Chloroplast

Chloroplastthe Site of Photosynthesis Chloroplasts are green plastids which help in the synthesis of organic food. The chloroplasts are distributed uniformly in the cytoplasm of plant cells. They are well developed in all the green plants. However, chloroplasts are absent in blue-green algae and photosynthetic bacteria. These are also absent in non-photosynthetic bacteria and fungi. They are of different shapes and sizes. Shape varies considerably in algal chloroplasts. In green cells of higher plants, their number varies from 20 to 100. In higher plants, the size of discoid chloroplasts ranges from 4-10 micrometer in length and 2-4 micrometer in breadth. The size is constant for a given cell type. A chloroplast consists of proteins 50-60%, lipids 25-30%, chlorophyll 5-10%, carotenoids and other pigments 1-2%, RNA 2-3%, DNA up to 0.5%, vitamins and certain metal ions in traces. An electron microscopic structure reveals that chloroplast is covered by a double membranous structure called chloroplast envelope. Each membrane of envelope is a unit membrane like plasma membrane. The space separating the two membranes is about 100-200 Angstrom thick. Proteinaceaous matrix in the chloroplast is called matrix or stroma. Matrix is colloidal in nature and contains all the enzymes needed for photosynthesis, osmiophilic droplets, 70S ribosomes, DNA and RNA. The DNA of chloroplast (Ct-DNA) is naked and circular, which is also termed as plastidome. A massive membrane system of lamellae or the thylakoids, which run parallel to each other, is found in the stroma. In higher plants chloroplast possess two types of thylakoidslarge and small. The large are known as stroma thylakoids, extend from one end to the other end of chloroplasts whereas small are disc shaped thylakoids which are closely packed at places to form grana hence called grana thylakoids. The grana thylakoids fuse with the large stroma thylakoids in the region of grana. Each granum is a stack of 2-100 thylakoids laid in piles once on the top of another. The main function of thylakoids is to perform the light reaction of photosynthesis. It has been reported that certain coupling factors as ATPase and photosynthetic pigments (PS-I and PS-II) are located in the thylakoid membrane. It is now believed that stroma lamellae contain PS-I, while grana lamellae have both PS-I and PS-II pigments. Blue green algae and cyanobacteria do not have chloroplasts. However, they bear thylakoids. These thylakoids or lamellae lie freely in the cytoplasm but without specific envelope. Here, pigments are found evenly distributed on or inside thylakoid membranes. Pigments found also differ from other eukaryotic photosynthesizing plants.In chloroplasts porphyrin heads of chlorophyll molecules are associated with mononuclear protein and their phytol tails are present in lipid layers, The carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) are sandwiched between the phytol tails and phospholipids molecules.The presence of nucleic acids makes the chloroplasts genetically semiautonomous, self-duplicating organelles.Molecular model of chloroplast was proposed by Frey and Wyssling (1953), which exhibits the inter granum portion of the lamellae made up of alternate layers of aqueous proteins and lipids. The chlorophyll molecules are present between two layers in monomolecular film oriented in a specific manner. Other pigments like carotenoid etc. are also present in the lipid layer. The chloroplast of higher plants are double discoid and ellipsoidal in shape, 4-6 in length and 1-2 thick,. The chloroplast is bounded by two membrane each aprox. 5 thick and consisting of lipid bilayer and protein

Fig; Chloroplast

Internally chloroplast filled up with matrix called as stoma in which are embedded in grana. Each granum has diameter of 0.25-0.8 thicknesses and consist of 5-25 disk shaped grana lamellae placed one above the other like stack of coins. (1 A = 10-2 mm, 1 = 1000m and 1mm= 1000 ) Chlorophylls and other photosynthetic pigment are found in the form of protein complex pigments complex in grana. Beside the necessary enzymes, some ribosome and DNA have also been found in chloroplast, which give them partial genetic identity. Chloroplast pigments The pigments involved in the process of photosynthesis are known as photosynthetic pigments. Pigments like chlorophylls, carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls), anthocyanin, phycobilins (phycocyanin and phycoerythrin) may be found in a plant cell. a) Chlorophylls: The chlorophylls, the green pigments in chloroplast are of seven types i.e. chlorophyll a, b, c, d, e, bacteriochlorophyll and bacterioviridin. Chlorophyll molecule in made up of a square tetrapyrrolic ring known as head and a phytol alcohol called tail. The magnesium atom is present in the central position of tetrapyrrolic ring. The four-pyrrole rings of porphyrin head are linked together by methane (CH=) groups forming a ring system. Each pyrrole ring is made up of four carbon and one nitrogen. The porphyrin head bears many characteristic side groups at many points. Different side groups are indicative of various types of chlorophylls. Phytol tail is made up to 20-carbon alcohol attached to carbon 7 position of pyrrole ring IV with a propionic acid ester bond. The name chlorophyll was given to the green pigment by Pelletier and Caventou in 1817. In majority of green plants chlorophyll a and b are present.

Fig: Chlorophyll a molecule Chlorophyll a C35H72O5N4Mg Chlorophyll b C55H70O6N4Mg Chlorophyll a is blue black while chlorophyll b is green black. Both are soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, acetone etc. Chlorophyll a appears red in reflected light and bright green in transmitted light as compared to chlorophyll b, which looks brownish red in reflected light and yellow green in transmitted light. Chlorophyll is a green colored pigment because it does not absorb green light. Chlorophyll a possesses CH3 (methyl group), which is replaced byCHO (an aldehyde) group in chlorophyll b. (b) Carotenoid pigments Carotenoids are the lipids and can be classified into two groups: (i) Carotenes (ii) Xanthophylls. Carotenes are orange red in color. The have general formula C40H56. They were isolated from carrot. On the other hand, xanthophylls are yellow in color. Xanthophylls contain oxygen also along with carbon and hydrogen (C40H56O2). All the carotenoid pigments have 40 carbon atoms. Lutein a widely distributed xanthophyll is responsible for yellow color autumn foliage. Fucoxanthin is another important xanthophyll present in Phaecophycease (Brown algae). Carotenoids absorb light energy and transfer it to chlorophyll a and thus act as accessory pigments. They protect the chlorophyll molecules from photo-oxidation by picking up nascent oxygen and converting it into harmless molecular stage. (C) Phycobilins These pigments are mainly found in blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and red algae. These pigments have open tetrapyrrolic in structure and do not bear magnesium and phytol chains. Blue-green algae have more quantity of phycocyanin and red algae have more phycoertythrin together form phycobilins. These water-soluble pigments are thought to be associated with small granules attached.