Pump Suction Characteristics (1 PDH) Course No.

M-1008
Introduction I once presented this course to a group of mechanical engineers, and called it "What You Always Needed to Know About NPSH, But Were Afraid to Ask". They all knew that NPSH was important in designing a pumping system, but many of them who had been out of school for a few years would have had difficulty in calculating the NPSH available of a piping system without breaking out a text book. NPSH is the link that connects the piping system designer to the pump specifier. It is not uncommon to hear the complaint "This pump is cavitating. Call the manufacturer!" More likely than not, the fault is with the piping system design, which is causing the pump to cavitate. A common source of difficulty (and errors) is dealing with all the various units of measure. It seems that everything in the formula for calculating NPSH is commonly expressed in different units. There may be a few surprises, such as the fact the NPSH applies to positive displacement pumps as well as centrifugal pumps, and how suction specific speed can be used as a rough indicator for selecting a pump type. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) When specifying pump ratings and when diagnosing pump operating problems, few items are more discussed and less understood than net positive suction head (NPSH). Symptoms that may be attributed to inadequate NPSH include:

Sudden drop in pump discharge pressure under certain operating conditions Excessive noise and/or vibration Poor pump efficiency, especially at low loads Excessive pump wear, such as pitting of impellers

Before getting into a discussion of NPSH, some basic definitions of terms and designation of symbols used throughout this discussion will be laid out. For the sake of uniformity, the definitions and symbols will be taken from the Hydraulic Institute Standards, the most widely used compilation of pump design, operating, and testing standards in the U.S.

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Head (H) Head is a measure of pressure, expressed in feet. The relation between pressure expressed in pounds per square inch (psi), and feet of head is: h = psi x 144/w, where w = the specific weight in pounds per cubic foot of liquid being pumped, under pumping conditions. All pressure readings must be converted to feet of the liquid being pumped. The datum for gauge readings shall be taken at the centerline of the pump for horizontal pumps and double suction vertical pumps, or at the entrance eye of the first stage impeller for single suction vertical pumps. Static Head, or Gravity Head (Hz) The vertical distance between the surface of the pumped liquid and the pump datum. Where the liquid surface is below the pump datum, hz is negative. Velocity Head (Hv) Velocity head shall be figured from the average velocity (V) obtained by dividing the flow in cubic feet per second (cfs) by the area of the pipe cross section in square feet at the point of the gauge connection: hv = V2/2g, where g = 32.17 ft/sec/sec at sea level, and V = the velocity in the pipe in ft/sec (fps). Flooded Suction The liquid must flow from an atmospheric vented source to the pump without the average pressure at the pump datum falling below atmospheric pressure with the pump running at specified capacity. Total Suction Head, or Lift (Hs or HL) Positive suction head exists when the total suction head at the pump datum is above atmospheric pressure. It is the reading of a gauge at the pump suction converted to feet of liquid and referred to datum, plus the velocity head at the point of attachment. When the total suction head at the pump datum is below atmospheric pressure, (negative suction head) it is called suction lift, and is the reading of a gauge at the pump datum minus the velocity head. Total Discharge Head (Hd) The reading of a pressure gauge at the pump discharge converted to feet of liquid and referred to datum plus the velocity head at the point of attachment. Bowl Assembly Head (Hb) The difference between the total discharge head measured in the column pipe of
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a vertical turbine pump, connected to the top of the bowl assembly, and the total suction head. Total Dynamic Head (TDH) Total dynamic head is the measure of the work increase per pound of liquid imparted to the liquid by the pump. It is the difference between the total discharge head and the total suction head. Where suction lift exists, total dynamic head is the sum of the total discharge head and the suction lift (which, remember, is expressed as a positive number). TDH can only be determined by the user and specified to the pump supplier along with the rated capacity. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Net positive suction head is the total suction head in feet of liquid absolute determined at the suction nozzle and referred to datum, less the vapor pressure of the liquid in feet absolute. In simple terms, NPSH is the pressure at the pump suction port measured in feet of liquid absolute, less the vapor pressure. It is the analysis of energy conditions on the suction side of a pump to determine if the liquid will vaporize at the lowest pressure within the pump. The Hydraulic Institute uses the term Net Inlet Pressure (NIP) instead of NPSH in connection with rotary pumps. NIP is just NPSH expressed in psia instead of feet. It is mentioned here just to make the student aware of the term. Vapor Pressure (Hvp) Vapor pressure is one of the physical properties of a liquid. By definition, it is the pressure exerted by the vapor of a contained liquid. It varies with temperature. Vapor pressure of a liquid is of little concern in many pumping applications, such as pumping water or # 2 fuel oil at moderate temperatures from an open container. In such cases, vapor pressure is well below atmospheric pressure, and can be ignored and left out of the calculation for NPSH. It is usually expressed in mm of mercury or psia. However, confusion over the term vapor pressure can lead to errors when calculating NPSH in cases where the vapor pressure of a liquid is significant. This is true for hot (saturated) water, volatile liquids such as gasoline and other petroleum products, ammonia, and LP gas, which have relatively high vapor pressures, and must be stored in pressurized containers. For such liquids, the vapor pressure may be expressed in psig, and should not be ignored when calculating NPSH. For example, when calculating the NPSH available from a deaerating feedwater heater pressurized to 5 psig (~20 psia), where the water is near the saturation temperature for that pressure, it nearly cancels out the pressure within the deaerator. Therefore, the NPSH available at the feedwater pump is due primarily to the gravity head alone, or the elevation of the deaerator above the feedwater pump suction nozzle minus frictional losses in the suction
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piping. NPSH available and NPSH required NPSH must be indicated as NPSH available (NPSHa) or NPSH required (NPSHr) in order to be meaningful. NPSHa is a function of everything in the system on the suction side of the pump up to the suction nozzle of the pump. This includes the pressure on the surface of the liquid in the supply tank, the difference between the liquid level and the centerline of the pump suction nozzle, the line losses, velocity head, and vapor pressure. NPSHr is based on everything from the pump suction nozzle to the point in the pump where the pressure starts to increase. This includes the entrance losses and the friction losses or pressure drops getting into the pumping elements. Since NPSHa is the absolute pressure available less the vapor pressure of the liquid, the NPSHa should always be greater than the NPSHr. If this were not the case, the pressure at some point in the pump suction area will be less than the vapor pressure of the liquid, and cavitation will occur. Cavitation is the formation of pockets of vapor, or bubbles, at a point inside the pump where the liquid pressure drops below its vapor pressure. These vapor bubbles are carried along to the higher pressure area of the pump, where they collapse. It is the violent collapse of the bubbles that cause the damaging effects of cavitation; noise, erosion, and short service life. Cavitation also reduces capacity and efficiency, as well as causes pulsations in the discharge pressure. There is a widely used formula for calculating NPSHa, which should be reviewed and thoroughly understood. NPSHa is a function of the suction piping system, the operating conditions, and the liquid being pumped. For a system in the design stage, or for one in use, NPSHa can be calculated from the formula: NPSHa = Ha + Hz Hf + Hv Hvp An example of how this formula is applied is given below: Ha = (14.7 psia) x (2.31 ft H2O per psi) / 0.88 s.g. of fuel oil = 38.8 ft of fuel oil (To convert pressure in psia to ft of liquid, multiply by 2.31 and divide by specific gravity of the liquid). Hz = -10 ft of fuel oil (worst case) Hf = 2.9 ft of fuel oil (from piping pressure loss calculation) Hvp = 1 ft of fuel oil (maximum)

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NPSHa = 24.9 ft of fuel oil. If the liquid being pumped were gasoline instead of fuel oil, the NPSHa would be quite different. The specific gravity would change from 0.88 to 0.71, and the vapor pressure to 8.5 psia. Hvp = 8.5 x 2.31 / .71 =27.6 ft of gasoline. NPSHa = 7.3 ft of gasoline. (From a practical standpoint, the normal lift should not exceed 6 ft when pumping gasoline). Notice the big difference the vapor pressure has made in the same system pumping gasoline instead of fuel oil. For an installed pump with a suction gauge, it is possible to determine the NPSHa of an operating system without making all of these calculations. Introduce a new term, hi , and define it as the absolute pressure of the liquid at the pump suction nozzle in feet of liquid. It then can be substituted for the first three terms of the NPSHa formula: Hi = Ha Hz Hf. Restating the formula with this substitution: NPSHa = Hi Hvp. The value of Hi can be determined by converting the suction gauge reading to ft of liquid absolute. When making the conversion, use the local absolute barometric pressure, the specific gravity of the liquid, and the appropriate conversion factors. Units Perhaps the most frequent mistake made in calculating NPSHa is failure to keep the units consistent. Atmospheric pressure is often given in inches of mercury absolute or psia, vapor pressure in mm of mercury, elevation in feet, and line loss in psi. Keep in mind that psig will vary with elevation of the pumping site above (or below) sea level, and that atmospheric pressure at any given site can vary 1 in Hg from an average value. The standard value of 14.7 psia and 29.9 in Hg is a good reference. Entrained Gases The factors connected with NPSH determinations are not always precise. While the vapor pressure of a pure liquid is constant and predictable, it is possible to have entrained or dissolved air or gas in the liquid with the result that the fluid acts as though it had a higher vapor pressure than the figures for pure liquid would indicate. The higher apparent vapor pressure would decrease the NPSHa. In this case, as the pressure in the suction system is reduced, entrained air or gas in the liquid would tend to expand or to be released. As this occurs, a centrifugal pump would tend to cavitate and a positive displacement pump would experience a loss of volumetric efficiency. This situation could happen when the
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liquid is agitated while being transported or unloaded or where the liquid is being continuously recirculated. A similar situation can be encountered when handling volatile petroleum products, since the liquid is probably made up of many different fractions, each with its own vapor pressure. For such a liquid a slight vacuum might vaporize the lighter fractions. If the suction side of a lift system is so designed that a positive displacement pump develops a vacuum that results in an absolute pressure less than the vapor pressure of the liquid being handled, the liquid will vaporize. This formation of vapor on the suction side of the pump can cause vapor lock. Collapse of the vapor bubbles will cause cavitation and loss of pump performance plus excessive wear. NPSHa should always exceed NPSHr by a comfortable margin. NPSHr NPSHr is another way of indicating the pressure loss within the pump itself. It is a function of the pump design. In a centrifugal pump, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases as the liquid passes from the pump suction to the eye of the impeller. There are also pressure losses due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes the impeller. The centrifugal force of the impeller vanes further increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of the liquid. The NPSHr is the positive head in feet absolute required at the pump suction to overcome these pressure drops in the pump and maintain the liquid above its vapor pressure. The dynamics within a positive displacement pump are different, but the consequences are the same. The pump internally raises the liquid velocity as it decreases the liquid pressure. By their nature, positive displacement pumps are more tolerant of low NPSHa, and in fact may still operate as the liquid vaporizes within the pump, albeit with reduced capacity and efficiency. The pump manufacturer will provide NPSHr curves along with the other operating characteristics. For a given pump, NPSHr will increase as pump speed increases, and also increase with the viscosity and the temperature of the pumped liquid. NPSHr can be determined on the pump test stand by methods detailed in The Hydraulic Institute Standards. In general, an NPSH test consists of throttling the inlet flow to the pump over the operating range of capacities. A sharp drop in the discharge pressure indicates the onset of cavitation, and is plotted as a point on the NPSHr curve. If a pump specification calls for performance testing of a pump, it should include an NPSH test. Dealing With an NPSH Problem Pump Speed If a change to the suction piping is not practical, it may be practical to reduce the
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NSPHr of the pump. For a given pump, reducing the speed (which will lower the capacity as well) will reduce the NPSHr. It will also increase the NPSHa because the pipeline friction loss hf will also be reduced. If it is not practical to reduce the speed, a larger pump running at a slower speed will be able to deliver the same capacity with a lower NPSHr. Tank Level If the source of the liquid is a tank with a variable level, and if the pumping problem occurs when the tank level is unusually low, the problem may be caused by swirling or vortexing at the suction pipe. The Hydraulic Institute Standards suggests methods to reduce this tendency. Of course, a solution may be to simply limiting the maximum draw down level, at the cost of reducing the tanks useable capacity. Entrained Air As previously mentioned, entrained air in the liquid causes a reduction in NPSHa, and produces pump surging and loss of capacity. Measures to reduce the entrained air, such as reducing agitation during transport, or allowing longer settling time in the tank, may help. High Temperatures High temperature of the pumped liquid increases the vapor pressure, and so decreases NPSHa. A method sometimes used to reduce the tendency of a boiler feedwater pump to flash during rapid load changes is to inject cooling water (condensate) into the suction piping when flashing is likely to occur. Specific Speed As previously mentioned, the net positive suction head required (NPSHr) is a function of the pump design. For centrifugal pumps, it is the design of the impeller that is of interest. The Hydraulic Institute recognized that a relationship exists between the specific speed and suction conditions that could affect the tendency for the pump to cavitate. Specific speed is a dimensionless quantity that correlates pump capacity, head, and rotational speed at optimum efficiency. This classifies pump impellers with respect to their geometrical similarities. The definition of specific speed is the rpm at which an impeller would run if reduced in size to deliver one gpm against a total head of one foot. It is difficult to visualize just what this means, much less its significance, so dont worry about the definition. Specific speed is usually expressed as Ns = ( N Q) / H3/4, where N is the rotational speed in rpm, Q is the flow in gpm at optimum efficiency (take of the gpm for double suction pumps), and H is the total head in feet per stage. Specific speed is indicative of the
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shape and characteristics of the impeller, as illustrated below:

Centrifugal pumps are traditionally classified by three types: 1. radial flow 2. mixed flow 3. axial flow. However, there is a continuous change from the radial flow impeller, which develops pressure principally by centrifugal force, to the axial flow, which develops most of its head by the propelling action of the vanes. Each impeller has a specific speed range to which it is best adapted. Impellers for high heads usually have a low specific speed, while impellers for low heads have a high specific speed. Suction limitations of different pumps bear a relation to the specific speed. The Hydraulic Institute publishes charts giving recommended specific speed limits for various conditions. Exceeding these limits would increase the potential for serious cavitation problems. Suction Specific Speed (Ss) Suction specific speed has come into use as an indication of the suction characteristics of centrifugal pumps. Ss = (NQ) /(NPSHr)3/4 . Normally, the highest value of Ss is at or near the capacity corresponding to the best efficiency point (BEP). In comparisons of different pumps, or different impellers for a given pump, Ss is an indication of the relative size of the eye of the impeller. An impeller with a higher Ss would require lower NPSHr, and would typically have a larger eye than an impeller with a lower Ss. By plotting Ss vs. Ns from test and operating data, it has been found that for pumps of a normal design, values of Ss vary within the range of 6,000 to 12,000. Impellers with Ss above this range have a relatively large impeller eye. They have a rather narrow stable operating range, which is at or near the BEP. When outside of this range, impellers with an oversize eye can experience recirculation at the eye and tend to surge and vibrate. On the other hand, impellers that have an Ss below this range would have an impeller eye comparatively small, and could be subject to choking at certain operating ranges.
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By substituting NPSHa for NPSHr in the equation defining Ss, the quantity Suction Specific Speed Available (SA) is derived. SA = (NQ) / (NPSHa)3/4. NPSHa is the net positive suction head available in feet. The suction specific speed available (SA), must equal or exceed the suction specific speed required (Ss). Again, through tests and operational data, an SA of 8,500 has been found to be a practical value for SA, and has been chosen by the Hydraulic Institute to be a valuable criterion to determine the maximum recommended rotational speed of a given pump. Substitute 8,500 for SA in the above equation and solve for N. This produces: N = 8,500 (NPSHa)3/4 / Q. N is therefore the recommended maximum operating speed for a centrifugal pump operating at or near the BEP of Q gpm. Example Assuming a suction specific speed available of 8,500, what is the recommended rpm limit for a single suction centrifugal pump with a capacity of 3,000 gpm and an NPSHa of 30 ft.? N = SA (NPSHa)3/4 / Q N = 8,500 (30)3/4 / 3,0001/2 N = (8,500 x 12.82) /54.77 N = 1,990 The recommended maximum operating rpm is 1,990. If motor driven, the next lower synchronous speed is 1,800 rpm. Is this rule firm? No, of course not. But it is an indication that if you were planning to run this pump with a 3,600 rpm motor, you should seriously consider reconfiguring the system for a higher NPSHa or look at a specially designed pump. Conclusion Working with NPSH involves a number of factors and variables, often interrelated, which must be given consideration. Pump manufacturers tend to be somewhat conservative when making recommendations for a system or a pump on an application which may involve NPSH problems. Conservatism is, of course, a two-edged sword. What may be "safe" for the supplier is expensive for the buyer. So the engineer must be familiar with and be able to explain the choices and justify the decisions. As you observed if you worked through some of the calculations, you appreciate the difficulty in keeping the units consistent within the problem.
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As previously suggested, if a pump is misbehaving, it very likely is the suction piping design that is causing the problem.

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