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1. INTRODUCTION
The successful exploration of space requires a system that will
reliably transport payload such as personnel and instrumental etc. into space and return them back to earth without subjecting them an uncomfortable or hazardous environment. In other words, the spacecraft have to and its payloads be recovered safely into the Earth. We have seen the re-entry
capsules and winged space vehicles approach the earth followed by safe landing.
However, this could be accomplished only after considerable research in high speed aerodynamics and after many parametric studies to select the optimum design concept.
Re-entry systems were among the first technologies developed in
1960s for military photo-reconnaissance, life science and manned space flights. By 1970s, it led to the development of new refurbish able space shuttles. Today space technology has developed to space planes which intend to back go and come regularly from earth to space stations. USAs HERMS and Japans
and refurbishable cost, to simplify Operations. For entering into atmospheric and non-atmospheric planet problem involves is reducing the spacecrafts speed . For control of the
an atmospheric
planet the problem involves essentially deceleration, aerodynamic heating, time & location of landing. For non-atmospheric planets, the problem involves only deceleration and control of time & location of landing.
The vehicle selected to accomplish a re-entry mission incorporates a thick wing , subsonic ( Mach < 1 ) airfoil modified to meet hypersonic
(Mach>> 1 ) thermodynamic requirements. The flight mechanics of this vehicle are unique in that rolling manoeuvres are employed during descent such that dynamic loading and aerodynamic heating are held to a minimum. Therefore re-entry technology requires studies in the following areas: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Deceleration Aerodynamic heating & air loads Vehicle stability Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) Guidance and Landing.
CONTENTS
1. ABSTRACT . 2. INTRODUCTION 3. RE ENTRY MISSION PROFILE, CONSTRAINTS, AND VEHICLE REQUIREMENTS 4. ENTRY CORRIDOR 5. GAS DYNAMICS AND DECELERATION 6. AERODYNAMICS HEATING 7. MATERIAL SELECTION IN DESIGN 8. THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM (TPS) 9. VEHICLE GUIDANCE AND LANDING 10. CONCLUSION 11. REFERENCE
1. ABSTRACT
In recent years, industry has produced high-temperature fiber and whiskers. The author examined the atmospheric reentry of the USAs Space Shuttles and proposed the use of high temperature tolerant parachute for atmospheric air braking. Though it is not large, a light parachute decreases Shuttle speed from 8 km/s to 1 km/s and Shuttle heat flow by 3-4 times. The parachute surface is opened with backside so that it can emit the heat radiation efficiently to Earth-atmosphere. The temperature of parachute is about 1000-1300o C. The carbon fiber is able to keep its functionality up to a temperature of 1500-2000o C. There is no conceivable problem to manufacture the parachute from carbon fiber. The proposed new method of braking may be applied to the old Space Shuttles as well as to newer spacecraft designs. Re-entry capsules promises to intensify international competition in launch services, microgravity research and space technology development. These systems will also confer an important strategic advantage in the conduct of materials and in life science research. The objective of this paper is to provide a modest degree of understanding of the complex interrelation which exist between performance requirements mission constraints , vehicle design and trajectory selection of typical re-entry mission. A brief presentation of the flight regimes, the structural loading and heating environment experienced by booth no lifting and lifting re-entry vehicle is given.
1. Deorbit and Descent to sensible atmosphere at an altitude of nearly 120kms. 2. Re-entry and hypersonic glide fight.
3. Transition flight phase, final approach and landing.
at an altitude of 120 km to 30 km during which the re-entry vehicles high initial kinetic energy is dissipated by atmospheric breaking. The third flight segment does the final approach and landing. All these phases are shown in Fig.1. The various forces acting on the re-entry vehicle are:1. Gravitational force acting towards the centre of the planet. 2. Gas dynamic force opposite to the direction of motion of the vehicle. 3. Centrifugal and gas dynamic lift force acting normal to the direction of motion of the vehicle.
constraints
much be
Imposed arising from the structural limit, crew comfort and control limits.
These
limits
State
of
the vehicle
to the
1. Load factor
2. Dynamic pressure 3. 4. 5. Heat flux Heat load Surface temperature
q = 12 pv <= qmax Q <= Qmax Q1 = O.T Qdt <= Q1max T <= Tmax
The maximum admissible values of these factors are highly dependent on the state of the technology involved regarding heat resistant, light weight materials and structures. The actual flight loads experienced by the vehicle depends upon: 1. Local atmospheric environment (eg: density, temperature) 2. Current flight static conditions (eg : velocity, angle of attack) 3. Vehicle properties (e.g.: geometry, weight, aerodynamics) and thus specific re-entry trajectories and design parameters.
The most important design parameters with respect to re-entry performance are given by : 1. Wing loading, 2. Ballistic coefficient, 3. Lift to Drag ratio,
m A (kg m2) B= m (Cd * A) LD
, where
Cd= drag coefficient Depending on the specified mission requirements the second or third property is chosen as design drivers.
3. ENTRY CORRIDOR
An entry corridor is a range of entry conditions within which an entry is possible. The undershoot boundary and overshoot boundary forms the upper and the lower limits of the entry corridor. Terrestrial flights are tolerant of guidance error accompanying a landing approach. An undershoot may cause destruction of vehicle during entry and an overshoot may result in a homeless exit to space. Figure shows the explanation of entry corridor and possible path for vehicle with lift to Venus, Mars, and Titan.
If the guidance error results in an excessive undershoot as shown by the two dashed trajectories, the vehicle will enter the atmosphere at an excessively steep angle, thereby experiencing too much deceleration. If the guidance error results in an excessive overshoot as shown by the two outer dashed trajectories, the vehicle will not slow down considerably in order to complete entry in a single pass. Hence the shaded portions representing excessively overshoot and undershoot are excluded as not representing the intended entry maneuver. Although overshoot at hyperbolic velocity > (2gRo)1/2 may result in a homeless exit to space, overshoot at the outer corridor at parabolic speed = (2gRo)1/2 or at an elliptical speed < (2gRo)1/2 or at an elliptical speed , (2gRo)1/2 will result in a multipass entry.
Overshoot passage was considered a good way to came back from moon or more distant planets. Each pass through the atmosphere would slow down the vehicle a little, so that it would return in a series of successively shorter ellipses. In this way the heat problem would be DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
solved, heat taken on each approach being radiated during the next outward journey.
When either truly circular entry is made inside entry corridor or final entry is made through multipass scheme, the descent trajectory through the atmosphere is similar to entry from a satellite orbit, namely ballistic path, glide path or slip path.
The width of entry corridor (rp) for non-lifting (L/D<0) and lifting (L/D>1) entry into various planetary atmosphere is given in the table below for entry at planetary velocity (2gro)1/2.
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L/D=1 43 43 482 55
L/D=0 13 11 644 0
L/D=1 84 82 885 84
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The most important problem that a re-entry mission has to face is the atmospheric deceleration. The deceleration forces can be as great as 600 to 900N for unmanned space probes. Space shuttles use their wings to skim the atmosphere and stretch the slow down period to more than 15 minutes and thereby reducing the deceleration forces to about 15N.
When too much deceleration is intolerable, aerodynamic lift must be used. Lift can reduce rate of descent, thus lengthening the path to the ground and decreasing the maximum deceleration. Before entering to the atmosphere, the motion of a vehicle is governed by its own inertia and its gravitational force. When the vehicle enters the atmosphere the gas dynamic force modify such motion. Gas dynamic force acts in a direction opposite to the vehicle motion.
Figure gives an idea about the drag and lift forces. The gas dynamic drag force causes the reduction in the vehicles velocity and the centrifugal and lift forces cause acceleration normal to the direction of motion. The gas dynamic lift and drag motion and the resultant acceleration and the deceleration very directly with the atmospheric density P and square of velocity V2 . Thus vehicles deceleration varies with PV2. As the vehicle approaches the planet, it first encounters an atmosphere of very low density, as it goes deeper and deeper density of the atmosphere increases rapidly and velocity begin to decrease due to drag. The deceleration force is the product of two quantities, one increasing and the other decreasing. Initially deceleration increases and at some point of velocity begins to decrease more rapidly than the density increase, resulting in a minimum deceleration with subsequent decreasing acceleration. Figure shows the changes during re-entry.
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When the spacecraft has lost most of its speed, it falls freely through air. Parachutes slow it further down and a small rocket is fired in the final seconds of descent to soften the impact of landing. For approach to non-atmospheric planets, the absence of aerodynamic lift and drag necessitates the use of reverse thrust rockets to slow down the vehicle for safe landing. Because of the absence of atmosphere, there is no problem of aerodynamic heating. Programming of rocket thrust is desired for best controlling the time and location of landing.
3. DECELERATION OF VEHICLE
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4. AERODYNAMICS HEATING
The major concern of re-entry is to find a way to survive the aerodynamic heating. This obstacle was named as the Thermal Barrier. A vehicle approaching the earth or a planetary atmosphere from space or from orbit possesses a large amount of kinetic energy due to its speed and potential energy by virtue of its position. These energies have to be dissipated and converted into heat to decelerate the vehicle to zero velocity and altitude. From speed of 8 Km/s to energy per mass of 31.4 MJ/Kg must be dissipated.
At high speed associated with re-entering from space, air cannot flow out of the way on rushing spacecraft fast enough. When the vehicle encounters the atmosphere a shock will from ahead of the nose of the vehicle heating the atmosphere in this region to a very high temperature. As the vehicle plunges into deeper and denser atmosphere the vehicle will increasingly be heated by the enveloping layer of incandescent atmosphere, while the speed of the vehicle will continuously be reduced by the braking force of the atmosphere. In this manner the vehicles K.E is converted into heat. If the entire vehicles energy were converted to heat within the vehicle itself, it would be more than enough to vaporize the vehicle.
There are two ways in which the total energy is dissipated from the vehicle. They are: i. By waves unloading major part of the heat on the atmosphere by the shock waves.
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ii. To radiate heat away from hot surface of the vehicle. Figure shows the shock wave formed fir blunt and streamlined Configurations. The diversion of heat by strong shock waves is the result of molecular interaction in the gas around the vehicle. When molecules strike the forward surface they bounce back. Many of the rebounding particles collide with the oncoming molecules diverting them from the surface and preventing them by heating it by direct impact. A blunt nose produces the strongest shock wave. Since the fraction of the total heat load that is transferred is directly proportional to the strength of the shock waves the stronger the shock wave, the smaller the frictional component introduced into the body. For the reason, the entry vehicle is given a blunt shape rather than a streamlined configuration that has been elastic solution to aerodynamic heating at lower speed. Thus, one or more of the following methods can disperse the heat reaching the vehicle: a. Making skin material thick enough to act as a sink. b. Radiation cooled shield with a thin metal skin and negligible heat sink capacity may be used. Here the sink temperature in radiation equilibrium situation must not exceed the heat capacity of the metal. c. To use a heat shield constructed of inoculated layer of fiberglass and similar materials. Under intense heat the outer layer of the shield chars melts and vaporizes (Ablation). Another mode of radiating heat is by undergoing multiple passes through the atmosphere; heat developed on each approach is radiated away in the next loop. Insulating plates of quartz fibre glued to skin creates a heat shield that protects against fierce heat. Strength of shock wave determines the heat and drag applied directly to the vehicle by air friction. Slender shape creates weak shock wave and therefore a heavy frictional layer. Blunt has strong shock and little friction.
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and reduced section structural members such as tube and beams can exhibit stiffness characteristics compared with solid bars. Honey comb sections may be used to create panels with extremely low weight with very high stiffness. The property of honey comb panel is that the weight per unit moment of inertia is proportional to the thickness of the face times the density of material. Nickel alloy, Titanium and Aluminum are the three probable candidates for a re-entry vehicle structure.
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2. In the event of failure, such an error in the entry angle or entry from an aborted flight occurs and results in a slower thermal environment, the insulation exhibits ablating characteristics and absorbs sufficient amount of heat to protect the structure. Scheme-A shows the combinations thick skin and radiation cooling in which radiations as well as sandwiches by low density thermal conductive material cooling structure. Scheme-B shows transpiration cooling system which consists of a porous structure. It is equipped with a fluid supply where the fluid reaches the top of the structural surface by capillary action and thus keeps the surface cool. Scheme-C illustrates the ablative insulating system in which the ablative coating melts and vaporizes due to high temperature thus saving the structure from melting. Scheme-D is known as the non-ablative system. The outer surface of this insulating system is a material with good high temperature properties. The outer surface is under with one of the two low density conductivity product [PK] internal insulating materials. The outer of the two insulations has somewhat higher values of [PK] but has better higher temperature resistance. The thermal gradient through the outer layer of internal insulation allows the lower insulation to operate with its temperature limits. The composite system has been tested with interface up to 1000F with good results. Among the several heat protection methods the heat sink method employing a high heat capacity metals such as Beryllium Oxide can absorb about 6.3 MJ/Kg without significant erosion. For high heating rates the ablation principle provides an efficient heat protection method. In this case, the metal is allowed to melt and vaporize and hence this thermal protective system is not reusable. Ablative heat shields are often impregnated with carbon fibres, which provides structural reinforcement and form a char layer that radiates heat. Reasonable TPS candidates such as ceramic tiles used for shuttle orbiter or the ceramic shingle/stand off concept developed for HERMES employ radiation cooling. The vertical plane and lateral direction can be modulated to limit the flight loads to compensate for non-nominal entry for guiding the vehicle to a restricted recovery area
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lateral range is a primary mission requirement and dictates vehicle angle. The three factors influencing the baseline re-entry trajectory profile of winged vehicle are: 1. Temperature constraints, which primarily affect the vehicle, reuse and reflect specific TPS design. 2. Constraints to guarantee flight stability and system and payload integrity. 3. Down range and Cross range requirements to assure successful landing. Space shuttle uses their wings to glide to runway and land like an airplane. For landing in nonatmospheric planet reverse thrust rockets are used by the vehicles. Figure below explains about entry vehicle revolution
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9. CONCLUSION
In the design of a practical manned re-entry system, it is necessary to accomplish two things. The first is to bring the entry deceleration down to levels well within the human endurance, and the second is to limit the maximum heating rate and total heat pulse to less than material limits. A method of accomplishing these two goals leads to the following conclusions. 1. Re-entry at high total angle of attack provides a reduction in both maximum heating rate and total heating encountered. 2. Rolling maneuvers at constant total angle of attack are useful in reducing re-entry decelerations and total heating encountered. 3. A light wing loading combined with rolling entry maneuvers and a relatively blunt stagnation region permits a lightweight thermal protection system. 4. It is possible by suitable choice of configurations to obtain a vehicle with desirable aerodynamic characteristics during entry and good subsonic flying qualities for landing. 5. Extremely attractive payload to gross weight ratio of approximately 50% may be obtained in a vehicle of light wing loading if the aerodynamic and structural configurations are properly selected and rolling entry employed.
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10. REFRENCES
[1]. LOH, W.H.T: Re-entry and planetary entry physics and technology, VOL.2 & 3. [2]. Spacecraft Systems Engineering Peter Fortes cue and John Stoaark. [3]. Han key, W.L: Re-entry Aerodynamics, AIAA education series (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics). [4]. Kojro and Takashi ABE: Viscous Shock-Layer Analysis on Hypersonic Flow over Re-entry Capsule. [5]. P.N. Keert: Re-entry, Descent and Landing Technology and Demonstration needs for a European Winged Vehicle.