild 3 11 7 Med.-Apt. Parent 10 30 9 High-Apt. Parent 2 15 10 chi2(4) = 4.658 Note . N.S.=not s ignificant at th e .05 level.
N.S.
Table 2. Chi-Square Data of Rhythm Aptitude Low-Apt. Parent Low-Ap t. Child Med.-Apt C hild High.-Apt. C hild 3 14 2 Med.-Apt. Parent 9 39 10 High-Apt. Parent 0 17 3 chi2(4) = 4.197 Note . N.S.=not s ignificant at th e .05 level.
N.S.
Table 3. Chi-Square Data of Com posite Aptitude Low-Apt. Parent Low-Ap t. Child Med.-Apt C hild High.-Apt. C hild 2 15 4 Med.-Apt. Parent 10 37 7 High-Apt. Parent 1 14 7 chi2(4) = 5.675 Note . N.S.=not s ignificant at th e .05 level.
N.S.
contingency table are presented in Table 3, with no statistically significant difference found (p > .05).
Discussion
Because the researcher found no association between the music aptitude of parents and that of their biological children, it is clear this data does not support the notion that heredity largely determines musical aptitude. It is interesting to speculate on possible other factors influencing childrens music aptitude. This leads the researcher back to the nature versus nurture question. The results of this study seem to point to the nurture theory, which would translate into strong
environmental influences over a childs music aptitude. Regardless of parents music aptitude, it seems that the parents of the students tested could have provided their children with rich and varied musical experiences. By the act of volunteering their time to take the AMMA test, these parents have already demonstrated an extra interest in their childrens music education. It is not difficult to conclude that parents can enrich and increase their childrens music aptitude by providing them with a rich and varied musical environment. The motivation of parents to provide this musical environment does not have to depend on their own music aptitude. Perhaps the motivation to provide a rich musical environment would be because of parents own emotional response to things musical; that is, that they enjoy music and are affected by it in a positive manner. This love of things musical could easily be passed on from generation to generation regardless of any genetic link that might be present. Parents also are often motivated to provide activities and experiences that they themselves did not have, giving to their children what they perceive as a lack in their own childhood. Another factor that could be contributing to the nurture of these students music education is the uniting force of the musical environment created by the general music teacher. All students in the research project studied music with the same teacher, who consciously sought to provide a rich and varied musical curriculum. The sample of the present study was limited; therefore, one recommendation would be to replicate the present investigation using larger numbers in the study sample and a more diverse population. However, the author acknowledges that it may be very difficult to enlist a large sample of a diverse population of parents, because the investigation depends on the motivation of parents to volunteer their time to be tested. The parents in this study, despite their expressed feelings of intimidation, were willing to take the time and effort to understand more clearly their childrens musical abilities. Music educators might well take note of these motivated parents and address the musical lives, needs, and insecurities of this population in future studies. Children do not exist in a vacuum. They are influenced by numerous variables as they progress through their formative years. Parents pass on their genetic makeup to their children, as well as create a home environment that may help their children grow and flourish. It also seems that if general music teachers present a positive and stimulating music curriculum, they may be able to positively influence childrens music aptitude as well as their music achievement. When parents and general music educators join to create rich and varied musical environments, they will provide their children the opportunity to take steps toward realizing their musical potential.
References
Goetze, M., & Horii, Y. (1989). A comparison of the pitch accuracy of group and individual singing in young children. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 104, 1637. Gordon, E. E. (1986). Primary Measures of Music Audiation and The Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: GIA Publications. Gordon, E. E. (1987). The Nature, Description, Measurement, and Evaluation of Music Aptitudes. Chicago: GIA Publications. Gordon, E. E. (1989). Advanced Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: GIA Publications. Greene, G. A. (1994). Unison versus individual singing and elementary students vocal pitch accuracy. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(2), 105114. Levinowitz, L. M., & Guilmartin, K. K. (1993). Understanding and enhancing the young childs music development. Princeton, NJ: Music and Movement Center. Rutkowski, J. (1990). The measurement and evaluation of childrens singing voice development. Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 1(1 & 2), 8195. Scheinfeld, A. (1956). The new heredity and you. London: Chatto & Windus. Seashore, C. E. (1919). Seashore Measures of Musical Talent. New York: Columbia Phonograph Co. Shuster-Dyson, R. (1966). Hereditary and environmental factors in musical ability. The Eugenics Review. 58, 3241. Shuster-Dyson, R., & Gabriel C. (1981). The psychology of musical ability. London: Cambridge University Press. Stanton, H. M. (1922). The inheritance of specific musical capacities. Psychological Monographs, 31, 4253. Stanton, H. M. (1935). Measurement of musical talent: The Eastman experiment. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Wilkin, P. E. (1993). In T. Blum (Ed.), Prenatal perception, learning and bonding (pp. 307329). Berlin: Leonardo Publishers. Wing, H. D. (1948). Manual for Standardized Test of Musical Intelligence. Sheffield, England: City of Sheffield Training College. Woodward, S. C. (1994). The window of opportunity. International Society for Music Education Early Childhood Commission Seminar: Vital connections: Young children, adults, & music (pp. 6269). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.
Musical Aptitude Versus Academic Ability as a Predictor of Beginning Instrumental Music Achievement and Retention: Research and Implications
Kristyn Kuhlman
Kristyn Kuhlman is an associate professor of music education at Roberts Wesleyan College, Rochester, New York. For decades, researchers have sought to identify factors related to the success and retention of beginning instrumental music students. Variables ranging from students mathematical abilities to their perceived degree of parental support have been examined in an attempt to identify factors that correlate with first-year instrumental music performance achievement. These variables have also been examined to determine which ones best predict retention of beginning instrumentalists. Irrespective of the factors examined, the research literature has consistently identified two factors as most strongly related toand as the best predictors ofbeginning instrumental performance achievement and retention: musical aptitude and academic ability. Alarming, however, is the lack of agreement among researchers regarding the influence of these two factors. The research literature results are not only inconsistent but seem to be in direct opposition concerning the influence musical aptitude and academic ability have on beginning instrumental music students with respect to performance achievement. A number of researchers maintain that musical aptitude is the most important factor related to beginning instrumental music achievement (Brokaw, 1983; Froseth, 1971; Gordon, 1967, 1986; Schleuter, 1978). Froseth, Schleuter, and Brokaw each reported a significant relationship between musical aptitude, as measured by the Musical Aptitude Profile (Gordon, 1965), and subsequent degree of achievement in beginning instrumental music. According to these researchers, students demonstrating high musical aptitude consistently scored higher on measures of performance achievement than students demonstrating low musical aptitude. Gordon (1986) further concluded that musical aptitude as measured by the Musical Aptitude Profile could account for approximately 37% of the variance in beginning instrumental music achievement. Regarding the relationships among musical aptitude, academic ability, and performance achievement, Gordon (1967) concluded that, over and above musical aptitude scores, academic achievement test scores contribute little to predicting instrumental performance achievement. Collectively, these studies suggest that teachers can confidently predict students achievement in beginning instrumental music on the basis of their levels of musical aptitude. Directly opposed to this suggestion, however, are researchers who contend that it is academic achievement, not musical aptitude, that is most influential in determining the musical
achievement of beginning instrumental music students (Cramer, 1958; Hufstader, 1974; Klinedinst, 1991; McCarthy, 1974, 1980; Mitchum, 1969). Cramer, Mitchum, and McCarthy individually examined beginning instrumental music performance achievement in relation to level of musicality and academic ability, and each of these researchers reported a significant relationship. On the basis of his finding of a .50 correlation between measures of performance achievement and academic achievement, Mitchum (1969) maintained that academic achievement shows great promise as a predictor of instrumental performance achievement. He further concluded from his results that musical aptitude, as measured by the Standardised Tests of Musical Intelligence (Wing, 1961), was not a strong predictor of instrumental performance ability. McCarthy (1974) also found level of academic achievement to be significantly related to level of performance achievement, stating that successful students tend to be successful regardless of their academic endeavor. It is interesting to note that, in this statement, McCarthy characterized both academic achievement and music performance as academic endeavors. The results of these studies revealing academic achievement to be the best predictor of firstyear instrumental music performance achievement are in conflict with the findings of studies indicating that, over and above musical aptitude, academic achievement contributes little to the prediction of instrumental performance achievement. These opposing claims based on contradictory data limit a teachers ability to base pedagogical practice confidently on research results. If this body of literature is to be of value to instrumental music educators, these opposing claims warrant further examination to allow a more nuanced analysis of the research results. Therefore, it is the purpose of this article to provide such an examination of relevant studies as well as to consider the implications for current and future instrumental music educators.
Performance Achievement Criteria

An examination of the criteria used by researchers to evaluate beginning instrumental performance achievement reveals a possible explanation for the contradictory results regarding which of the two factors under consideration better predicts beginning instrumental performance achievement. In his study, Schleuter (1978) defined music achievement of beginning instrumental music students as achievement in tonal skills (sense of tonality, tone quality, and intonation), rhythmic skills (consistency of tempo beats, accuracy of meter, and melodic rhythm patterns), instrument physical manipulation, and general instrumental music performance skills. Schleuter reported that tonal, rhythmic, and performance achievement scores were strongly affected by music aptitude levels, from which he concluded that music achievement exhibited in the beginning stages of instrumental instruction is influenced by the music aptitude level of the student. Brokaw (1983) also reported a significant relationship between music aptitude and
student achievement of music criteria, the performance portion of which was defined as correct articulation, accurate melody, precise rhythm, and proper phrasing. Cramer (1958), Mitchum (1969), and McCarthy (1974, 1980) measured performance achievement using students scores on the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale (Watkins & Farnum, 1962), a standardized performance scale that assesses students sight-reading performance abilities. In each of these studies, the researchers affirmed that performance achievement had the strongest relationship to academic ability, each reporting a significant relationship between academic abilities and scores on the Watkins-Farnum instrument. Hufstader (1974) and Klinedinst (1991) broadened their definitions of beginning performance achievement beyond sight-reading to include other factors. Beginning instrumental students in Hufstaders study were evaluated on technique, tone quality, music-reading ability, rhythmicreading ability, and general musicianship. According to Hufstader, intelligence contributed most to prediction of success in beginning instrumental music, followed by musical ability. Klinedinst (1991) obtained similar results in his study examining the effectiveness of 11 variables in predicting performance and retention of beginning instrument music students. To measure achievement, he evaluated students performance of tudes (a) prepared with teacher help, (b) prepared without teacher help, and (c) sight-read. Adjudicators used a 5-point rating scale designed to assess rhythmic accuracy, tonal accuracy, tempo consistency, technical facility, and tone quality. Also, the students instrumental music teachers rated their musical achievement using a 5-point scale designed to evaluate tonal and rhythmic understanding, technical skills, and tone quality. Klinedinst reported that the variables with the strongest relationship to performance achievement, as determined via both adjudicator and teacher ratings, were reading achievement, math achievement, and scholastic ability. Reading achievement was the only significant predictor of performance achievement; music aptitude, as assessed with the Intermediate Measure of Music Audiation (Gordon, 1982), was found not to be a significant predictor. On the basis of these findings, Klinedinst concluded that during the first year of instrumental music instruction, performance achievement is best predicted by scholastic ability and academic achievement tests and that these two variables are more influential than musical aptitude in determining the musical attainment of elementary school instrumental students. A study conducted by Young (1971) provides perhaps the clearest understanding of the relationships among performance criteria, musical aptitude, and academic ability. Investigating the roles of intelligence, academic achievement, and musical aptitude as predictors of beginning instrumental music achievement, he identified two types of music achievement: (a) achievement related to musical abilities, including rhythmic and tonal aural perception and instrumental improvisation, and (b) achievement related to extramusical factors such as music reading and
notation. After completing one year of instrumental music lessons, students in his study took three criterion tests: Criterion Test I involved aural perception, music reading, and notational understanding of tonal and rhythm concepts; Criterion Test II consisted of aural recognition of musical instruments and a written test of musical terms and symbols; and Criterion Test III involved performing a prepared tude, sight-reading two tudes, and improvising a familiar melody. Young reported that students academic achievement test scores exhibited the strongest relationship to the overall achievement criteria (r = .70), a relationship significantly greater than that between musical aptitude and the achievement criteria. Youngs study, however, prompts further speculation about the relationships of academic achievement and musical aptitude to music performance. It is interesting to note that, according to Young, the 17 achievement criteria subtests that did not require music-reading ability revealed a stronger relationship to Musical Aptitude Profile scores than did the criteria subtests that required music reading. For example, ability to improvise demonstrated a stronger correlation with music aptitude than with academic ability or IQ. In contrast, those achievement criteria that required reading music (playing familiar music and sight-reading) were more related to intelligence and academic achievement. Young, therefore, asserted that musical aptitude scores were useful for predicting success on criteria tests that did not involve reading music and that academic achievement test scores were better predictors of achievement criteria that involved music reading. Further clarification of the significant roles of academic achievement and musical aptitude play with respect to predicting beginning instrumental music performance is offered by judges ratings in the areas of students performances of sight-reading, familiar tudes, and improvisation. Students performances on Criterion Test III tasks were evaluated by three judges; interjudge reliabilities ranged from .73 to .98. Judges ratings of students sight-reading abilities correlated strongly with their ratings of students performances of familiar music (r = .83); both tasks required reading music notation. By comparison, the correlation between sight-reading scores and improvisation scores (r = .23) was positive but weak, very similar to the relationship between general intelligence and musical aptitude. The correlation between ratings of performance of familiar music and ratings of improvisation (r = .25) was also weak. These results indicate that the relationship between improvisation and performance tasks that involve reading notation is not strong. Youngs findings are notable because, as he himself concluded, they reveal that music reading involves a greater reliance on abilities associated with academic achievement than does improvisation. In addition, Young noted that improvisation appears to be more dependent on abilities that he described as more musical. In demonstrating that music reading and academic achievement share a common core of
abilities, Young (1971) lent credence to McCarthys (1974) characterization of beginning instrumental music as an academic endeavor. The research literature (Cramer, 1958; Hufstader, 1974; Klinedinst, 1991; McCarthy, 1974, 1980; Mitchum, 1969) also supports this characterization: Academic ability has been shown to be the best predictor of beginning instrumental music achievement when the achievement criterion is defined as reading music notation. The conditions under which students have been required to read music notation have differed, yet the results have been consistent. Studies in which beginning instrumental music performance achievement has been defined solely according to students sight-reading abilities (Cramer, 1958; McCarthy, 1974; Mitchum, 1969) have shown that deciphering unfamiliar music notation is related to general intelligence and academic ability but not to musical aptitude. Even when performance criteria have included performing familiar notation in addition to sightreading (Hufstader, 1974; Klinedinst, 1991; Young, 1971), beginning instrumental music performance achievement has exhibited a stronger relationship to students academic abilities. Concerning the association between academic ability and musical aptitude, there is ample evidence to suggest that the two constructs are not significantly related (Gordon, 1986; Sergeant & Thatcher, 1974). Therefore, when fully realized, the differences between the position taken by Klinedinst (1991), supported by Cramer (1958), Mitchum (1969), Hufstader (1974), and McCarthy (1974, 1980), and the position taken by Gordon, supported by Froseth (1971), Schleuter (1978), and Brokaw (1983), lead to contrasting hypotheses. The first position supports the hypothesis that students who enter the beginning instrumental music program with superior academic abilities will be more successful than students entering with lower academic abilities, regardless of level of musical aptitude. Conversely, the opposing position affirms the alternative hypothesis that students who enter the beginning instrumental music program with higher levels of musical aptitude will be more successful than students entering with lower levels of musical aptitude, regardless of academic abilities. The seeming contradiction between these hypotheses, supported by their respective bodies of research, limits teachers abilities to confidently base pedagogical practice and decisions on research results. When presented with a beginning instrumental student who is academically superior but possesses a low level of musical aptitude, teachers are faced with an important pedagogical decision. Should they challenge the student to achieve with the expectation that the student will excel (on the basis of the research-supported supposition that academically superior students will attain a high level of performance achievement), or should they adopt a more modest instructional approach (based on the research-supported supposition that the student is at risk) that will reduce the probability that the student will encounter difficulty in learning and be inclined to drop out of the program? The relevant research literature reveals that, indeed,
academic ability is the more prominent factor in the success and ultimate retention of beginning instrumentalists.
Retention
Retention of beginning instrumental music students is critical to the success of school instrumental music programs, and identification of variables related to retention can aid instrumental music educators in this endeavor. A review of the literature examining retention in beginning instrumental music programs indicates that academic ability is an influential factor in student retention (Allen, 1981; Bailey, 1975; Brown, 1996; Klinedinst, 1991; Mawbey, 1973; Pruitt, 1966). Mawbey (1973), in his examination of student dropout rates in beginning instrumental classes, discovered a significant relationship between continuation with instrumental lessons and the factors of verbal reasoning and reading abilities; thus, he concluded that low ability in these areas is a deterrent for beginning instrumental music students, especially in terms of reading and interpreting music notation. Pruitt (1966) and Bailey (1975) also reported significant differences between the academic achievement and intelligence test scores of beginning instrumental students who remained in the program and those who dropped out: Mean scores were significantly higher among students who remained. Test scores, however, are not the only indicator of the relationship between academic ability and retention. Results of a study conducted by Allen (1981) revealed that students themselves identify this phenomenon: In that investigation, students reported that their problems with music reading were a critical factor in their decision to withdraw from the orchestra program. Not only did students report this problem, beginning instrumental teachers also felt that difficulty in learning to read music had a strong influence on student withdrawal from the program (Brown, 1996). Viewing the issue from the perspective of student retention rather than student dropout, Klinedinst (1991), concurring with previous findings, reported that reading achievement, scholastic ability, and math achievement as well as socioeconomic status and self-concept in reading proved to be significant predictors of retention of beginning instrumentalists. He further asserted that music aptitude was not a significant factor in retention. Thus, the research literature supports the premise that beginning instrumentalists academic abilities, specifically in the content areas of verbal reasoning, math achievement, and reading achievement, are likely to determine their music-reading abilities and, in turn, influence their decision to drop out of beginning instrumental programs. This premise is supported not only by differences in test scores between students who remain in programs and students who drop out but by corroborating reports from students and teachers themselves. An early study conducted by Tate (1962), however, provided results different from those
obtained in later studies. Tate did not find any significant difference between the intelligence scores of sixth-grade students who dropped out of the instrumental music program and those who did not drop out. Young (1971) also reported that measures of intelligence and academic achievement were not strong factors in determining whether students remained in the elementary instrumental program. Young found that students who remained in the program and students who dropped out scored considerably above the published test norms; therefore, he concluded that poor academic achievement was not a strong factor in determining student retention. However, although both groups scored above the published norms, there were considerable differences between the intelligence scores and academic achievement of students who continued in the instrumental program and those who dropped out. Students who voluntarily dropped out of the music program exhibited decidedly lower scores than did the students who remained in the program. Upon further examination of the results, it could be argued that Young reached an incomplete conclusion because there was indeed a difference in the academic achievement of the students who remained in the instrumental program and those who dropped out. Students with superior academic achievement proved to be more successful in the elementary instrument program than students with more limited academic achievement, supporting the findings of previous as well as subsequent researchers (Allen, 1981; Bailey, 1975; Brown, 1996; Klinedinst, 1991; Mawbey, 1973; Pruitt, 1966).
Conclusion and Implications

The research literature examining the important factors concerning the achievement levels of beginning instrumental music students (and their retention in school music programs) reveals a variety of variables that contribute to students success or lack of success. Musical aptitude and academic ability appear, however, to be critical criteria in predicting student success in these programs. Here I have examined these important research studies and sought to elucidate both the researchers findings and the implications these findings may have for pedagogical practice and selection of participants in instrumental music programs. The relative importance that researchers have assigned to certain variables that affect learning outcomes in instrumental achievement has been examined and evaluated. Although there is no clear consensus among all of the studies, it would appear from this review that the weight of the research evidence supports a more critical role for the academic ability of beginning instrumental music students as a predictor of potential success in the school program. Further examination of the research literature, however, revealed that academic ability is the best predictor of success when performance criteria involve reading music notation. Young (1971) asserted that academic achievement test scores were better predictors of achievement
criteria that involved music reading; musical aptitude scores were useful in predicting success on criterion tests that did not involve reading music. Both teachers and students reported that the challenge presented by reading music notation was a factor in students decisions to withdraw from beginning instrumental programs. Studies conducted by Pruitt (1966), Mawbey (1973), Bailey (1975), Allen (1981), Klinedinst (1991), and Brown (1996) support this premise that beginning instrumental programs lose students who find it difficult to succeed because of limited academic abilities and the demands of reading music, regardless of level of musical aptitude. If, as this body of research literature suggests, academic ability is the best predictor of success and retention in beginning instrument music, then Klinedinst (1991) was correct in stating that measures of academic achievement, as opposed to measures of musical potential, are the most effective means of identifying students most likely to succeed. My purpose here has been to investigate the opposing claims regarding the influence of musical aptitude and academic achievement on the achievement and retention of beginning instrumentalists so that this body of literature can be of value to instrumental music educators. Reliable research should serve to inform and guide instruction in music programs, and, on the basis of the literature presented in this article, beginning instrumental music teachers must acknowledge the relationship between music reading and academic abilities and evaluate the emphasis placed on note reading in the early stages of instruction. According to Schleuter (1997), this emphasis on music notation found in instrument method books commonly used in beginner programs is a shift from the method books used in the early part of the 20th century that required students to sing the melodies and transpose by ear. This instructional shift from musical tasks to note reading is confirmed in the research literature by numerous researchers decisions to define beginning instrumental performance achievement as the ability to perform music from notation (Cramer, 1958; Hufstader, 1974; Klinedinst, 1991; McCarthy, 1974; Mitchum, 1969). Harking back to the method books of the early 20th century, McPherson (1993) defined true musicality to include playing by ear, playing from memory, and improvising as well as music reading tasks such as sight-reading and performing rehearsed music. He stated that each of these instrument performance skills is essential but that playing by ear is the most fundamental skill. He further noted that reading music notation is necessary for the purpose of playing much solo and ensemble music literature; however, restricting beginning instrumental music instruction to notation-based performance unfairly penalizes academically weaker students and fails to develop true musicality. As illustrated in this article, McPhersons position is supported by the research literature indicating that tasks such as playing by ear and improvisation are related to musical aptitude, while the task of reading music notation is related to academic ability. On the basis of the present review, instrumental music educators should be encouraged to expand the curriculum
to include improvisation and playing by earmusical performance tasks that are related to students musical aptitude and not influenced by academic abilities. According to the research literature, inclusion of these tasks in beginning instrumental music instruction could minimize the loss of students who possess adequate levels of music aptitude but for whom reading music notation presents a challenge.
References
Allen, B. (1981). Student dropout in orchestra programs in three school systems in the state of Arkansas (Doctoral dissertation, Northeast Louisiana University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42A, 3405. Bailey, J. (1975). The relationships between the Colwell Music Achievement Tests I and II, the SRA achievement series, intelligence quotient, and success in instrumental music in the sixth grade of the public schools of Prince William County, Virginia (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign). Dissertation Abstracts International, 36A, 5902. Brokaw, J. (1983). The extent to which parental supervision and other selected factors are related to achievement of musical and technical-physical characteristics by beginning instrumental music students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan). Dissertation Abstracts International, 43A, 3525. Brown, M. (1996). Student attitude toward instrumental music education during the first year of instruction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus. Cramer, W. (1958). The relation of maturation and other factors to achievement in beginning instrumental music performance at the fourth through eighth grade levels (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 19, 540. Froseth, J. (1971). Using MAP scores in the instruction of beginning students in instrumental music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 19, 98105. Gordon, E. E. (1965). Musical Aptitude Profile. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Gordon, E. E. (1967). A three-year longitudinal predictive validity study of the Musical Aptitude Profile. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Gordon, E. E. (1982). Intermediate measures of music audiation. Chicago: GIA. Gordon, E. E. (1986). Final results of a two-year longitudinal predictive validity study of the Instrument Timbre Preference Test and the Musical Aptitude Profile. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 89, 817. Hufstader, R. (1974). Predicting success in beginning instrumental music through use of selected tests. Journal of Research in Music Education, 22, 5257. Klinedinst, R. (1991). Predicting performance achievement and retention of fifth-grade instrumental students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39, 225238. Mawbey, W. E. (1973). Wastage from instrumental classes in schools. Psychology of Music, 1, 3343. McCarthy, J. (1974). The effect of individualized instruction on the performance achievement of beginning instrumentalists. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 38, 116.
McCarthy, J. (1980). Individualized instruction, student achievement, and dropout in an urban elementary instrumental music program. Journal of Research in Music Education, 15, 5969. McPherson, G. (1993). Factors and abilities influencing the development of visual, aural, and creative performance skills in music and their educational implications (Doctoral dissertation, University of Sydney). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54A, 1277. Mitchum, J. (1969). The Wing Standardized Tests of Musical Intelligence: An investigation of predictability with selected seventh-grade beginning-band students (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 30A, 5017. Pruitt, J. (1966). A study of withdrawals from the beginning instrumental music programs of selected schools in the school district of Greenville County, South Carolina (Doctoral dissertation, New York University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 27A, 1075. Schleuter, S. (1978). Effects of certain lateral dominance traits, music aptitude, and sex differences with instrumental music achievement. Journal of Research in Music Education, 26, 2231. Schleuter, S. (1997). A sound approach to teaching instrumentalists. New York: Schirmer Books. Sergeant, D., & Thatcher, G. (1974). Intelligence, social status, and musical abilities. Psychology of Music, 2(2), 3257. Tate, E. C. (1962). A study to determine the factors that influence the drop outs in the instrumental music program in selected elementary schools in Omaha, Nebraska (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska Teachers College). Dissertation Abstracts International, 23, 3746. Watkins, J. G., & Farnum, S. (1962). The Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale. Winona, MN: Hal Leonard. Wing, H. (1961). Standardised Tests of Musical Intelligence. The Mere, England: National Foundation for Educational Research. Young, W. (1971). The role of musical aptitude, intelligence, and academic achievement in predicting the musical attainment of elementary instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 19, 385398.
Cognition and Motor Execution in Piano Sight-Reading: A Review of Literature

Brenda Wristen
Brenda Wristen is an assistant professor of piano pedagogy at the University of NebraskaLincoln. Sight-reading is an integral part of the musical experience for all musicians. Pianists, in particular, often find themselves confronted with situations that necessitate adequate sightreading skills. The widespread need for sight-reading at the piano may be due to pianists widespread participation in collaborative music making. The size of the piano literature also contributes to this need, in that the repertoire is so voluminous that no one player can be familiar with all of the solo and collaborative pieces written for piano, nor do recordings of every piece in the literature exist. This is particularly the case with the pedagogical literature. Professional pianists often sight-read in the course of collaborating with other musicians or accompanying choral ensembles. Teachers frequently sight-read through a large volume of literature to determine which pieces are appropriate for their students and further call on their reading skills to demonstrate these pieces to their students. Also, student pianists sight-read in diverse situations (e.g., sight-reading pieces), including competitive situations such as festivals or contests. Sightreading can be considered a procedural component of learning repertoire as well. The nature of the sight-reading task varies according to the situation in which it is undertaken. Perhaps pianists are given a few minutes to engage in examination and preparation of material, or they may be called upon to sight-read music with little or no preparation. In any case, performance of sight-reading material precludes total refinement of physical movements in the motor execution phase of the task. The sight-reading task may be viewed in direct contrast to a repertoire task in which the pianist has engaged in weeks and often months of cognitive and motor training and thus gained a high level of physical familiarity with the music. A review of the pertinent literature regarding the cognitive and execution demands of sightreading offers some insights for educators striving to find pedagogical strategies that help their students surmount difficulties of sight-reading. While the literature reviewed and teaching applications derived from this literature relate primarily to piano sight-reading, observations are readily adaptable to other instrumentalists. Studies conducted regarding sight-reading ability to date have fallen into three broad categories: 1. Cognitive/perceptual, including eye movements, perception of notation and other aspects of the score, and the influence of visual and auditory feedback. 2. Factors affecting success in sight-reading achievement, including differences pertaining
3.
to specialization among pianists. Educational/pedagogical approaches, which focus on sight-reading acquisition or improvement through specific instruction or pacing devices. These approaches have not typically been verified through research. Moreover, there are a large number of publications of this latter type, far too many to explore here.
Specialized Demands of Sight-Reading

In general, there is a relation between overall level of musical skill and ability to sight-read (Lehmann & Ericsson, 1993). However, in his study of various instrumentalists other than pianists, McPherson (1994) found that this generalization is not true in the earliest stages of learning an instrument, when the most basic motor sequences necessary to play the instrument are still being established. A certain amount of technical mastery of an instrument must be attained in order for instrumentalists to sight-read. Basic motor programming demands are high for pianists, since both hands are actively engaged and must be coordinated during playing. In the first few years of study, sight-reading may consist only of tapping rhythmic patterns or playing single-line melodies with either the right hand or the left hand. Establishing basic motor patterns, such as finger control, and gaining familiarity with the geography of the keyboard are thus prerequisites to sight-reading. Cognitive studies on sight-reading to date have primarily focused on determining the internal processes successful sight-readers use in comparison with those musicians who are less skilled or less experienced at the sight-reading task. Cognitive/perceptual studies have addressed the processing work done by the brain during sight-reading rather than examining physical outcomes (i.e., task execution). In other words, physical motion is typically a factor in these studies only insofar as it makes manifest the internal work done by the brain. The sight-reading task may itself be divided into two large phases: preparation and performance. Preparation time and activities vary widely from one situation and one player to the next. In his study involving clarinetists and trumpeters, McPherson (1994) noted that instrumentalists develop preparation strategies that uniquely serve the demands of their instrument and suit their individual learning styles. Some examples of these preparation strategies might include determining and mapping out the overall form of the piece; paying attention to aspects such as key, meter, and other features; tapping rhythms; and planning and writing in fingering. The preparation phase involves not only briefly scanning the musical score for relevant details and identifying potential difficulties but also employing strategies to rehearse problematic aspects of the music. Sight-reading performance entails a number of cognitive demands that can be distinguished from those inherent in the performance of practiced repertoire. Each of these cognitive aspects is
addressed in separate sections of this review, and some pedagogical strategies for addressing the challenges inherent in sight-reading are delineated. To decipher a score at sight, the reader must recognize musical patterns, generate a large-scale performance plan to govern performance of the piece as a whole, and learn to anticipate how the music continues (Lehmann & Ericsson, 1996). Basic elements that must be attended to during sight-reading performance include (a) rhythm (meter, duration, patterns, accentuation), (b) melody (pitch, direction, movement [e.g., skips vs. leaps], patterns), (c) harmony (chord structure, chord progressions), and (d) context (articulation, expressive markings, musical structure and form). The way in which these basic elements are combined and interact within a musical score contributes to the complexity of the sight-reading task. There are also more subtle cues embedded in the music that, according to the experience and musical sophistication of the player, may or may not be rendered in a sight-reading performance. Some examples of these more embedded cues include (but certainly are not limited to) maintaining good balance between the melody and harmony, using the pedal, and playing according to the principles of performance practice that govern the piece. In addition to perceiving and decoding aspects of the score, successful readers actually anticipate problems while simultaneously observing musical markings and evaluating their sight-reading to correct the performance as necessary (McPherson, 1994). Finally, successful sight-readers employ certain patterns of eye movements to efficiently decode scores. Pianists, in particular, are challenged by the visual aspect of music reading. The need to look at the musical score must be balanced with the need to look at ones hands and fingers to accurately place them on various parts of the keyboard so that correct pitches can be played. This involves the potential danger of losing ones place in the score as ones eye moves and refocuses. In contrast, rehearsed performance is based on free recall of musical materials, often by memory, and physical mastery of requisite motor-skill patterns. Each time a repertoire piece is practiced, the pianist makes more inferences about correct pitches and other musical details (Lehmann & Ericsson, 1996). All of these cognitive and physical demands are governed by perhaps the most stringent constraint of the sight-reading task: continuity, or the ability to perform in real time without stopping to decipher the written score or correct mistakes. Maintaining a continuous rhythmic pulse is paramount. The musician must keep playing during sight-reading, even if she or he executes notations incorrectly. Motor Execution. While motor execution has not been the primary focus of the aforementioned types of studies, several studies focusing on cognition during the sight-reading task have considered motor patterning as a procedural consideration of sight-reading. Apparently, there is some merit to the traditional and intuitive pedagogical notion that the best
way to improve sight-reading ability is to engage in sight-reading activity. Both performance accuracy and consistency of fingering correlate positively with expertise at the piano (Sloboda, Parncutt, Clarke, & Raekallio, 1998). Expert piano sight-readers develop rule-governed patterns of motor response in their fingers that are called forth upon recognition of familiar visual notational patterns. As their expertise increases, musicians are able to combine movements into variable patterns that successfully execute musical notation. Skilled motor performance in any human endeavor rarely consists of rigidly programmed motor sequences in which each individual movement arises invariably and inflexibly from the prior movement. Shaffer (1981) noted that expert pianists were able to develop a mental plan that specifically addressed the intended sightreading outcome and employ a flexible motor programming system that efficiently enacted the required muscular contractions. It is thus apparent that, when sight-reading at their instrument, skilled sight-readers have better developed and more flexible motor programming systems than do novice sight-readers. Even so, it is likely that sight-reading is more physically awkward than performing practiced repertoire regardless of the experience level of the player. In their examination of pianists learning new repertoire, Halsband, Binkofski, and Camp (1994) found that motor skills were not optimized during the early learning phases of a piece. As participants in their study moved from the beginning stages of working with a piece to more advanced interpretive and expressive phases, the perception of the task changed. Motor patterns changed in direct response to the change in perception, becoming more and more efficient as the pianists thought in terms of progressively larger metrical groupings. Just how these motor sequences become ingrained in pianists or other instrumentalists remains a question for further research. One might presume that these patterns are absorbed over time through direct playing experience. Applying these observations regarding motor execution to the teaching of sight-reading raises additional concerns. For example, how can teachers cultivate student flexibility in motor response to notational stimuli? Also at issue is whether reading activities must be domain specific or whether, and through what mechanism, repeated reading as it is encountered during repertoire practice contributes to motor programming. Addressing the quality of motions enacted by instrumentalists as they undertake various musical tasks is an emerging research interest, and much more work remains to be done in this area. At the very least, given what is known about the inefficiency of motor execution in an unknown task, it would seem prudent to exercise caution during sight-reading activities. Perhaps using a slow tempo when sight-reading is warranted, especially if the task is complex. This approach would allow students more time both for cognitive processing and to enact the appropriate motor sequences without unduly taxing the body. In addition, given the cumulative physical demands of
sight-reading, musicians might consider avoiding sight-reading for extended periods of time and taking breaks when appropriate. Eye Movements During Sight-Reading. A specialized area within the larger domain of cognitive research on sight-reading has focused on the patterns of eye movements discernible in experts. Goolsby (1994) compared eye movements among skilled and less skilled readers on various instruments. He found that while novice sight-readers tend to read in a note-by-note fashion, skilled sight-readers scan their eyes forward to take in details of the score ahead. He further noted that not only do skilled sight-readers look aheadadvice frequently prescribed by music teachersthey also use regressive eye movements to fill in details scanned previously. Sloboda (1974, 1977) determined that fluent sight-readers read up to seven notes ahead in the score and can continue playing up to this point after the score is removed. The number of pitches that the musician is able to retain in memory after the score is removed coincides with the distance the player scans ahead of where she or he is currently playing. This distance was designated by Sloboda as the eye-hand span and has been termed the perceptual span by other researchers. Expert readers are able to fit more detail into their perceptual spans than less experienced readers. As an interesting corollary to this generalization, Furneaux and Land (1999) found that highly skilled readers at the piano do not actually have a greater time capacity for storing information; rather, they can fit more information into this information buffer than can novices (Furneaux & Land, 1999). As mentioned earlier, while expert sight-readers look ahead in the score, they also employ intermittent regressive eye movements (right to left) to clarify notational and musical details. Expert sight-readers at the piano tend to employ progressive and regressive zigzag eye movements and fixations (stopping points) that allow them to visually process both the bass and treble clefs (Furneaux & Land, 1999). The zigzag eye movement observed in pianists may be idiomatic to piano reading in light of the necessity for pianists to scan both vertically and horizontally across two staves to discern melodic and harmonic details. Goolsby (1994) noticed that the expert reader in his study, in this case a trumpet player, appeared to use time allowed by long rhythmic durations to explore notation and look at expressive markings, sometimes even scanning other staves. Goolsbys findings in this regard were further elucidated by Waters and Underwood (1998), who confirmed that expert sightreaders who played various instruments associated with treble clef reading used a greater number of eye fixations (stopping points); in addition, they found that the initial fixation was shorter among experts than among less skilled readers. Also, expert sight-readers fixated their eyes on the score more frequently, sometimes even staring at blank areas in the notation. Although the reason for this is unknown, Goolsby has postulated that focusing on blank space allows the
reader to bide time while executing that which has already been cognitively processed. While eye movements are undoubtedly influenced by musical structure (Sloboda, 1993), there seems to be no difference in the duration of eye fixations made by expert instrumental readers when reading tonally simple versus more complex music, although speed and accuracy of execution decrease when experts perform tonally complex music (Waters & Underwood, 1998). To summarize, research on eye movements in sight-reading demonstrates that expert sightreaders have a greater eye-hand span than novices, fixate their eyes on a specific location on the score for shorter durations, and use progressive and regressive fixations in a zigzag pattern to visually scan the musical score. Experts also appear to take maximal advantage of the time allowed by longer rhythmic durations to clarify details by either taking advantage of this time to cognitively process what they have visually scanned or using regressive eye movements to look back and clarify notational details. Effective patterns of eye movements might be encouraged by activities that encourage students to take in a short grouping of notational details and play from memory what they saw after the visual stimulus. However, since the specific brain mechanisms promoting eye movement patterning during music perception have yet to be explored, any pedagogical strategies to this end are speculative. Grouping and Structural Perception. Expert sight-readers apparently use a method of chunking that allows them to perceive multiple details of the musical score as a single piece of information. As previously noted, while the perceptual spans of expert readers are not larger in their physical or temporal capacities, fluent sight-readers are able to fit more details into these spans. The ability to perceive musical notation as groups or chunks of related information is postulated as the reason for these more inclusive perceptual spans of expert sight-readers in comparison with novices, who tend to perceive individual bits of detail (Goolsby, 1994). This effect relates particularly to perceiving larger patterns in pitches and rhythm. If readers are perceiving chunks of information, it follows logically that they would move the eye over a block of notation (measures at a time) rather than sequentially looking at each bit of notation (note by note). Thus, perception of information chunks also offers an explanation for experts greater number of eye fixations and use of both progressive and regressive eye movements to scan the score (Furneaux & Land, 1999). In a similar vein, Waters, Townsend, and Underwood (1998) found that skilled piano sight-readers made better use of contextual information than novices. In both chord-recall and melodic-pattern-recall tasks, experts were faster and more skilled than novices; skilled readers were more likely to perceive larger chunks of the music than less skilled sight-readers. Expert sight-readers exhibit better pattern recognition than novices, and they can better combine chunks of information into larger cognitive constructs. Pattern recognition applies not only to pitches but to rhythmic units as well. Perception of
rhythm may well be the most central aspect of music reading. In a study of clarinet and trumpet students conducted by McPherson (1994), rhythmic errors were by far the most common type of error made in sight-reading, constituting more than two thirds of all errors. As is the case with pitch patterns, expert piano sight-readers attend more to temporal, or rhythmic, structures than do less skilled sight-readers (Waters et al., 1998). Both Clarke (1985) and Longuet-Higgins and Lee (1982) have discussed the primacy of perceptions of larger groups of rhythmic patterns, termed structural rhythm. When a player perceives structural rhythm, she or he is attending to larger hierarchical groupings of notated rhythmic patterns and meter that often subsume several phrases or parts of phrases. Perception of rhythms as larger units contributes to sight-reading efficiency and accuracy. In a study examining the role of grouping perception in reading, Halsband et al. (1994) documented that perceiving rhythm in progressively larger groupings contributes positively to pianists ease of motor execution. This finding makes sense given that perception of larger rhythmic groups would allow the player to effect longer and more efficient physical gestures. Subtler musical details that expert piano sight-readers tend to group cognitively during sightreading include melodic contour, phrases (Peretz & Barbai, 1992), meters and barlines, and strong versus weak rhythmic pulse groupings (Halsband et al., 1994). As discussed earlier, expert sight-readers are far more attentive to structural markers, while novice readers tend to focus more on denotive aspects of the score, such as notated pitch (Goolsby, 1994; Sloboda, 1977). Attention to a larger musical context is a likely explanation for proofreaders error, a commonly occurring phenomenon among expert music readers that entails unconsciously correcting a pitch or rhythmic misprint on the score to match the melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic context of a piece (Sloboda, 1993). The ability of expert readers to automatically effect this change without conscious processing is evidence of larger, more inclusive perceptions of musical groups and patterns. Several pedagogical strategies might be employed in aiding students in pattern recognition. Students might be asked to complete a musical pattern in terms of either pitch or rhythm. In addition, musicians need to be familiar with the deep background knowledge that governs musical context, including an understanding of harmonic and tonal function (e.g., scales, arpeggios, nonharmonic tones), melodic patterns, texture and form, and performance practice. Systematic study of music theory and history in combination with opportunities to apply knowledge is a likely vehicle for achieving this goal. Providing students with ample opportunities to hear and play music of various styles also contributes to background knowledge. Students can apply theoretical principles through improvising a melody over a provided chord progression or providing chords or adding melodic fills for a lead sheet. They might be asked to
identify and label formal, melodic, rhythmic, harmonic features in music that they have heard or are preparing for performance. An even higher-level application of these concepts might involve students composing a piece given certain formal parameters. Guided improvisation drill has also been postulated as a means of increasing pattern recognition. Montano (19851986) conducted a study in which beginning collegiate piano students practiced drills that emphasized improvising pitches within a given rhythmic duration and were coached on identifying relevant structural details of sight-reading excerpts. Prior to playing the sight-reading excerpt, participants also prepared by clapping or tapping rhythms. Participants in the experimental group demonstrated greater rhythmic accuracy than participants in a control group who were given no such guidance. If students missed pitches, they were able to maintain continuous rhythmic flow by faking their way through until they could get back on track with the musical score. Unfortunately, Montanos results cannot be generalized since no attempt was made to compare the effects of improvisation drills on sight-reading and the effects of simply practicing a greater quantity of sight-reading exercises. It may be that students in the experimental group improved purely on the basis of increased sight-reading experience. Visual and Auditory Monitoring During Sight-Reading. The role of feedback during the sightreading task remains a question of interest. Visual feedback has clearly been demonstrated to be necessary for skilled sight-reading execution, specifically as it relates to positioning the hands and fingers on the keyboard. Banton (1995) studied the effects of both visual and auditory feedback during sight-reading on pianists. She found that when visual contact with the hands or fingers was completely prevented, the direct result was more note-accuracy errors in execution. Lack of auditory feedback did not have the same result. She hypothesized that the explanation for this effect might be that movement is largely based on visual feedback. Poor sight-readers tend to be overly dependent on visual feedback in judging the accuracy of their movements, suggesting that expert sight-readers have a stronger tactile command of keyboard geography. This finding is probably more pertinent to keyboard players than to other instrumentalists given that, in comparison with playing wind instruments, playing a keyboard instrument involves more complex and more frequent changes in hand positioning that require visual reference. Strikingly, although withholding auditory feedback did not appear to directly affect accuracy of movement during sight-reading in Bantons study, it was implicated as a means of monitoring performance. In fact, more competent sight-readers in that study appeared to be able to use auditory and predictive skills to detect when the performance began to deviate from the musical notation, enabling them to make the appropriate adjustments to correct motor execution. The ability to self-monitor and adjust execution in this way involves accurately matching visual notation with aural feedback (McPherson, 1994). Thus, while lack of auditory feedback was not
linked to more sight-reading errors in Bantons study, the ability to form auditory representations of the notated score (hearing in the minds ear) is probably an important factor in skilled sightreading. Researchers have repeatedly observed that competent sight-readers use self-regulatory processes, regardless of what instrument they play. Self-monitoring includes developing the ability to scan for relevant notational detail, engaging in brief mental rehearsals of problem areas, anticipating problems, observing musical markings, and evaluating the performance and making changes to get back on track when necessary. Waters et al. (1998) even asserted that the ability to form auditory representations and make predictions about how the music should sound may be more important than pattern recognition, although they acknowledged that sight-reading expertise probably depends on all three abilities. Scripp (1995) noted that instrumentalists of all types are often unable to sight-read effectively without their instrument upon their entry as freshmen into college music conservatories. In effect, they do their thinking with their hands. They are unable to detect errors in simple melodies or demonstrate metacognition of their sight-reading process, even after years of training. Scripp postulated that sight-reading expertise involves development over time of specialized cognitive abilities evidenced when students are able to sight-read music without using their instrument. While Scripp did not describe how these cognitive skills develop, his findings indicate that successful internal audiation is a major factor in sight-reading execution. While the importance of auditory representation has been recognized and elaborated on by music educators, most notably Edwin Gordon, the exact role that internal audiation plays in sight-reading success has not clearly been defined from a perceptual perspective. Since the ability to sight-read without ones instrument (i.e., using ones voice) necessitates the development of an internalized aural model of how a piece should sound, it follows that pedagogy should be directed toward this end. If sight-reading is dependent on development of the ability to form aural representations, then providing students with aural training and application opportunities may contribute to sight-reading expertise. This implies that students should be exposed to musically diverse styles and sounds, engaged in sight-singing, and taught to hear and identify various chord progressions so that their ability to internally predict how melodies and harmonies should sound is cultivated. These suppositions are supported by the findings of Yang (1994), who examined whether beginning piano students 6 to 9 years of age would attain higher levels of musical achievement if they were given training in solmization (doremi solfge singing), rhythmic movement, or a combination of both. She concluded that students who received training in solmization or a combination of solmization and rhythmic movement were significantly more accomplished than control-group participants, who received no such instruction, in discriminating pitches and playing back melodies. She also found a correlation
between ability to play back melodies and vocal accuracy. This is yet another indication that sight-singing may contribute to the ability to form aural representations of music, which in turn influences sight-reading achievement.
Sight-Reading Related to Musical Specialization

In addition to the cognitive factors already discussed, piano sight-reading expertise is influenced by collaborative (accompanying) experience. Lehmann and Ericsson (1993) explored the role of specialized training in sight-reading, specifically the types of musical activities engaged in by accompanists. There is a notable difference in sight-reading ability between pianists who primarily practice repertoire and those who specialize in collaborative performance. Lehmann and Ericsson (1993) studied 16 pianists, both performance and accompanying majors, at Florida State University. They found that those students who had more accompanying experience exhibited consistently better sight-reading performances than those pianists who primarily practiced and performed solo repertoire, even though the latter students might have been slightly superior in their overall piano-playing ability. They noted that the accompanying majors consistently spent more time sight-reading than the performance majors and hypothesized that the reason for the demonstrated variance in sight-reading between the two groups was probably related to the real-time decoding and motor programming requirements of this task. Experience level notwithstanding, there is often a wide difference between a pianists rehearsed performance ability and her or his sight-reading ability. While a pianist may be an accomplished performer, his or her sight-reading level may be considerably lower than his or her repertoire level. Lehmann and Ericsson (1996) asserted that pianists with more collaborative experience are better sight-readers. These observations led them to the conclusion that sightreading is a specialized skill that improves with direct experience. Collaborative pianists tend to be more successful sight-readers because they tend to play a large volume of literature and, out of necessity, tend to sight-read more than performance majors. Lehman and Ericsson thus postulated that expertise in sight-reading among accompanists is probably primarily a function of the amount of time spent actually engaged in sight-reading. However, it must be noted that the differences observed in sight-reading ability between piano performance majors and accompanying majors might simply demonstrate a weeding out effect in choice of subspecialization. Collaborative pianists are typically required to use their sight-reading abilities on a regular basis; thus, it is unlikely that a pianist who was not a good sight-reader to begin with would be attracted to a concentration in accompanying. In addition to time spent engaged in domain-related activities, Lehman and Ericsson (1996) pointed to the aspect of challenge as a large factor in developing sight-reading ability. Engaging
in progressively more difficult sight-reading seems to contribute to a pianists ability to sightread well. This observation led Lehman and Ericsson to conclude that sight-reading ability does not correlate with overall musical talent, nor does it represent a specific type of innate talent. Rather, sight-reading expertise results from long-term, deliberate engagement in sight-reading activities that maintain a continued aspect of challenge. The findings described would seem to confirm the long-held notion of music teachers that the best way to improve sight-reading ability is to sight-read progressively more difficult music, although specific pedagogical strategies are not indicated by these studies.
Suggestions for Further Research

While research on the cognitive aspects of sight-reading has somewhat illuminated the mental processes used during this musical task, many questions remain with regard to the pedagogical implications of these findings. As discussed earlier, one means of increasing sight-reading ability might be to engage in long-term, progressive sight-reading. Yet another pedagogical dimension that deserves further consideration is use of solfge and other methods of sight-singing to promote students ability to develop an internal aural representation of music notation to guide motor execution. It is evident in reviewing the studies described here that chunking information greatly facilitates sight-reading. Providing students with collaborative playing opportunities in which they routinely sight-read progressively more challenging music may also be a key for developing sight-reading ability. While some teaching tools can be extrapolated from extant research, cognitive studies on sight-reading have not yet given rise to specific pedagogical aims or methods. In fact, there is a lack of agreement even on what constitutes a true sightreading experience (Some preparation? None at all?). Piano sight-reading is encountered in many different guises, including sight-reading at musical festivals or contests after little or no preparation, performing collaborative repertoire on short notice, and rapidly preparing solo repertoire pieces. In the latter case, while sight-reading serves as a component of the process of learning, it is not the objective but rather a means to an end What is the relationship between cognitive processing and motor execution? Future directions for research on sight-reading might include continuing to elaborate on the cognitive processes used by successful sight-readers. Investigation of whether the processes used during sight-reading are the same or adaptations of those used in preparing solo repertoire might lead to pedagogical recommendations for both tasks. Rehearsal of repertoire seemingly involves more than repeated readings of the musical score. Commonly encountered rehearsal techniques include tapping/clapping, blocking chord structures, altering rhythm or fingering, and other reductive strategies. Are these practice strategies the most efficient, reliable means of achieving repertoire
mastery? Can they also be applied effectively in sight-reading? Further understanding of the cognition involved in music reading in general may point to pedagogical approaches more specifically applicable to sight-reading. For example, can we teach students to visually scan ahead during sight-reading, and, if so, how? Finally, what are the characteristics of motions enacted during sight-reading performance? Researchers need to question whether there are quantitative or qualitative differences in the motions musicians employ when they are sight-reading versus when they are performing rehearsed repertoire. This type of exploration might lead to maximizing physical efficiency while successfully conquering the cognitive demands of sight-reading.
References
Banton, L. (1995). The role of visual and auditory feedback during the sight-reading of music. Psychology of Music, 23, 316. Clarke, E. F. (1985). Structure and expression in rhythmic performance. In P. Howell, J. Cross, & R. West (Eds.), Musical structure and cognition (pp. 209236). London: Academic Press. Furneaux, S., & Land, M. F. (1999). The effects of skill on the eye-hand span during musical sight-reading. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 266, 24352440. Goolsby, T. W. (1994). Profiles of processing: Eye movements during sightreading. Music Perception, 12, 97123. Halsband, U., Binkofski, F., & Camp, M. (1994). The role of the perception of rhythmic grouping in musical performance: Evidence from motor-skill development in piano playing. Music Perception, 11, 265288. Lehmann, A. C., & Ericsson, K. A. (1993). Sight-reading ability of expert pianists in the context of piano accompanying. Psychomusicology, 12, 182195. Lehmann, A. C., & Ericsson, K. A. (1996). Performance without preparation: Structure and acquisition of expert accompanying and sight-reading performance. Psychomusicology, 15, 129. Longuet-Higgins, H. C., & Lee, C. S. (1982). The perception of musical rhythms. Perception, 11, 115128. McPherson, G. E. (1994). Factors and abilities influencing sightreading skill in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42, 217231. Montano, D. (19851986). Effect of improvising in given rhythms on piano students sight reading rhythmic accuracy achievement. Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education, 5, 718. Peretz, I., & Barbai, M. (1992). The role of contour and intervals in the recognition of melody parts: Evidence from cerebral asymmetries in musicians. Neuropsychologia, 30, 277292. Scripp, L. (1995). The development of skill in reading music (sightreading, music cognition). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(6A), 2162. Shaffer, L. H. (1981). Performances of Chopin, Bach, and Bartok: Studies in motor programming. Cognitive Psychology, 13, 326376.
Sloboda, J. A. (1974). The eye-hand span: An approach to the study of sight-reading. Psychology of Music, 2, 410. Sloboda, J. A. (1977). Phrase units as determinants of visual processing in music reading. British Journal of Psychology, 68, 117124. Sloboda, J. A. (1993). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music (rev. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Sloboda, J. A., Parncutt, R., Clarke, E. F., & Raekallio, M. (1998). Determinants of finger choice in piano sight-reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24, 185203. Waters, A., Townsend, E., & Underwood, G. (1998). Expertise in musical sight reading: A study of pianists. British Journal of Psychology, 89, 123149. Waters, A., & Underwood, G. (1998). Eye movements in a simple music reading task: A study of experts and novice musicians. Psychology of Music, 26, 4660. Yang, Y. (1994). The effects of solmization and rhythmic movement training on the achievement of beginning group piano students at the elementary school level. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(1A), 132.
Sight-Reading Ability in Wind and Percussion Students: A Review of Recent Literature

S. Daniel Galyen
S. Daniel Galyen is a doctoral candidate in music education at the University of Florida, Gainesville. The development of sight-reading ability among student musicians continues to be an important fundamental skill in instrumental music education. As stated by Gregory (1972), A prime educational goal of any discipline is the development of an independent learner. In music, an obvious prerequisite to independence is the ability to sightread (p. 462). Development of sight-reading skills can be jeopardized if all rehearsal time is devoted to preparation for performance. It is necessary for music educators to maintain an appropriate balance between the products and processes of music education. Karpinski (2000) suggested that there must be a balance between sight-reading and prepared music in rehearsals and recommended that the amount of prepared material decline in inverse proportion to the amount of music offered up for sightreading (p. 191). He claimed that prepared materials should ultimately feed into the experience of sightreading, so that the process of reading music extemporaneously relies more and more on the informed mind of the skilled reader (p. 191). There is a wealth of research on sight-reading that ranges from methods of instruction to examination of eye movements. In 1987, Stebleton completed a comprehensive review of the sight-reading literature, and there has been an abundance of research on the topic since that time. In the review of the literature offered here, I resume Stebletons research and examine selected studies from 1987 to the present. I selected studies for the review according to their relevance to teaching sight-reading and rhythmic reading to band students. After the literature review, I offer suggestions for applying the findings to current educational situations.
Variables That Predict or Influence Sight-Reading Ability

It is important for music educators to have an understanding of the variables that may predict or influence sight-reading ability. Through identification and manipulation of these variables, it may be possible to greatly improve students sight-reading skills. One such variable is private lesson experience. Research findings seem to overwhelmingly show that private lesson experience is a significant predictor of improved sight-reading ability (Ferrin, 2004; Mann, 1991; Stenger, 1997; Townsend, 1992; Wheeler, 1993). Mann (1991) found that the best sight-readers had private lesson experiences wherein they sight-read duets with their teachers, memorized short excerpts from prepared pieces, and were asked to play familiar melodies by ear. In another
study, private instruction was shown to improve the melodic reading of trumpet and clarinet students but not percussion students (Wheeler, 1993). This might have been a result of the primarily rhythmic nature of percussion instruments, as opposed to the melodic nature of wind instruments. Not surprisingly, amount of previous musical experience is positively related to sight-reading achievement (Bernhard, 2003; Ferrin, 2004; Mann, 1991; Wheeler, 1993). In addition, regular sight-reading activities seem to increase sight-reading scores (Casey, 1991; Ferrin, 2004; McBride, 1994; Townsend, 1992). McBride (1994) tested the effects of a sequentially organized sight-reading regimen on sight-reading ability. The treatment group sight-read compositions in order from easiest to most difficult, while the control group sight-read the pieces in random order. Although there were no significant differences in gain scores between the groups, scores for both groups more than doubled in the posttest, suggesting that a regimen of consistent sightreading increases sight-reading achievement. Townsend (1992) investigated the relationship between sight-reading ability and three variables: music experience, band experience, and music aptitude. Significant relationships were found between sight-reading and the number of selections performed or sight-read by high school marching and concert bands. A combination of all three variables predicted sight-reading scores better than did any one variable alone. Townsend suggested that band directors program a variety of sight-reading music on a regular basis. There appears to be a positive relationship between academic achievement and sight-reading ability. In a study of high school band students, Ciepluch (1988) found that there were significant relationships between sight-reading achievement and field dependence/independence, musical aptitude, written word sensory mode preference, grade point average, math achievement, and reading achievement. A strong relationship has also been found between sight-reading and ACT scores (Mann, 1991). Cognitive music skills (note naming, rhythm barring, defining symbols and terms, and fingering), rhythmic aural-visual skills, and rhythm pattern recognition seem to be significant predictors of sight-reading ability among sixth- and seventh-grade wind players (Miller, 1989). Gromko (2004) found that cognitive skills such as reading comprehension, audiation, and spatialtemporal reasoning were significant predictors of sight-reading ability in high school wind players. Tonal aptitude may also be positively related to sight-reading achievement (Bernhard, 2003). Research has shown that, in the early stages of music training, sight-reading skill is not significantly correlated with ability to perform rehearsed music. However, as students mature, the correlations between sight-reading and performance skill are strengthened (McPherson, 1994).
Music educators should not stress performance skills at the expense of sight-reading skills with younger students. At the early levels of training, the two concepts are not significantly correlated, and thus each requires specific instruction. Teachers of beginning and intermediate students should provide sight-reading instruction and experiences on a regular basis that balance and complement instruction in performance skills.
Notational Variables
Several studies have examined the relationship between music-notation variables and sightreading performance. Sheldon (1996) investigated the effect of beamed and beamless notation on high school wind musicians sight-reading performance. Results indicated that students performed with greater rhythmic accuracy with beamed notation, but that there was no difference in musicality due to notation. Byo (1992) examined the effects of barlines, pitch, and meter on undergraduate and graduate music majors rhythmic reading ability. Students performed excerpts with and without barlines, with a melodic line and with monotone pitch, and with unchanging and changing meter. The presence of barlines and pitch had no significant effect on the students rhythm-reading ability. In fact, in changing meter excerpts, omitting barlines slightly increased rhythmic accuracy, while in unchanging meter excerpts rhythm scores were slightly better when barlines were included. Melodic pitch had no effect on rhythm performance, and Byo suggested that practicing rhythms on a single pitch may not be as useful for university-level musicians. He stated that barlines were neither an asset nor a liability to performance of rhythm in monotonic, unchanging meter excerpts. However, with the inclusion of melodic line and other meter variables . . . and the interactive potential among the three factors, it appears that barlines may impact rhythm performance under certain conditions of meter. (p. 40) It appears that there may be some advantages to using colored notation in music-reading exercises. Rogers (1991) tested the effects of color-coded notation on the music-reading achievement of fifth- and sixth-grade beginning instrumentalists. Although there was no clear advantage in the group that used colored notation, 65% of the participants indicated that they favored the colored notation because it was easier to play. In addition, some students trained on colored notation were unable to read uncolored notation well. In a similar study, Rogers (1996) found that first- and second-grade students who were taught rhythms written in colored chalk had significantly better rhythm-reading skills than those taught with white chalk. Again, several students remarked that they preferred the colored notation because it looked easier and was more pleasing, while others preferred the white chalk because they thought it looked harder. While
more research is needed in this area, it does appear that younger students seem to enjoy colored notation and that using color-coded notation might be just as effective as using single-color notation.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
The effect of computer-assisted instruction on music reading skills is unclear. K. H. Smith (2003) tested the effects of Music Ace 2 computer software on middle school students ability to read and perform rhythmic notation. Results revealed no significant differences between the group that received computer-assisted instruction and the group that did not. Ortner (1991) obtained similar results in his study of the effect of a microcomputer-assisted instruction program on the rhythm-reading ability of secondary school instrumental students. Over a 6-week treatment period, students used the Magic Piano Rhythm Game computer program for 40 minutes a week. Results indicated that the treatment had no significant effect on the students rhythmic reading ability. However, Allen (1987) found that eighth-grade band students exposed to computer-assisted theory and ear-training instruction showed significant improvement in sight-reading ability relative to students receiving no computer-assisted instruction. Part of the discrepancy in these results may be due to differences in the nature of the computer programs. Computer programs designed to teach rhythmic skills may be less successful than those that teach ear-training and theory skills.
Characteristics of Successful Sight-Readers

Recent research has identified several differences in the characteristics of successful and less successful sight-readers. Successful sight-readers scan the music for potential obstacles and concentrate on key and time signatures (McPherson, 1994). They also tend to look farther ahead in the notation, and then back to the point of performance, when sightreading (Goolsby, 1994a, p. 77). To do this, they use notes of longer rhythmic duration (half notes or longer) to look ahead in the melody (Goolsby, 1994b). Goolsby (1994b) also found that skilled sight-readers do not process every note in a melody but instead use some system of chunking to grasp more than one note, or item of visual detail, during a single fixation (p. 121). These results are supported by research indicating that music reading involves perceiving patterns of notes instead of single notes (Gromko, 2004). Accurate sight-readers can see more in each fixation than inaccurate readers, and they use more fixations and do so at a faster rate than inaccurate readers, regardless of tempo (D. J. Smith, 1989). The characteristics of the less skilled sight-reader are quite different. McPherson (1994) found that poor sight-readers did not concentrate on key and time signatures as much as they did notes
and rhythms. Goolsby (1994b) found that less skilled sight-readers fixated on relatively few expressive/dynamic markings and fixated on virtually every note and most rests (p. 116). In comparing the characteristics of skilled and less skilled sight-readers, Goolsby (1994b) noted the following: Evidence was found that skilled music readers do not look at every note/rest in order to perform accurately. The less-skilled readers fixate on as much of the notation as time allows (i.e., looking at notes/rests in proportion to rhythmic values), progress note by note, and perform with numerous errors. . . . The skilled music readers do not look at a half note for two beats; the profiles indicate, however, that less-skilled sightreaders come much closer to this type of music readingsimilar to the most prevalent methods of teaching beginning musicians to read music notation. (p. 121) It is clear that there are major differences in how successful and less successful sight-readers process music during sight-reading. It is not yet clear, however, exactly how these characteristics are developed and how music educators might encourage their development. More research is needed to determine the best methods of developing the characteristics used by successful sightreaders. At least one study has attempted to apply the research on chunking to sight-reading instruction. Chunking involves grouping smaller pieces of visual information together into a larger unit. In music, chunking involves seeing a unit of several notes rather than reading every note. Gaynor (1996) examined the effects of aid to chunking exercises and melodic predicting on the sight-reading performance of secondary school flute students. Aid to chunking instruction involved exercises in memory recall and eye movement. Melodic predicting instruction emphasized phrasing and tonality, melodic contour, melodic and rhythmic patterning, and modulation. In melodic predicting, students performed melodies and were required to supply notes that had been strategically omitted. Results indicated that melodic predicting and music reading comprehension were correlated (r = .616) but that the effect of an aid to chunking was not supported. These findings suggest that the aid to chunking activities were more valuable for less skilled music readers and that melodic predicting was most effective for more skilled readers.
Sight-Reading Methods
Studies have examined various teaching methods and their effects on the development of sight-reading skills. Findings indicate that certain kinesthetic activities may help in improving sight-reading ability. Kelly (1997) found that the rhythm-reading abilities of beginning band
students may improve more rapidly when these students are given instruction in basic conducting. Other research suggests that conducting or other educational kinesiology activities may facilitate development of sight-reading skills among students with fewer years of experience (Barber, 1998; Ferrin, 2004; Shehan, 1987). There may be some advantages to using musical excerpts rather than fundamental exercises in music instruction. Price, Blanton, and Turner Parrish (1998) compared the effects of two instructional methods on high school band students sight-reading, music performance, and attitude. One group was instructed via excerpts from the music literature performed in class. Instruction of these musical excerpts included traditional methods such as counting of rhythms and pattern repetition. A second group was taught via fundamental exercises from method books, with an emphasis on rhythm and pitch patterns, key awareness, articulations, and expression markings. Although there were no significant differences in sight-reading ability between the two groups, the researchers noted that students using musical excerpts (1) were no weaker in sightreading ability than those using drills, (2) had higher performance achievement, and (3) indicated more positive attitudes (p. 18). Additional research has shown that selected composition exercises may enhance elementary band students understanding of rhythmic patterns and concepts (Lund, 2004). Levinowitz and Scheetz (1998) found that periodically asking third-grade students to perform individually improved their sight-reading skills, and they suggested that children who know they might be asked to perform in solo may be more attentive to the task. Also, daily rhythmic dictation exercises have been shown to increase the rhythmic sight-reading scores of sixth-grade band students (Jarrell, 1999). Moreover, Kinzel (1998) found that sixth-grade band students taught with a rote-based method demonstrated significantly superior sight-reading abilities than students taught with traditional note-based methods.
Sight-Reading Methods Involving Vocalization

There are several ways in which vocalization techniques can be used in teaching instrumental music. One of the most common is the use of syllables, numbers, or whole words to aid in rhythm counting. Parker (1987) found no significant differences between the number and syllable methods of teaching rhythm to fifth-grade beginning band students. Because both methods are forms of speech cueing, these results suggest that either method can be effective in teaching rhythmic reading. Two studies offer conflicting accounts of the success of a word method in teaching rhythmic reading. In a study of beginning band students, Stenger (1997) found no significant difference in rhythm-reading ability between those who used a word method and those who did not. However,
Colley (1987) found significant differences among the Kodly method, the Gordon (1980) method, and a word method in terms of their effects on the rhythm-reading ability of second and third graders. The gains made in the word-method group were significantly greater than the gains made in the other groups. Colley noted that the enthusiasm of the Gordon group began to decline by the sixth or seventh lesson, while the word-group students maintained their enthusiasm throughout the experiment. Additional research indicates that a vocalization method involving counting is an effective method of teaching rhythmic reading. Salzberg and Wang (1989) found that counting out loud was more effective than either foot tapping or counting and tapping simultaneously in promoting the rhythmic reading ability of less experienced students. The reason might be that foot tapping does not focus the performers attention on rhythmic counting to the same extent as counting out loud. There were no differences in methods among more advanced students, perhaps because advanced music contains more subdivisions of the beat. Salzberg and Wang suggested that these methods may tend to lose their effectiveness with more difficult rhythms, in that at advanced levels the sense of pulse is largely internalized (p. 130). The results also suggested that foot tapping and counting simultaneously was not as beneficial as counting or foot tapping alone. This finding is supported by Pierce (1992), who found that simultaneous clapping and counting resulted in more time being necessary to learn rhythms than did clapping or counting alone. Pierce (1992) tested the effects of four learning proceduresclapping, counting, simultaneous clapping and counting, and sizzling of rhythm patternson the rhythm-reading skills of middle school band students. Pierce defined sizzling as a method of hissing each rhythm that closely resembles wind instrument articulation. The results indicated that there were no significant differences between the effectiveness of each method in regard to teaching rhythm, but there were significant differences in the amount of time required for students to learn the rhythms. The sizzle method required the least amount of time for students to learn rhythms. Simultaneous clapping and counting required the greatest amount of time. There was no significant difference between clapping and counting. Pierce also found that most errors in reading occurred when the learning tempo and performance tempo were different. Results differ in terms of the effects of singing on the sight-reading achievement of instrumentalists. Research has tended to focus on the vocalization of tonal patterns as well as Kodly methods involving the singing of solfge syllables. Several studies indicate that these vocalization techniques have no significant effect on sight-reading ability (Bernhard, 2003; Dunlap, 1990; Mann, 1991). Vocalization activities may be more beneficial in improving the sight-reading skills of less experienced instrumentalists (Mann, 1991) and may help improve melodic ear playing ability (Bernhard, 2003).
Other studies have demonstrated that vocalization techniques can improve sight-reading ability. In a study comparing a course emphasizing tonal concept and one emphasizing technical skill, Grutzmacher (1987) found that tonal pattern training led to greater melodic sight-reading achievement in beginning instrumentalists. The experimental group was taught tonal patterns through harmonization and vocalization with syllables. Tonal material included long tones, scales, arpeggios, and tonal patterns from method-book exercises. The control group was taught via a traditional method of technical-skill instruction involving a set of symbols and a range of pitches from notation. Results indicated that the experimental group scored significantly higher in melodic sight-reading achievement than the control group. These findings suggest that tonalconcept development may improve melodic sight-reading skills more than traditionally recognized technical skill development.
Sight-Reading and Conductors

At least two studies have focused on the techniques used by band directors in preparing their ensembles to sight-read. Sorrells (1992) found that the majority of band directors who received superior ratings in sight-reading at festivals used a guided model technique. Such a technique involves a combination of verbal instruction and aural singing, humming, or chanting by the band director with active participation by the students, who clap or vocalize rhythms or finger the notes. Of the bands receiving superior ratings in sight-reading, 85% used the guided model technique with active student participation, while only 15% did not include student participation. Of the bands receiving a good rating, 25% used active student participation, and 75% used no student participation. Other characteristics of bands rated as superior included attentive students, precise and organized instructions from the band director, and wise use of sight-reading study time. Casey (1991) found that successful band directors taught students a systematic routine for analyzing music before sight-reading. This routine involved identifying and understanding the key, meter, tempo, articulations, phrasing, style, and complicated rhythmic patterns. Many of the conductors divided the time prior to sight-reading into three sections: a brief overview of the piece, group study, and student questions. Casey noted that, during these three periods, a critical factor was the instructors ability to identify problems, discuss solutions with the students, demonstrate the solution in the shortest amount of time, and drill students in those areas (p. 71).
Summary and Application of Research Findings

Recent research findings have several implications for current music education practices. These findings should assist music educators in creating an environment that fosters the
development of sight-reading skills. To establish this environment, music educators should make use of a variety of teaching techniques, including sizzling of rhythm patterns (Pierce, 1992), vocalization of rhythm and tonal patterns (Colley, 1987; Grutzmacher, 1987; Mann, 1991; Salzberg & Wang, 1989), and kinesthetic activities such as clapping or foot tapping (Barber, 1998; Ferrin, 2004; Shehan, 1987). Simultaneous clapping and counting or foot tapping and counting should be avoided. Conducting instruction should be provided from the beginning stages of music learning (Kelly, 1997). Music educators are encouraged to model and describe basic conducting patterns and gestures for students and should provide opportunities for students to imitate these patterns on a regular basis. As new meters are introduced, students should be taught the corresponding conducting patterns. Dynamics and articulations should also be represented through conducting gestures. Students could be encouraged to conduct to recordings and to conduct a passage of music before playing it. Older students could periodically be selected to conduct the ensemble in a method book exercise or a composition. Research results suggest that students in an ensemble should be asked at random to play individually (Levinowitz & Scheetz, 1998). Percussion students should receive additional instruction in music reading, and brass players should receive additional instruction in auralvisual skills (Wheeler, 1993). Instead of relying exclusively on method-book exercises, teachers should use passages from the literature being performed to teach rhythmic and sight-reading skills (Price et al., 1998). Rhythmic dictation (Jarrell, 1999) and composition activities (Lund, 2004) should be provided. Both of these activities provide an opportunity for students to notate rhythms, engaging them in thinking about the duration of each note value. Composition activities may be most effective when students compose a melody by playing it first and then transcribing what they have played. Teachers could provide students with a theme and ask them to compose a variation or provide an antecedent phrase and ask them to compose the consequent phrase. Students could also be encouraged to arrange familiar melodies that have a simple harmonic progression, perhaps for a small ensemble of instruments with similar transpositions. Students should be taught melodic predicting skills similar to those used by Gaynor (1996), and they should be encouraged to identify patterns instead of single notes to aid in the chunking process. To build melodic predicting skills, Gaynor used simple melodic examples to teach the concepts of phrase structure, compositional form, tonality, repeated melodic patterns, melodic contour, modulation, and key change. Music educators could select simple unison exercises from method books to teach these concepts to students. Gaynor then presented students with melodic excerpts in which one or more notes had been omitted. Students were asked to choose the most
appropriate notes to complete the melody. They were allowed to perform the melody, experimenting with different solutions, to find the best fit. Educators could adapt this activity by rewriting simple melodies with certain notes omitted and asking students to fill in the blanks. Research indicates that most errors in reading occur when the learning tempo and the performance tempo are different (Pierce, 1992). Educators should be careful not to allow the tempo to deviate excessively from the correct tempo when they are teaching a piece of music. Regular sight-reading seems to increase students sight-reading ability (Casey, 1991; Ferrin, 2004; McBride, 1994; Townsend, 1992). Therefore, the ideal environment for developing sightreading skills is one in which sight-reading occurs on a regular basis. Sight-reading should be incorporated into instrumental rehearsals several times a week and should be provided in all ensembles, including concert band, jazz band, marching band, and chamber groups. Other sightreading experiences could be provided by periodically hosting an evening play-a-thon format in which all students in the band program combine to form an ensemble that sight-reads music for several hours just for fun. The literature repeatedly suggests that private lessons may be an influential factor in a students sight-reading ability (Ferrin, 2004; Mann, 1991; Stenger, 1997; Townsend, 1992; Wheeler, 1993). Music educators should encourage students to take private lessons and should encourage private teachers to devote time in each lesson to sight-reading. In communities of low socioeconomic status or areas where private teachers are unavailable, music educators are encouraged to find additional means of providing private instruction. Younger students might be encouraged to take private lessons from older students. The teaching experience may benefit the older student just as much as the younger student. Students could also be encouraged to sightread with other community musicians such as church choir directors or local amateur musicians. Moreover, they should be encouraged to sight-read in their daily individual practice at home. Students should be taught a systematic routine for analyzing music before sight-reading (Casey, 1991; Sorrells, 1992). This routine should include identifying key, meter, tempo, articulations, phrasing, style, complicated rhythmic patterns, and other potential obstacles. Music educators should be aware that, in the early stages of music training, sight-reading skill is not significantly correlated with ability to perform rehearsed music. Correlations between sightreading and performance skill are strengthened as students mature. Perfecting rehearsed music may not benefit the sight-reading skills of students at the beginning levels of study to the extent it does for more advanced students.
Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research

There is a large body of research regarding sight-reading in instrumental music education. The
research described here represents selected studies conducted subsequent to 1987; research conducted before that year has been reviewed by Stebleton (1987) as well as Hodges (1992). Much research remains to be done on chunking and how it can be applied to improve sightreading. Future research should attempt to determine whether the chunking process in music is something that can be taught and, if so, the best method of teaching it. More research is needed on the effect of vocalization and singing on instrumentalists sight-reading ability. Colleys (1987) research on syllabic methods of teaching rhythm to second- and third-grade students needs to be applied to instrumental music to provide a clear understanding of the effects of syllabic methods on instrumental sight-reading. Levinowitz and Scheetzs (1998) finding that sight-reading skills may improve when third-grade students are asked to perform individually needs to be examined in relation to instrumental music. Sight-reading ability is an essential component of a complete education in instrumental music. While there is still much to be learned about developing this ability in student musicians, the research described here covers a wide range of valuable topics and has useful applications to current music teaching. It is my hope that this examination of the literature will lead to enhanced teaching methods and to the creation of an environment that develops students abilities as independent music learners.
References
Allen, D. H. (1987). The effect of mastery of selected music theory and ear training skills presented in a computer-assisted format on the sight playing performance of second-year band students. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Missouri, Kansas City. Barber, B. S. (1998). An investigation of the effects of composition and conducting activities as stated in the National Standards for Arts Education on the acquisition of note reading skills in elementary string students. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Bernhard, H. C. (2003). The effects of tonal training on the melodic ear playing and sight reading achievement of beginning wind instrumentalists (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54, 1644. Byo, J. L. (1992). Effects of barlines, pitch, and meter on musicians rhythm reading performance. Journal of Band Research, 27(2), 3444. Casey, J. W. (1991). An analysis of band conductor sight-reading behavior and ensemble preparation for sight-reading. Journal of Band Research, 27(1), 6674. Ciepluch, G. M. (1988). Sightreading achievement in instrumental music performance, learning gifts, and academic achievement: A correlation study (Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 1398. Colley, B. (1987). A comparison of syllabic methods for improving rhythm literacy. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35, 221235. Dunlap, M. P. (1990). The effects of singing and solmization training on the musical achievement
of beginning fifth-grade instrumental students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1989). Retrieved April 10, 2004, from ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. Ferrin, C. E. (2004). Music reading calisthenics: The effect of a consistent regimen of sightreading and the effect of educational kinesiology upon the music sightreading skills of high school music students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Utah, 2003). Dissertation Abstracts International, 64, 2819. Gaynor, J. (1996). Music reading comprehension: The effect of aid to chunking and melodic predicting on sight reading performance achievement of secondary school instrumental music students (Doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, 4693. Goolsby, T. W. (1994a). Eye movement in music reading: Effects of reading ability, notational complexity, and encounters. Music Perception, 12, 7796. Goolsby, T. W. (1994b). Profiles of processing: Eye movements during sightreading. Music Perception, 12, 97123. Gordon, E. E. (1980). Learning sequences in music: Skill, content, and patterns. Chicago: GIA Publications. Gregory, T. B. (1972). The effect of rhythmic notation variables on sight-reading errors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 20, 462468. Gromko, J. E. (2004). Predictors of music sight-reading ability in high school wind players. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52, 615. Grutzmacher, P. A. (1987). The effect of tonal pattern training on the aural perception, reading recognition, and melodic sight-reading achievement of first-year instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35, 171181. Hodges, D. A. (1992). The acquisition of music reading skills. In R. Colwell (Ed.), The handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 466471). New York: Schirmer Books. Jarrell, G. (1999). An examination of the effects of daily rhythmic dictation on the accuracy of sight-reading rhythms by sixth-grade beginning band students. Unpublished masters thesis, Troy State University, Troy, AL. Karpinski, G. S. (2000). Aural skills acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. Kelly, S. N. (1997). Effects of conducting instruction on the musical performance of beginning band students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 295305. Kinzel, K. L. (1998). A comparison of the effect of teaching methods on the sight-reading ability of selected elementary band students. Unpublished masters thesis, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. Levinowitz, L. M., & Scheetz, J. (1998). The effects of group and individual echoing of rhythm patterns on third-grade students rhythmic skills. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 16, 811. Lund, P. A. (2004). Effects of composition on sight-reading skills of selected elementary band students. Unpublished masters thesis, Minot State University, Minot, ND. Mann, R. G. (1991). The use of Kodaly instruction to develop the sight-reading skills of undergraduate flute students (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, 2063. McBride, J. (1994). The effect of sequentially organized sight-reading pieces on the sight-reading
achievement of intermediate school instrumental music students (Masters thesis, California State University, Fullerton, 1993). Masters Abstracts International, 32, 28. McPherson, G. E. (1994). Factors and abilities influencing sightreading skill in music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42, 217231. Miller, R. E. (1989). Contributions of selected music skills to music sight reading achievement and rehearsed reading achievement (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, 1988). Abstract retrieved April 1, 2004, From ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. Ortner, J. M. (1991). The effectiveness of a computer-assisted instruction program in rhythm for secondary school instrumental music students (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, 1249. Parker, L. (1987). Rhythmic aptitude and its influence on the effectiveness of syllable and number methods of teaching rhythm-reading skills in fifth-grade beginning band students. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Pierce, M. A. (1992). The effects of learning procedure, tempo, and performance condition on transfer of rhythm skills in instrumental music. Journal of Research in Music Education, 40, 295306. Price, H. E., Blanton, F., & Turner Parrish, R. (1998). Effects of two instructional methods on high school band students sight-reading proficiency, music performance, and attitude. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 17, 1420. Rogers, G. L. (1991). Effect of color-coded notation on music achievement of elementary instrumental students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39, 6473. Rogers, G. L. (1996). Effect of colored rhythmic notation on music-reading skills of elementary students. Journal of Research in Music Education 44, 1525. Salzberg, R. S., & Wang, C. C. (1989). A comparison of prompts to aid rhythmic sight-reading of string students. Psychology of Music, 17, 123131. Shehan, P. K. (1987). Effects of rote versus note presentations on rhythm learning and retention. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35, 117126. Sheldon, D. A. (1996). Visual representation of music: Effects of beamed and beamless notation on music performance. Journal of Band Research, 31(2), 87101. Smith, D. J. (1989). An investigation of the effects of varying temporal settings on eye movements while sight-reading trumpet music and while reading language aloud (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, 383. Smith, K. H. (2003). The effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction on the development of rhythm reading skills among middle school instrumental students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, 2002). Abstract retrieved April 10, 2004, from ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. Sorrells, M.V. (1992). The relationship of festival sightreading room educational techniques to superior festival ratings among high school concert bands. Unpublished masters thesis, University of North Florida, Jacksonville. Stebleton, E. (1987). Predictors of sight-reading achievement: A review of the literature. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 6, 1116. Stenger, S. (1997). The effect of mnemonic devices on a mathematical method of rhythm reading instruction. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
Townsend, B. G. (1992). Relationships between sight-reading ability of college freshmen wind instrumentalists and music experience, band experience, and music aptitude (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1991). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52, 4258. Wheeler, M. R. (1993). A comparative analysis of melodic and rhythmic music reading skills of percussion and wind instrument students in selected North Carolina high schools (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53, 3469.
Announcement Request for Applications Editorial Board Members: Journal of Music Teacher Education
The Journal of Music Teacher Education is seeking nominations for three members of the editorial board. The members of the editorial board will begin duties on August 1, 2006, and continue through July 31, 2012.
Qualifications
Be a member of the Society for Music Teacher Education (Any MENC member who selects Teacher Education as their professional teaching area is a member of SMTE.) Be a professional educator of music teachers who is committed to excellence in teaching, scholarship, and research, evidenced by active participation in the field of music teacher education. Have the expertise and be able to commit the necessary time to carry out the duties of the position. Have the support of your employing institution in terms of release time, facilities, and materials necessary to carry out the duties of the position for the entire length of the positions term.
Application
Provide a letter indicating your interest in the position including a statement that you can fulfill the duties required of the position. Provide a complete vitae that characterizes your qualifications for the position. Obtain three letters of support sent directly to the nominations office from nationally recognized individuals in music teacher education. Send the above items by January 15, 2006, to: Journal of Music Teacher Education Nominations University of Missouri-Kansas City Conservatory of Music 5228 Charlotte St. Kansas City, MO 64110-2420 For more information: Tel 816-235-2945 Fax 816-235-5264 fredricksonw@umkc.edu
UPDATE Yearbook!
If you are weary of searching online for the latest discoveries in music education research, the new UPDATE Yearbook is perfect for you! This first edition is a hard-copy publication of the fall/winter 2004 and spring/summer 2005 issues of MENCs online journal UPDATE: Applications of Music Education Research. Articles in this first edition of UPDATE Yearbook include the following:
What Ive Learned About Research from Young Children by Wendy Sims Improving Student Practicing through Application of Motor-Learning Research by G. Joshua Sanders Integration of Music in the Elementary Curriculum: Perceptions of Preservice Elementary Education Majors by Melissa Berke and Cynthia M. Colwell Steering from the Caboose: Setting the Pace of Group Piano Instruction According to the Least Skilled Students in the Class by Robert A. Duke and Cynthia Benson Classroom Instrument Preferences Among 4- to 9-Year-Olds in a Free-Play Setting by Janice N. Killian and Lynn Basinger Analysis of First-Year Teachers Advice to Music Education Students by William Fredrickson The Application of Critical Pedagogy to Music Teaching and Learning: A Literature Review by Frank Abrahams The Relationship Between Prospective Teachers Tone Quality Evaluations and Their Knowledge of Wind Instrument Pedagogy by Amy Simmons Practices and Procedures in State Adjudicated Orchestra Festivals by Gail Barnes The Role of Movement in Elementary Music Education by Laura Ferguson
Please call 1-800-828-0229 for price and availability information. Stock #8502.

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FALLWINTER 2005

VOLUME 24, NUMBER 1

APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH IN MUSIC EDUCATION

Applications of Research in Music Education

Comments from the Editor

UP DA TE, FallWinter 2005 , 4

Characteristics of Teacher-Directed Modeling in High School Choral Rehearsals

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 13

Use of Classwide Peer Tutoring in the General Music Classroom

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 15

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 19

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 24

Appendix A: Examples of Students Reasons for Liking Peer-Tutoring Sessions

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 25

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Performance Achievement Criteria

Conclusion and Implications

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 43

Cognition and Motor Execution in Piano Sight-Reading: A Review of Literature

Specialized Demands of Sight-Reading

Sight-Reading Related to Musical Specialization

Suggestions for Further Research

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 56

Sight-Reading Ability in Wind and Percussion Students: A Review of Recent Literature

Variables That Predict or Influence Sight-Reading Ability

Characteristics of Successful Sight-Readers

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 60

Sight-Reading Methods Involving Vocalization

Sight-Reading and Conductors

Summary and Application of Research Findings

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 64

Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 70

UPDATE , FallWinter 2005, 72

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