eeh

power systems laboratory

Ganbayar Puntsagdash

Stability Analysis with Decentralized Control of Photovoltaic Systems

Masters Thesis PSL1215

EEH Power Systems Laboratory Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich Expert: Prof. Dr. Gran Andersson Supervisors: Dr. Adrian Timbus (ABB), Matthias A.Bucher (ETH) Zurich, January 25, 2013

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Acknowledgement
First of all I want to thank my supervisor Dr. Adrian Timbus from ABB who made this masters thesis possible. I always appreciated your input and commitment. I also want to give warmest thanks to my supervisor Matthias Bucher from ETH who helped me to stay focused and motivated throughout the entire project. In addition, I want to thank Matts Larsson from ABB for many fruitful technical discussions and valuable perspectives. Maria Vrakopoulou from ETH is another person who has given tireless support in answering my questions in modelling. Thanks also to Prof. Gran Andersson for inspiration and new perspectives. Last but not least, I want to express deep gratitude for my friend David Krammer and my sister Gereltuya Puntsagdash for encouragement, support and proofreading.

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Abstract
In this masters thesis the frequency stability analysis with decentralized photovoltaic systems was done. Focus of the study was on two regulations in Germany, the old DIN VDE 0126-1-1 and its replacement VDE-AR-N 4105:2011-08, which force the photovoltaic systems to take control actions in case of an overfrequency over 50.2 Hz. DIgSILENT PowerFactory was used as a simulation environment. The IEEE 9 bus grid model with different photovoltaic shares from 10% to 60% was used. In order to nd a relation between the volume of primary frequency control reserve and the photovoltaic share, the primary frequency control reserve of the system was varied. Overfrequency was triggered by a loss of load and photovoltaic control reaction and frequency responses for the dierent regulations were analyzed. The outcome of the study for the old regulation were numerical values of photovoltaic shares which could be withstand by the grid with dierent sizes of primary frequency control reserves. Further, it was shown that in the system with the new regulation there is no stability problem anymore and the system frequency can be stabilized. Moreover, the more photovoltaic systems that are installed in the grid, the more they contribute to the primary frequency control. A possibility for a higher potential of contribution to the frequency stability was shown as well.

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Contents
List of Acronyms 1 Introduction 2 Regulations in Germany 2.1 Photovoltaic in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Regulations in Germany before November 2011 2.2.1 Automatic Disconnection . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 50.2 Hertz Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Regulations in Germany after November 2011 . 2.3.1 Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix 1 3 3 5 5 6 8 8 9 13 13 13 13 15 15 18 19 21 21 21 22 24 25 26 26 28

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3 Modeling of Grid 3.1 Model of the Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 IEEE 9 Bus Grid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Distribution Grid Model of Vsters . . . . . . . 3.2 Model of the Photovoltaic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Introduction to PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Static Generator as Current Source Model . . . . 3.2.3 Model of Photovoltaic Power Generating Systems 4 Model of the Control Units 4.1 Frequency Control . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Inertia of the System . . . . . 4.1.2 Primary Frequency Control . 4.1.3 Secondary Frequency Control 4.2 Controlling of the PV-Generator . . 4.2.1 Active Power Reduction . . . 4.2.2 Active Power Control . . . . 4.2.3 Reactive Power Control . . . vii

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viii 5 Simulations and Results 5.1 PV units on the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Overfrequency Case Study and Parametrization . . . 5.3 Automatic Disconnection DIN VDE 0126-1-1 . . . . 5.3.1 Description of the Simulations . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Results of the Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Characteristic Curve VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08 . . . . 5.4.1 Description of the Simulations . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Simulation Results with Standard Parameters 5.4.3 Variation of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Conclusion

CONTENTS 31 31 33 35 36 36 40 40 44 45 49

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A Simulation Results 51 A.1 Automatic Disconnection of PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 A.2 Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 A.2.1 Variation of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Bibliography 67

List of Acronyms
RES PV TSO DSO DG SL PV bus PQ bus LV MV HV DSG DSL WSCC ACE AGC PT1 PCR ENTSO-E SM RG RG CE PCR Renewable energy sources Photovoltaic Transmission System Operator Distribution System Operator Distributed Generation Slack Bus Active Power and Voltage Specied Bus (Not Photovoltaic Bus) Active and Reactive Power Specied Bus Low Voltage Middle Voltage High Voltage Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Sonnenenergie e.V (German Society for Solar Energy) DIgSILENT Simulation Language West System Coordination Council Area Control Error Automatic Generation Control First Order Delay Primary Frequency Control Reserve European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity Synchronous Machine Regional Group of ENTSO-E Regional Group Continental Europe of ENTSO-E Primary Frequency Reserve

ix

CONTENTS

List of Tables
2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 5.2 5.3 Timeline for Retrotting of PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . Specications of the Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximal Demand of the Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specications of the Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical values of inertia constant H for dierent types of synchronous machines [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inertia Constants of the Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . Parameter values of Steam Turbine Governor TGOV1 for the Machines G1 and G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parameter values of Hydro Turbine Governor HYGOV for the Machines G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parameter values of Secondary Frequency Control (AGC) . . Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Automatic Disconnection of PV Systems . . . . . Maximal Active Power Pmax and Controller Droop R [p.u] of the Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary Frequency Control Reserves and Maximum Activation Frequency [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 14 14 15

21 22 25 26 28

38 42 44

A.1 Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Characteristic Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Characteristic Curve with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.15 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.3 Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Characteristic Curve with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.10 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

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xii

LIST OF TABLES

List of Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 Installed Capacity of PVs in GW by Voltage Level. . . . . . Maximal PV Power Production of Germany of the Year 2012 at 13:30 on March 25th [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An expample of disconnection and active power feed of an aggregated PV system, which follows the DIN VDE 0126-1-1 version Mai 2005 industry standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Pendulum caused by Disconnection and Reconnection on Grid with high PV Power Penetration . . . . . . . . . Decrease of active power feed at overfrequency between 50.2 Hz and 51.5 Hz [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Provision of reactive power by a distributed generator with maximum power 3.68 kAV < SE max 13.8 kAV: the gray zone [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Provision of reactive power by a distributed generator with maximum power SE max > 13.8 kAV [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . Standard characteristic curve for cos(P ) [5]. . . . . . . . . . IEEE 9-Bus System with 3 Synchronous Machines . . . . . . Grid Model of Vsters, Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simplied Diagram of an Equivalent Circuit for a Solar Cell [6] Characteristic curves I = f (V ) and P = f (V ) of a monocrystalline silicon solar cell with a cell area of approximately 102 cm2 , irradiance amounting to 1 kW/m2 and 25C cell temperature [6] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic Principle of a Grid-Connected PV System [7] . . . Current Source Mode of Static Generator [8] . . . . . . . . . . Input/Output Denition of a Static Generator (PV) in Current Source Model [8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Model of PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modied Steam Turbine Governor TGOV1 . . . . . . . . . . Modied Steam Turbine Governor HYGOV . . . . . . . . . . Model the Secondary Frequency Control of Single Area . . . . xiii 4 5

6 7 9

2.4 2.5 2.6

10 11 11 14 16 17

2.7 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3

17 17 18 18 20 23 24 27

xiv 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.2 5.3

LIST OF FIGURES Secondary Controller Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active Power Reduction Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vdc Controller Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PV Systems on Low Voltage Level of Vsters Grid Model . . Aggregated PV Power Plant on the Transmission Level of WCSS Active Power Reduction of the Load A which is 10% of Total Load and the Frequency Response of the System with Unlimited Primary Frequency Control Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary and Secondary Control Part of the Thermal Governor TGOV1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overfrequency Simulation: 10% of Load Reduction, 30% PV Share with Automatic Disconnection Function at 50 Hz and unlimited Primary Frequency Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . Automatic Disconnection DIN VDE 0126-1-1: (a) Unlimited Primary Control Reserve (PCR) (b) 20% PCR (c) 15% PCR (d) 10% PCR (e) 7.5% PCR (f) 5% PCR (g) 2.5% PCR (h) 1% PCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristic Curve for Active Power of PV systems according to VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08; P_M is Active Power of MPPT Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speed Droop Characteristic Curve Area of a PV System . . . Speed Droop Characteristic Curves of Synchronous Machines and PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximal Frequency Response in Case of Overfrequency for Dierent Primary Control Reserves and PV Shares . . . . . . Frequency Response (a) 12.5% Primary Frequecy Reserve(PCR) (b) 10% PCR (c) 7.5% PCR (d) 5% PCR (e) 2.5% PCR (f) 1% PCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximal Frequency Response in Case of Overfrequency for Dierent Primary Control Reserves and PV Shares with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.15 Hz. . . . . . . . . . . Maximal Frequency Response in Case of Overfrequency for Dierent Primary Control Reserves and PV Shares with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.10 Hz. . . . . . . . . . . PV . . . PV . . . PV . . . PV . . . 27 27 28 32 33

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40 41 43 44

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A.1 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-50% Share, unlimited Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . A.2 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-40% Share, 20% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . A.3 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-30% Share, 15% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . A.4 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-20% Share, 10% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . .

51 52 52 53

LIST OF FIGURES A.5 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-20% PV Share, 7.5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.6 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-20% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.7 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10% PV Share, 2.5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.8 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10% PV Share, 1% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.9 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 30% PV Share, Unlimited Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.10 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 20% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.11 Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 30% PV Share, 15% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.12 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, unlimited Primary Control Reserves . . . . A.13 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 10% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . A.14 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 7.5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . A.15 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . A.16 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 2.5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . A.17 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 1% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . A.18 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 40% PV Share, 7.5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . A.19 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 40% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . . . A.20 Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 40% PV Share, 2.5% Primary Control Reserves . . . . . . . .

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LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1

Introduction
Nowadays the Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are becoming one of the central topics of energy supply and energy politics in developed and emerging countries. Encouraged by subsidies in west European countries the capacity of solar and wind energy is increasing. Especially the installed capacity of Photovoltaic (PV) systems has grown rapidly in the last years. The leading countries in Europe are Germany, Italy and Spain. By the end of the year 2012 Germany had a capacity of 32.8 GWp of PV systems [9]. More than 75% of the installed capacity of PV systems in Germany is decentralized. The decentralized PV systems are connected to the distribution grid level. Since on good sunny days high injections of decentralized PV systems are possible, the question how they inuence the grid stability is of interest. The decentralized PV systems are in general not controllable. In case of a big fault in the grid the PV systems in Germany have to obey regulations. Currently the PV system inverters have settings corresponding to two regulations, the current one and the predecessor one. The new PV systems which have been installed after November 2012 have the setting corresponding to the current regulation while the old PV systems have the setting corresponding to the predecessor regulation.

Goals and Structure of this Thesis

In this masters thesis the frequency stability of a system in terms of high PV penetration with both regulations was analyzed. Particularly the frequency response of the system with dierent PV shares and dierent regulations was tested. Mainly, in this study the following questions were pursued: How much PV share can a system with the old regulation withstand? Is the system more stable with the new regulation? Which kind of stability problems could occur with the new regulation? 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Further, the potential of the frequency stability support by decentralized PV systems was analyzed and discussed. This masters thesis report is structured as follows: in Chapter 2 the German regulations for grid-connected decentralized PV systems are introduced in Chapter 3 the methods of the study and the used models of electric power grid are explained in Chapter 4 the implementation of the control units is presented in Chapter 5 the conducted simulations are described and the simulation results are discussed.

Chapter 2

Regulations in Germany
In this chapter the information about PV systems in Germany is given and the regulations for grid-connected decentralized PV system and the problems of it are introduced.

2.1

Photovoltaic in Germany

Germany is currently ranked among the worlds largest producers of electricity from solar power [9, 10]. Energy production from PV in year 2011 was 24.73 TWh[9], which was around 4.12 % of total electric energy demand of Germany [11]. With an installed PV capacity of 32.8 GWp at the end of 2012, Germany is the leading country by installed PV capacity [9]. If we compare it with around 65 GW peak demand of Germany the installed PV capacity of 32.8 GWp is notable substantial. Comparing to all other power generating units PV systems have no rotating mass and do not contribute to the total system inertia. In case of a frequency disturbance the PV systems cannot absorb or release energy in a natural way like rotating masses [12]. Solar panels are connected through power inverters, which convert the direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC), with or without transformation to the public electric grid. According to the German grid code all to the grid connected PV systems have to be equipped with a mechanism, which contribute to the stabilization of the system in emergency situation [13, 14]. This is explained in Section 2.2. In terms of controllability we distinguish two kinds of PV systems: controllable and non-controllable. The controllable PV system has to follow the reference signal, which is sent by a central authority (TSO, DSO, energy producer). Communication between (remote control) PV systems and a central authority is possible, so 3

CHAPTER 2. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY

that the central authority is informed about the current energy production of the PV systems and can send a reference signal. In case of the controllable PV systems active and reactive power control is possible. Usually the controllable PV systems are large scale PV parks installed on middle voltage level and operated by energy supply companies [7]. The non-controllable PV systems have no communication capabilities. They operate preferably at Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) mode and do not provide or consume reactive power for local voltage control. More details about MPPT mode is explained in Section 3.2.1. Usually the noncontrollable PV systems have small power capacity and are installed on the roofs of residual houses and companies. The controllable PV systems are usually installed on medium and high voltage level (> 0.4 kV) and the non-controllable PV systems on a low voltage ( 0.4 kV). However 73 % of all installed capacity of PV systems are on low voltage level [15]. According to the data provided by Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Sonnenenergie e.V. (DGS), by the end of the year 2011 the 18.67 GW of total installed PV capacity 24.46 GW are on distribution voltage level and the rest of 5.79 GW on transmission voltage level [15]. The relation of voltage levels are illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Installed Capacity of PVs in GW by Voltage Level.

On the sunny days the injection of over 20 GW power during the peak hours (12:00 - 14:00) is theoretically possible. In Figure 2.2 we can observe the PV power curve the day with maximum solar energy production of the year 2012. At 13:30 of this day all PV generators of Germany produce 21.1 GW [3]. That would be 32.5 % of power demand, if we assume 65 GW of peak demand in Germany. With the facts and data presented above we conclude that the noncontrollable PV systems installed on low voltage levels levels can be signicant for the stable and secure operation of the whole interconnected system. In the case of Germany, regulations for the secure operation were set. With a rapid rise of installed PV systems capacity over the last years the regulations continuously were adjusted.

2.2. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY BEFORE NOVEMBER 2011

Figure 2.2: Maximal PV Power Production of Germany of the Year 2012 at 13:30 on March 25th [3].

2.2

Regulations in Germany before November 2011

As mentioned in Section 2.1 the PV systems on the low voltage level are remotely not controllable, which is not the case for PV systems installed on the transmission voltage level. Since 76.3 % of the total installed capacity in Germany is installed on the distribution grid level, in this masters thesis we focus on PV systems on the distribution grid level. From now when we refer to PV systems we mean always remotely non-controllable PV systems on distribution grid level. In the year the 2001 installed capacity of PV system was negligibly small compared to other power generating units [9]. In the 4th edition of Regulation for Distributed Power Generation Systems on Low Voltage Level by VDEW [16], which was published in May 2001, there is no technical requirements for PV systems to control frequency and voltage. The PV systems operated at MPPT-mode with power factor 1, which means there was no reactive power support for local voltage stability.

2.2.1

Automatic Disconnection

Caused by the increase of the PV systems in Germany between 2001 and 2005, in May 2005 the regulations [16] were reviewed and supplemented with DIN VDE 0126-1-1 [13] industry standard. According to this standard all PV systems should be able to disconnect automatically if voltage or frequency reach certain operating points [13]. The new operations requirements, which are relevant for this masters thesis, are listed below: Automatic disconnection within 0.2 s from the grid if system frequency is under 47.5 Hz and over 50.2 Hz Automatic disconnection within 0.2 s from the bus if bus voltage is under 0.8 p.u. and over 1.15 p.u After a disconnection, which is caused by overfrequency, a reconnection is allowed at least after 30 s if the system frequency is under 50.05 Hz.

CHAPTER 2. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY The increase of active power feed after the reconnection has to occur stepwise. Each step should not exceed 10 % of maximum power.

Almost instantaneous disconnection supposes to support the primary control of the system to stop frequency increase. To avoid re-rise of the frequency after the reconnection, the PV systems have to wait until the frequency is stabilized and increase the active power in-feed. In Figure 2.3 an example of overfrequency and the active power feed of an aggregated PV system is illustrated. In Chapter 5 the simulations are described in detail, therefore we do not explain the details of the plot.

Figure 2.3: An expample of disconnection and active power feed of an aggregated PV system, which follows the DIN VDE 0126-1-1 version Mai 2005 industry standard.

2.2.2

50.2 Hertz Problem

Advantaged through EEG (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz: German Renewable Energy Act) the installed capacity of PV power plants in Germany were growing continuously [4]. Already at the end of the year 2010 12.7 GW cumulative capacity of PV systems were installed on the low voltage level [4]. The regulation of the year 2005 on automatic disconnection was not suitable anymore. Theoretically, if the frequency goes over 50.2 Hz the loss of 12.7 GW generation was possible, which can lead to big stability problems. A possible worst case scenario could occur as follows [17]: Germany exports 3 GW power to Italy over Switzerland For some reasons the transmission lines between Switzerland and Italy fail All other transmission lines to Italy are overloaded After certain time Italy is cut o (load shedding) from the synchronous area

2.2. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY BEFORE NOVEMBER 2011

Instantaneously Germany has overproduction, which leads to frequency rise over 50.2 Hz 9 GW of PV systems are disconnected from the grid, which leads to frequency fall under 47.5 Hz Following the regulations (disconnection at 47.5 Hz, other decentralized power plants (wind energy, biogas, small hydro power plants) are disconnected from grid, which leads to more frequency fall Primary control is not able to control the frequency and the system collapses In the introduced worst case scenario are the automatic disconnection of other decentralized power plants at frequency < 49.5 Hz is considered. Even if we neglect this disconnection at underfrequency there could occur another stability problem. After the disconnection at 50.2 Hz the system will be stabilized. 30 s after the stabilization all disconnected PV systems will be reconnected and start to increase the active power feeds. If the injected active power after the reconnection is large and and if primary and secondary control reserves are not sucient, the frequency rise the frequency will achieve repeatedly 50.2 Hz and the decentralized PV systems will be disconnected again. In this way we can have a frequency pendulum [17]. In Chapter 5 this phenomenon is investigated. In Figure 2.4 such kind of frequency pendulum is illustrated.

Figure 2.4: Frequency Pendulum caused by Disconnection and Reconnection on Grid with high PV Power Penetration Under normal conditions the frequency deviation over 0.2 Hz is unlikely. However, under unexpected large-scale disturbance big frequency deviations are possible. For example the blackout in Italy in 2003 and the European power grid failure in 2006 [18, 19]. Increasing of uctuating energy sources like wind and solar also inuence the frequency deviation, for example suddenly increase of wind or sun radiation. Newly, hourly traded energy causes hourly re-dispatch of power plants which leads to big frequency deviations at each hour [20].

CHAPTER 2. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY PV Systems Installed after mid. Nov. 2011 Installed before mid. Nov. 2011 with rated power > 100 kW Installed before mid. Nov. 2011 with rated power between 30 kW and 100 kW Installed before mid. Nov. 2011 with rated power < 30 kW Time Deadline fulll the new requirements (retrotting is not necessery) August 31st 2013 May 31st 2014 December 31st 2014

Table 2.1: Timeline for Retrotting of PV Systems

2.3

Regulations in Germany after November 2011

The German new technical requirements for power generation systems connected to the low-voltage distribution network (VDE-AR-N 4105:2011-08 [5]) are valid from January 1st 2012. All new PV systems have to follow the new regulations and all old PV has to be retrotted. According to [17] by the end of the year 2014 all PV systems on low voltage have to be retrotted. In Table 2.1 the retrotting time schedule for dierent PV systems are listed.

2.3.1

Active Power

Generation Management and Grid Safety Power generation systems with maximum power of > 100 kW have to be able to reduce the active power feed stepwise in maximal 10 % of maximum active power. The power reduction reference signal is sent by Distribution System Operator (DSO) and the power generation system has to react immediately. The allowed maximum time delay is 1 minute. The DSO has no remote access to the controller devices (inverter) of the power generation system. Active Power Feed at Overfrequency At frequencies between 50.2 Hz and 51.5 Hz all (decentralized) controllable power generation systems have to decrease the momentary active power feed PM with gradient of 40 % per Hz during rise of the frequency and increase during the drop of the frequency. Following equation describes the active power reduction for this case 50.2 Hz fGrid for 50.2 Hz fGrid 51.5 Hz (2.1) 50 Hz where PM is momentary active power and the fGrid is the measured grid frequency. In Figure 2.5 power curve characteristic in dependence of frequency is presented. P = 20 PM

2.3. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY AFTER NOVEMBER 2011

Figure 2.5: Decrease of active power feed at overfrequency between 50.2 Hz and 51.5 Hz [4]. If the system frequency reaches the point > 51.5 Hz the power generating system has to be disconnected from grid. Non-controllable power generation systems in case of over frequency between 50.2 Hz and 51.5 Hz, alternatively to decreasing of power, can be disconnected from grid. In this case the switching-o frequency steps has to be maximum 0.1 Hz. Partly controllable power generation systems, for example controllable only in the range from 70% to 100% of maximal installed power, has to follow characteristic curve in the controllable region. Outside of the controllable region the power generating systems have to be disconnected stepwise. Active Power Feed at Underfrequency At system frequency between 47.5 Hz and 50.0 Hz automatic disconnection from grid is forbidden. At system frequency under 47.5 Hz the power generation system has to be disconnected from grid.

2.3.2

Reactive Power

The regulations concerning reactive power generation/absorption and support of voltage stability depend on the installed maximal power of the PV systems. A small PV system on low voltage with total maximal power SE max 3.68 kVA has to follow the Requirements for the connection of micro-generators in parallel with public low-voltage distribution networks DIN EN 50438 [21]. According to [21] this kind of small generation unit has to keep the power factor between 0.95 overexcited and 0.95 underexcited, if the power production is over 20% of the maximal power. There is no given specication by DSO as long as the tolerance of power factor is kept. In Figure 2.6 the power factor area is presented. If the power production is below 20% of the maximal power, there are no restrictions for the power factor [21]. A PV system with total maximal power S between 3.68 kVA and 13.8 kVA has to fulll the requirements of VDE-AR-N 4105:2011-08 [5]. According to [5] the generation units in this range have to provide the reactive power with power factor between 0.95 overexcited and 0.95 underexcited, if the power production is over 20% of the maximal power [5]. The power factor has to follow a characteristic curve provided by the DSO. In case of power

10

CHAPTER 2. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY

production under 20% of the maximal power there is no restriction for the power factor. In Figure 2.6 the power factor area is illustrated. In Figure 2.8 a standard characteristic curve for power factory is shown. A PV system with total maximal power SE max > 13.8 kVA has to fulll the requirements of VDE-AR-N 4105:2011-08 [5] as well. The regulations for generation units in this range are the same as for the generation units with maximal power S between 3.68 kAV and 13.8 kAV, which was described ahead. The only dierence is, the power factor range is between 0.90 overexcited and 0.90 underexcited. This power factor area is illustrated in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.6: 1. Provision of reactive power by a distributed generator with maximum power 3.68 kAV < SE max 13.8 kAV: the gray zone [5].

2.3. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY AFTER NOVEMBER 2011

11

Figure 2.7: Provision of reactive power by a distributed generator with maximum power SE max > 13.8 kAV [5].

Figure 2.8: Standard characteristic curve for cos(P ) [5].

12

CHAPTER 2. REGULATIONS IN GERMANY

Chapter 3

Modeling of Grid
In this chapter the modeling of the grid and the PV systems is presented. Further, the modeling environment is shortly introduced.

3.1

Model of the Grids

For the simulations of the dynamics the PowerFactory Version 14 by DIgSILENT was used. PowerFactory is one of the standard softwares for power systems modeling, analysis and simulation, which is widely used in the electric energy sector [22]. PowerFactory has a library with IEEE standard models for generation, transmission and distribution level, including renewable energy sources like wind and solar. It has a graphical editor for block diagram denition as well as own programming language DSL (DIgSILENT Simulation Language).

3.1.1

IEEE 9 Bus Grid Model

For the study we use IEEE 9-Bus standard system, which represents the scaled West System Coordination Council (WSCC), the western states of the USA. The IEEE 9-Bus model has 3 synchronous generators, 3 cumulated loads and 6 lines. In Figure 3.1 the grid model is illustrated. The main parameters of the generators were adjusted and are listed in Table 3.1. The system has peak demand of 315 MW. Active and reactive peak demand of each load are listed in Table 3.2. The lines specications were taken from the standard model and are listed in Table 3.3. The model was chosen mainly to investigate the frequency stability. The governors of the machines and control systems of the model are introduced in Chapter 4.

3.1.2

Distribution Grid Model of Vsters

In order to consider besides the frequency stability also the voltage stability on the distribution grid level the IEEE 9-Bus model was extended with 13

14

CHAPTER 3. MODELING OF GRID

Figure 3.1: IEEE 9-Bus System with 3 Synchronous Machines

G1 G2 G3

Smax [MVA] 192.00 192.00 128.00

Vnom [kV] 16.50 18.00 13.80

H [s] 6.50 6.50 2.50

Table 3.1: Specications of the Generators

Load A Load B Load C

P [MW] 125.00 90.00 100.00

Q [MVar] 50.00 30.00 35.00

Table 3.2: Maximal Demand of the Loads

3.2. MODEL OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS l [km] 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Imax [kA] 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Z [] 45.275 45.275 38.353 53.694 92.266 49.492 R [] 5.290 5.290 4.497 6.295 20.631 8.993 X [] 44.965 44.965 38.088 53.323 89.930 48.668 (Z ) [deg] 83.290 83.290 83.267 83.267 77.079 79.531

15 x/r-ratio 8.500 8.500 8.471 8.471 4.359 5.412

Line1 Line2 Line3 Line4 Line5 Line6

Table 3.3: Specications of the Lines detailed distribution grid. Consider the grid model in Figure 3.2. The model represents one part of the city Vsters in Sweden. The middle voltage level of the grid is 11 kV. The distribution grid is connected to the Bus 5 of bigger IEEE 9-Bus grid with two 11kV/230kV transformers. On middle voltage we have a small PV park with the installed capacity of 5 MW connected. The PV park is similar to a real PV park by ABB in Totana in the south east of Spain [23]. On the bottom of Figure 3.2 we have 2 low voltage parts with nominal voltage of 0.4 kV. On this part the residual PV systems are installed, which will be presented in Chapter 5. The x/r-ratios of the lines are between 1 and 3, which mean that the reactive power as well as active power has inuence to the bus voltages. Here, the r represents the resistance and the x the reactance. With the x/r-ratio it can be determined whether the transmission losses are more real or reactive. The cumulative demand of the loads is 14.1248 MW.

3.2
3.2.1

Model of the Photovoltaic Systems

Introduction to PV Systems

The basic component of the PV systems is a solar cell. The energy is produced by solar cells using a photovoltaic eect. In Figure 3.3 the simplied diagram of an equivalent circuit for a solar cell is illustrated. Further information about solar cells and the photovoltaic eect can be found in Chapter 3 of the [6]. Each type of solar cell has its own current-voltage (I-V) characteristic curve. Depending on material, solar irradiation and temperature the I-V curve of a solar cell varies. The Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a control method of an operation point that maximum power can be generated. The MPPT-controller sets optimal current and voltage for the operating I-V curve. In Figure 3.4 example of a I-V curve and according MPPT operational point is illustrated. We distinguish two types of PV systems application: stand-alone PV systems and

16

CHAPTER 3. MODELING OF GRID

Figure 3.2: Grid Model of Vsters, Sweden

3.2. MODEL OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

17

Figure 3.3: Simplied Diagram of an Equivalent Circuit for a Solar Cell [6]

Figure 3.4: Characteristic curves I = f (V ) and P = f (V ) of a monocrystalline silicon solar cell with a cell area of approximately 102 cm2 , irradiance amounting to 1 kW/m2 and 25C cell temperature [6] grid-connected PV systems [7]. The stand-alone PV systems have peak power up to several kilowatts and are not connected to the electric grid [7]. The generated power is used locally directly by the consumer. Usually the stand-alone PV systems have a local storage to store surplus energy. Further, the storage device supports controlled output power.

Figure 3.5: Schematic Principle of a Grid-Connected PV System [7] The grid-connected PV systems are connected to the public electricity grid through DC/AC inverter [7]. In Figure 3.5 a schematic principle of a grid-connected PV system is illustrated. There are two kinds of gridconnected PV systems: central grid-connected PV systems and

18

CHAPTER 3. MODELING OF GRID decentralized grid-connected PV systems [6].

The centralized grid-connected PV systems are big power plants in rural areas. This kind of PV systems feed power directly to middle voltage or high voltage level. The decentralized grid-connected PV systems are usually small power range. Mostly they are installed on the roofs of residential houses and company buildings [7]. This kind of PV systems are connected to the low voltage grid. As mentioned in Chapter 2 75% of total installed PV capacity are decentralized and connected to the low voltage level. In this masters thesis the focus will be on decentralized grid-connected PV systems. Further, the MPPT operation for all PV systems will be assumed.

3.2.2

Static Generator as Current Source Model

One of the standard models of DIgSILENT called Static Generator was used for the PV power plants. The Static Generator Model is suitable for nonrotating generators. For PV systems model buildup the current source mode was chosen. The circuit layout of the current source model is illustrated in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Current Source Mode of Static Generator [8]

Figure 3.7: Input/Output Denition of a Static Generator (PV) in Current Source Model [8] Consider the input/output denition of the current source model in Figure 3.7. To understand the relation between the Static Generators current source model and active and reactive power following derivations are pre-

3.2. MODEL OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS sented. According to the model the current i1 is i1 = id_ref cos(u) iq_ref sin(u) + + j id_ref sin(u) iq_ref cos(u) = = id_ref e and the output voltage u1 is u1 = |u1| cos(u) + j |u1| sin(u) = |u1| eju with cos(u) = cos ref and sin(u) = sin ref. Consequently, the output power of the static generator is S = U I = |u1| id_ref j |u1| iq_ref and the active and the reactive powers can be read out as follows P = |u1| id_ref Q = |u1| iq_ref .
ju

19

(3.1)

+ j iq_ref e

ju

(3.2)

(3.3)

(3.4)

(3.5)

We conclude that the active power feed of PV power plant models can be controlled with the reference signal id_ref and the reactive power feed with reference signal iq_ref , if we assume constant bus voltage u1. Both reference signals are dened in per unit (p.u.).

3.2.3

Model of Photovoltaic Power Generating Systems

The composite frame of the PV systems is presented in Figure 3.8 and will be denoted as PV Frame. The basic frame was provided by ABB Research Corporate Sweden. The PV Frame consists of PV Module Model Four blocks for measurement Static Generator block Active Power Reduction block Vdc Controller

20

CHAPTER 3. MODELING OF GRID

Figure 3.8: Model of PV Systems The Active Power Reduction and Vdc Controller was modied and adjusted for this master thesis. The PV Module Model block represents the PV panels itself. It has a certain maximal power and the signal p_pv corresponds to the MPPT mode power production. Since the run-time of the simulations only 200 s, in our model the p_pv is constant. In the PV Frame we have four blocks for measurement of bus voltage, local electric frequency, feed of active and reactive power, phases. This measurement tools send signal to the controlling blocks of the PV Frame. The Static Generator block represents the input slots of the Static Generator Model, which was explained in Section 3.2.2. It receives reference signals from Vdc Controller and adjusts the active and reactive power feed to the bus. The Active Power Reduction Block is for controlling active power. It receives frequency measurement value, checks a certain conditions and sends a reduction signal to the Vdc Controller. The active power condition refers to one of the used regulation, which are discussed in Chapter 2. The structure and the functionality of this block will be explained more detailed in the controlling part of this thesis in Chapter 4. The Vdc Controller block is the main control block of the PV Frame. It processes all signals received from other blocks processes and sends the reference signals for the Static Generators. This block will be explained in detail as well in Chapter 4.

Chapter 4

Model of the Control Units

In this chapter the primary and the secondary control of the modeled grid as well as the models of the PV control units are introduced.

4.1
4.1.1

Frequency Control
Inertia of the System

In our IEEE 9 bus grid model we have 3 generators with rotating mass. Under normal conditions all 3 machines operate synchronously. In case of disbalance between the power generation and production the system frequency will deviate from the nominal value (50 Hz in Europe) and the machines will accelerate or decelerate. A reacting control mechanism almost instantaneously after disturbance is inertia of system. All machines with rotating mass (generators and motors) have inertia, which in case of frequency deviation can inject or absorb energy. The immediate reaction is called inertia response. Inertia response is natural. The inertia of a machine can be expresses with so called inertia constant. Typical inertia constants of synchronous machines are presented in Table 4.1. Types of Synchronous Machine Thermal Power Steam Turbine Gas Turbine Hydro Power Slow (< 200min1 ) Fast ( 200min1 ) Inertia Constant H (s) 4-9 7-10 2-3 2-4

Table 4.1: Typical values of inertia constant H for dierent types of synchronous machines [1] 21

22 Generator G1 G2 G3

CHAPTER 4. MODEL OF THE CONTROL UNITS Type Steam Steam Hydro Rated Power S [MVA] 192 192 128 Inertia Constant H [s] 6.5 6.5 2.5

Table 4.2: Inertia Constants of the Synchronous Machines We consider the examples in Table 4.1 and set the reasonable values to inertia constants of the synchronous machines of our model. Since the G1 and the G2 are steam generators and have the same rated power, we set the average of the typical values 6.5 s. The G3 is a slow hydro power plant. We set there the value 2.5 s. In Table 4.2 the inertia constants are listed.

4.1.2

Primary Frequency Control

Large scale faults in the systems cause very fast frequency droop or rise. This could be for example generator outage, load shedding or outage of a large transmission line. The fastest control action which will be activated is the primary frequency control (inertia response is a natural reaction). The purpose of the primary frequency control is to keep the frequency within a suitable range. A primary frequency control consists of several power plants. All in primary control participating power plants have controllers, so called governors, which measure local frequency and adapt the power production within few seconds. The primary controllers are purely proportional (PController) and follow the settled speed droop characteristic, which will be denoted as Si . Typical speed droop characteristics are between 0.04 p.u. and 0.06 p.u. The gain of the P-Controllers has the following relation to the speed droop characteristic Kprim,i = 1 Si i = 1, . . . , n (4.1)

where the index i denotes the number of the generator. If we assume a constant operational point of the generators, since the time constant of primary control fairly small compared to the frequency dynamics of the system [1], we will have following dynamic characteristic of the primary control action, i.e. change of power production Pi = Kprim,i f = 1 f Si (4.2)

and the total power generation response of the primary frequency control of the system is n n 1 P = Pi = f. (4.3) Si
i=1 i=1

4.1. FREQUENCY CONTROL

23

Figure 4.1: Modied Steam Turbine Governor TGOV1 consequently we obtain the overall speed droop characteristic of the system 1 = S
n i=1

1 Si

(4.4)

In our model all 3 synchronous machine participate in the primary frequency control. For both steam turbines IEEE governor model TGOV1 and for the hydro turbine the IEEE governor model HYGOV were selected. In order to limit the primary control reserves of each synchronous machines the standard structures of the governors were modied. In Figure 4.1 and 4.2 the block diagrams of modied governor models are illustrated. Consider the steam turbine governor model in Figure 4.1. The input1 on the slot 2 is the local frequency measurement and slot 3 ref is the constant nominal frequency. Consequently the sum of those two d is local frequency deviation. This frequency deviation signal goes to the gain-block 1/K with lim. The parameter R corresponds to the speed droop characteristic S . The lower and upper bounds pmin and pmax are the limitation for the primary reserve of the generator. The output of this gain-block o13 is the primary frequency control response. This signal will be added to the secondary frequency response, which will be explained in the next subsection, and will be sent to the turbine controller over several blocks. The hydro turbine governor HYGOVs primary controller has operational principle like TGOV1 - local frequency measurement and gain-block with limits. Consider Figure 4.2. The major dierence is that the primary controller gain-block is in the loop.
1

green slot = input, red slot = output

24

CHAPTER 4. MODEL OF THE CONTROL UNITS

Figure 4.2: Modied Steam Turbine Governor HYGOV

4.1.3

Secondary Frequency Control

The primary frequency control consists of purely proportional controllers. The frequency measurement and control action occurs local at the generator. After the primary frequency action there will be still frequency deviation, so called Area Control Error (ACE). To eliminate this ACE in addition to the primary frequency controller a further controller is needed. The purpose of the secondary frequency controller is to bring the system frequency back to the nominal value. The secondary frequency controller is coordinated centrally and responsible for balancing unscheduled power deviations within a certain control area. Usually it is performed by the Transmission System Operator (TSO). The controller measures the control area frequency. It consists of one central controller with Proportional-Integrator (PI-Controller). Lets assume n generators are participating in the secondary control. The output of the controller will be split to the n parts and will be sent to the generators. Since there is only one central PI-Controller, there is no negative interaction between controllers and the ACE can be eliminated. The secondary frequency controller balances the unscheduled inter-area exchanges. Since we have a single area system, this aspect is not of interest. In our WSCC grid model two of three machines are providing secondary control reserves, one steam (G2) and one hydro (G3) generator. For this purpose a secondary frequency controller was implemented. Consider Figure 4.3. Since we have a small scaled grid the frequency measurement was simplied.

4.2. CONTROLLING OF THE PV-GENERATOR Parameter T3 T2 At Dt R K T1 PN Vmin Vmax pmin pmax Description Turbine Delay Time Constant Turbine Derivative Time Constant Turbine power coecient Frictional Losses Factor Controller Droop Secondary Gain Governor Time Constant Turbine Rated Power Minimum Gate Limit Maximum Gate Limit Lower Bound Primary Reserve Upper bound Primary Reserve Value 2 1 1 0 0.05 0.075 0.2 192 0 1 0 1 Unit [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu] [s] [MW] [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu]

25

Table 4.3: Parameter values of Steam Turbine Governor TGOV1 for the Machines G1 and G2 The measurement block Slow Frequency Measurment measures frequency on the Bus 5 (PQ - Bus), which has no connected synchronous machine or PV system. The frequency measurement signal goes to the Secondary Controller block, where the ACE will be processed. The output signal delta_P is the resulting ACE, which will be split by the Spliter and sent to the generators G2 and G3. The Spliter has adjustable ratio of generators. The default ratio is set at 0.5:0.5, which means that the 50% of secondary reserve provision is covered by G2 and 50% by G3. Consider Figure 4.4, where the inner structure of the Secondary Controller block is illustrated. As mentioned above, the input is the frequency measurement Fmeas. The signal goes trough the rst block, which is the rst order delay (PT1). We need PT1 to ensure that the secondary control is slower than the primary control. The block bias calculates the frequency deviation from the nominal value and has a gain B , so called secondary frequency bias. ACE = B f (4.5)

After the block bias we have a second PT1-element to ensure the smooth curve, which will be sent to the next block K+1/sT. The last block is a PI-Controller. The main parameters of the secondary frequency controller are listed in Table 4.5.

4.2

Controlling of the PV-Generator

The regulations for decentralized distributing generation on low voltage level were explained in Chapter 2. The inverters of PV units have to be able to fol-

26 Parameter r Tr Tf Tg Tw At Dturb qnl R PN Gmin Gmax Velm pmin pmax

CHAPTER 4. MODEL OF THE CONTROL UNITS Description Temporary Droop Governor Time Constant Filter Time Constant Servo Time Constant Water Starting Time Turbine Gain frictional losses factor pu No Load Flow Permanent Droop Turbine Rated Power Minimum Gate Limit Maximum Gate Limit Gate Velocity Limit Lower Bound Primary Reserve Upper bound Primary Reserve Value 0.1 10 0.1 0.5 1 1 0.01 0.01 0.05 128 0 1 0.15 0 1 Unit [pu] [s] [s] [s] [s] [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu] [MW] [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu]

Table 4.4: Parameter values of Hydro Turbine Governor HYGOV for the Machines G3 low this operational requirements. In Chapter 3 the model of PV system was introduced. Consider Figure 3.8. The blocks Active Power Reduction and Vdc Controller the most relevant part of the systems, which are important for the controlling issues.

4.2.1

Active Power Reduction

The block Active Power Reduction checks a certain frequency condition and sends the reduction signal to the Vdc Controller. In Figure 4.5 the structure of Active Power Reduction is illustrated. It receives the frequency measurement signal as input. After the PT1-element we have a Overfreuency Power Reduction block. In this unit the active power reduction conditions are integrated. The conditions and the output were programmed in DSL. Two dierent conditions were implemented which refers to the: Switch o at 50.2 Hz (the old regulation) Reduce active power according to the characteristic at Figure 2.5 (the new regulation)

4.2.2

Active Power Control

Consider the structure of the Vdc Controller block in Figure 4.6. The block K(1+1/sT) controls the active power of PV power plant. This block will be

4.2. CONTROLLING OF THE PV-GENERATOR

27

Figure 4.3: Model the Secondary Frequency Control of Single Area

Figure 4.4: Secondary Controller Block

Figure 4.5: Active Power Reduction Block

denoted as active power controller. It has two inputs. The dpd is change signal of the active power and the pred is a power reduction factor. The active power change signal change can be caused by solar radiation change, change of the feeding bus voltage or manual settings of the active power. Since the simulations will be done for a short time periods (up to 2 minutes), the solar radiation change will be neglected and the active power feed will be kept on constant operational point. The bus voltage changes are reasonable during that short time. To keep the active power generation constant the d-axis current will be adjusted by the active power control. The pred signal can be between 0 and 1. The output of the active power controller id will be

28 Parameter K T T1 T2 f _nom bias deltaf_down deltaf_up y _min y _max

CHAPTER 4. MODEL OF THE CONTROL UNITS Description gain of PI-Element time constant of PI-Element time constant of rst PT1-Element time constant of second PT1-Element nominal frequency value secondary frequency bias lower bound of PT1-Element upper bound of PT1-Element minimal output ACE maximal output ACE Value 0.15 60 5 5 50 1 -0.05 0.05 -20 20 Unit [s] [s] [s] [Hz] [Hz] [Hz] [MW] [MW]

Table 4.5: Parameter values of Secondary Frequency Control (AGC)

Figure 4.6: Vdc Controller Block multiplied with pred.

4.2.3

Reactive Power Control

The block Reactive Power Support controls the reactive power. The main inputs are bus voltage deviation from the nominal value uac, current producing active power pist and the output of the active power control id. The programming language DLS the reactive power provision in dependence of active power was implemented. As default the standard characteristic curve at Figure 2.8 was selected. However, with small modications another char-

4.2. CONTROLLING OF THE PV-GENERATOR acteristic curves are easily adjustable.

29

30

CHAPTER 4. MODEL OF THE CONTROL UNITS

Chapter 5

Simulations and Results

In this chapter the conducted simulations and their results are described. In order to test the frequency stability under dierent regulations, several an overfrequency was simulated on the grid model.

5.1

PV units on the Grid

In Chapter 3 the grid model was introduced which was used in this masters thesis. Since we want to analyze the behavior of the PV systems and its inuence to the grid stability PV power plants were connected to the dierent voltage levels of the model. Three dierent types of PV systems were installed on the model: Small scale PV systems with installed capacity < 100 kW Medium size PV park with installed capacity of 5 MW Large scale aggregated PV with installed capacity over 20 MW On the low voltage level of the Vsters grid model 11 PV systems with installed capacity between 30 kW and 70 kW were connected. The PV systems on the low voltage level represent the residuals and companys PV systems on the roofs or small commercial PV power plants. The maximal power of this PV systems were chosen in a way that the line capacities could be used fully. The energy production is lager than the own consumption on the nodes and the both low voltage levels result positive energy production. This congurations allow us to replicate the low voltage grid with high PV penetration. In Figure 5.1 the PV systems installed on low voltage level are illustrated. The medium size PV park was installed on Vsters grid model as well. This have installed capacity of 5 MW and it is connected with 0.4 kV/11 kVTransformer to the middle voltage level. The PV park represents a distri31

32

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

bution generation unit, which is located close to the low voltage levels. In Figure 5.1 the connection point of the PV park is marked.

Figure 5.1: PV Systems on Low Voltage Level of Vsters Grid Model On the Vsters grid model we have congurations which are close to the real distribution grid. Since the x/r-ratios are between 1 and 3 the reactive power ows are not neglectable comparing to the transmission level. The inuence of the reactive power on local voltage can be observed. On this part of the model it is suitable to observe voltage stability. In order to observe the inuence of PV systems on the frequency stability we need high PV energy penetration to the system. This was achieved with an aggregated PV power plant, which was connected to the Bus 8

5.2. OVERFREQUENCY CASE STUDY AND PARAMETRIZATION 33

Figure 5.2: Aggregated PV Power Plant on the Transmission Level of WCSS of the WCSS grid. The maximum power of the aggregated PV can be varied between 27 MW and 192 MW, which results the PV shares between 10% and 60% of total peak power consumption of the model. The aggregated PV power plant represents all PV systems outside of the Vsters grid. In Figure 5.2 the model and the connection point of the aggregated PV plant is illustrated. As mentioned in Section 3.2 the DIgSILENT model Static Generator was used. The control components explained in Section 4.2 were used. In order to ensure the regulations described in Chapter 2 dierent control congurations were implemented in DLS programming language. In the following sections the simulations with dierent PV controllers are described.

5.2

Overfrequency Case Study and Parametrization

In order to analyze the frequency stability we have to trigger some faults in the systems. The control actions of the PV systems, according to the regulations explained in Chapter 2, restrict to the frequency area over 50.2 Hz and under 47.5 Hz. Both regulations force the PV systems to instantaneously disconnect from the grid, when the frequency falls below under 47.5 Hz. Therefore in this masters thesis only cases with overfrequecy over 50.2 Hz are of interest. This was achieved with load reduction (step). In Figure 5.3 we see the frequency response in case of reduction 10% of load without any control action of the PV systems. We conclude that in our grid model that the reduction of 10% of the load causes the overfrequecy over 50.2 Hz. In the further simulations reduction of 10% of load will be held constant. In reality this could be a loss of load area or load-shedding.

34

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

Figure 5.3: Active Power Reduction of the Load A which is 10% of Total Load and the Frequency Response of the System with Unlimited Primary Frequency Control Reserve Each governor was modied so that the primary control reverse power of the system can be bounded. This allows us to observe the system behavior for dierent primary control reserves. The modication part of the DIgSILENT PowerFactory model is presented in Figure 5.4. The percentage of the primary control varies depending on size of the system. In the interconnected continental European grid the primary frequency control of 1% of peak demand has to be ensured [24], which is 3000 MW. In Nordic Grid this is 3% and in Icelandic Grid 7% [25, 2]. This percentages are referring to the outage of the largest generating unit [24]. In general we can assume that the bigger the grid is the smaller primary control reserve is needed. The primary control reserve was varied between unlimited and 1% of the peak demand. Unlimited primary control reserve means that the synchronous machines are able to react from the operating point to the maximum and to minimum active power. Primary control of 1% of peak demand is allocated at three synchronous machines proportionally to the rated power. Further, the power generation from the PV systems are varied. The variation allows us to estimate the system behavior both in poor sunny day with less PV penetration and in good sunny day with high PV penetration. The PV share varied from 10% to 60%. This was achived through setting of the rated power and feeding active power of the aggregated PV System, which is connected to the Bus 8 of WCSS grid. Since we are interested in frequency response right after the fault the active power feed of the PV

5.3. AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION DIN VDE 0126-1-1 systems were held constant.

35

Figure 5.4: Primary and Secondary Control Part of the Thermal Governor TGOV1

5.3

Automatic Disconnection DIN VDE 0126-1-1

As mentioned in Section 2.2 according to DIN VDE 0126-1-1 all PV systems on low voltage level have to disconnect within 0.2 s at 50.2 Hz. As explained in Chapter 2.2.2 there is a possible frequency stability problem, the so called 50.2 Hz - problem, which could be caused by the disconnection of PV systems. In case of an overfrequency the worst case could be that the disconnection causes an underfrequency, which could cause a disconnection of other generating units by reaching of lower operation limits. This will cause further underfrequency and possibly a load shedding or even a systems collapse. To avoid this problem a new regulation for new PV systems was introduced and the retrotting of old PV systems started. In Table t:retrotting the time-plan for the retrotting of the old PV systems is presented. Since until end of 2014 there still will be PV systems with automatic disconnection connected to the German public grid, simulation series with PV systems with automatic disconnection function according to DIN VDE 0126-1-1 were conducted. The objectives of the simulations were to quantify the limit of the PV share which can be tolerated by the system,

36

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS to observe and analyze the dynamics of the modeled system and to compare with the new regulation VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08.

5.3.1

Description of the Simulations

The active power control of the PV model was programmed according to DIN VDE 0126-1-1, i.e. automatic disconnection at 50.2 Hz. The reactive power was set constant to zero. This fullls the power factor tolerance area between 0.95 underexcited and 0.95 overexcited. The reconnection of the disconnected PV systems takes place if the frequency is under 50.05 Hz for more than 30 s. After this 30 s the PV systems start to increase the active power linearly until MPPT. The time constant was set to 60 s, i.e. after 30 s the PV systems feed in the maximal active power. The overfrequency was triggered with 10% load reduction according to Figure 5.3. 10 s after the start of the simulations the active power of the Load A will be reduced from 125 MW to 92 MW. This loss is equal to 10% reduction of the total active power demand. As shown in Figure 5.3 this will cause an overfrequency greater than 50.2 Hz. In addition to the frequency response of the generated fault, in order to observe the secondary frequency control, the reconnection of the PV systems and their potential re-disconnection the simulation time was set to 200 s. We assume no big changes of the irradiation during this short time and set the MTTP active power of the PV systems as constant. The dynamic simulations step size was set to 0.01 s which is small enough to observe the eect of the primary control. The series of the simulations consists of 35 simulations. The following parameters were varied: the PV Share from 10% to 60% and the primary frequency control reserve from 1% to maximal available, i.e. from minimal to maximal production of the generating units.

5.3.2

Results of the Simulations

In order to understand the main key points of the simulation the dynamics of an example result will be explained. Consider Figure 5.5. We have there the simulation results of the system with 30% of PV share and unlimited primary frequency control reserve. In the Figure we have the plots of the active powers of the synchronous machines G1, G2 and G3, the plot of the cumulative active power of all PV systems of the model and the plot of the frequency response over time. At the second 10 we see the frequency rise which is caused by the 10% load reduction as

5.3. AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION DIN VDE 0126-1-1

37

well as the negative primary control actions of the synchronous machines. At the point where the frequency reaches 50.2 Hz we observe the disconnection of all PV systems, which causes the underfrequency. After the PV systems disconnections we observe the positve primary control action followed by positive secondary control of G2 and G3. Until the second 42 we see the continuous reduction of the Area Control Error (ACE). Since there is no overfrequency anymore after 30 s of waiting at second 42 the PV systems will be reconnected to the grid and they start to increase the active power. The increasing of the PV systems active power causes the continuous frequency rise which is counter-regulated by the synchronous machines. At the second 102 all PV systems feed in the maximal power by operating in MPPT mode. The frequency rise stops at this point and the ACE will be eliminated by the secondary control. In this case the system is stabilized.

Figure 5.5: Overfrequency Simulation: 10% of Load Reduction, 30% PV Share with Automatic Disconnection Function at 50 Hz and unlimited Primary Frequency Control In Figure 5.6 the frequency responses of the simulations are illustrated. Each sub-gure corresponds to a system with dierent primary frequency

38 PCR unlim. fmax fmin re-discon. fmax fmin rediscon. fmax fmin rediscon. fmax fmin rediscon. fmax fmin rediscon. fmax fmin rediscon. fmax fmin rediscon. fmax fmin rediscon.

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS PV Share 30% 40% 50.1991 50.1986 49.4959 49.2629 no no 50.1991 50.1983 49.2913 45.1906 no yes 50.1991 48.5002 no 50.2001 44.7013 yes -

20%

15%

10%

7.5%

5%

2.5%

1%

10% 50.2008 49.9406 no 50.2008 49.9406 no 50.2008 49.9406 no 50.2007 49.9416 no 50.1983 49.9441 no 50.1988 49.9437 no 50.1979 49.8721 no no conv. no conv. -

20% 50.1995 49.7256 no 50.1995 49.7256 no 50.1995 49.7256 no 50.1998 49.7257 no 50.1994 49.3726 no 50.2009 48.5740 yes 50.2020 47.057 yes -

50% 50.1981 49.0230 no no conv. no conv. -

60% 50.198 48.782 no no conv. no conv. -

Table 5.1: Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Automatic Disconnection of PV Systems control and includes frequency responses for dierent PV shares. In Appendix A.1 the plots in higher resolution are presented. From the plots not shown, the PV shares either have an underfrequency below 47.5 Hz or the simulations have not converged. In Table 5.1 the following characteristics of all simulations are listed: minimal and maximal frequency (Hz) re-disconnection of the PV systems (yes/no). The critical values are marked in red. Obviously, the maximal frequency of all simulations is around 50.2 Hz since all PV systems will be disconnected at this point. We classify the results according to the following 3 types: stable: the frequency does not pass the critical limits and the systems is stabilized

5.3. AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION DIN VDE 0126-1-1

39

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Figure 5.6: Automatic Disconnection DIN VDE 0126-1-1: (a) Unlimited Primary Control Reserve (PCR) (b) 20% PCR (c) 15% PCR (d) 10% PCR (e) 7.5% PCR (f) 5% PCR (g) 2.5% PCR (h) 1% PCR

40

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS unstable: the frequency achieve the critical limit re-disconnection: the PV systems are re-disconnected which causes a frequency swing

5.4
5.4.1

Characteristic Curve VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08

Description of the Simulations

As mentioned in Chapter 2, to avoid the 50 Hz-problem, a new regulation came into eect. The requirements are valid since November 2012 and the retrotting of the old PV systems will be nished by the end of 2014. According to VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08 all decentralized PV systems on low and middle voltage levels have to reduce the active power with a gradient of 40% per Hz between 50.2 Hz and 51.5 Hz [5]. This can be expressed by the following equation P = 20 PM 50.2 Hz fGrid 50 Hz for 50.2 Hz fGrid 51.5 Hz. (5.1)

where PM is the momentary active power (or MPPT). The equation can be rewritten as PPV = 0.4 PM (50.2 Hz fGrid ) for 50.2 Hz fGrid 51.5 Hz. (5.2) Further, at frequencies below 47.5 Hz and over 51.5 Hz the PV systems has to be disconnected from the public electrical grid. The operation ranges can be expresses by the characteristic curve in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7: Characteristic Curve for Active Power of PV systems according to VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08; P_M is Active Power of MPPT Mode In the previous section it was shown that in some cases underfrequency or frequency pendulum problem can occur. Obviously, from Equation 5.3 and

5.4. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08

41

from Figure 5.7 it can be concluded that in the new regulation VDE-ARN4105:2011-08 there is no underfrequency or pendulum problem like in the old regulation DIN VDE 0126-1-1. Moreover, the generation units operating with the new regulation can be considered as a special kind of primary control provider. If we rewrite Equation 5.3 to PPV = 0.4 PM fPV (5.3)

we get the similar form as in Equation 4.3 with speed droop characteristic and frequency deviation as follows SPV = 1 and fPV = 50.2 Hz fGrid . 0.4 PM (5.4)

In order to visualize the speed droop characteristic area of the PV systems, Figure 5.7 can be redrawn as shown in Figure 5.8. The P_PV corresponds to the actual cumulative active power production of all PV systems connected to the grid.

Figure 5.8: Speed Droop Characteristic Curve Area of a PV System From Equations 5.3 and 5.4 we see that the higher the active power injection PM by PV systems, the bigger the contribution to the primary frequency control. This interpretation about speed droop characteristic and primary control shows that in case of overfrequency over 50.2 Hz the systems with more PV systems have lower frequency response than the systems with less PV systems. We expect this observations in the series of simulations which will be presented in the next section. In order to understand the overall dynamics of the systems right after the fault the setting of primary frequency controls will be shortly explained. In Table 5.2 the maximal active power and the controller droop of the synchronous machines are listed. With Equation 5.5 the speed droop characteristic of the synchronous machines can be converted from p.u. to Hz/MW.

42

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS Generator G1 G2 G3 Pmax [MW] 192.0 162.0 108.8 R [p.u] 0.05 0.05 0.05

Table 5.2: Maximal Active Power Pmax and Controller Droop R [p.u] of the Synchronous Machines

f0 R (5.5) Pmax Consequently the speed droop characteristics of the synchronous machines are Hz Hz Hz 1 1 1 S1 = S2 = S3 = . (5.6) 76.8 MW 64.8 MW 43.52 MW With the following equation, which is already explained in Chapter 4, we can calculate the overall speed droop of the synchronous machines1 . S= 1 SSM
n

=
i=1

MW 1 = 185.12 Si Hz

(5.7)

This calculated value of the speed droop is also the overall speed droop characteristic value of the system, when the control area frequency is below 50.2 Hz. If the frequency is over 50.2 Hz the PV systems will contribute to their speed droop. To clarify the dynamics of the simulation environment an example will be shown. We assume a system with 30% active power infeed by PV systems, which in our model is 98.7 MW. The synchronous machines G1, G2 and G3 are dispatched at 99.9 MW, 80.64 MW and 54.16 MW respectively. We have 3.5 MW line losses, which is covered by the slack generator G1. Considering Figure 5.9, the speed droop characteristic SSM on the right side belongs to synchronous machines. The 234.7 MW power is the sum of the initially dispatched values of all synchronous machines. Obviously, this point is located at the nominal frequency value of 50 Hz, since at the begin of the simulation the system is balanced. The speed droop characteristic of the synchronous machines has a slope of 185.12 MW per Hz, which was calculated in Equation 5.7. The primary frequency control reserves will be varied in the same way as in the simulation series in the previous section. The negative primary frequency control limit is shown with the red line. The synchronous machines are able to reduce the active power until this point. Variation of control reserve means shifting of this red line to right and left. The speed droop characteristic SPV belongs to all PV systems connected to the grid. The 98.7 MW is the injected active power in MPPT mode. We
1

the SM in SSM is for Synchronous Machines

5.4. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08

43

Figure 5.9: Speed Droop Characteristic Curves of Synchronous Machines and PV Systems see that until 50.2 Hz there is no droop, which is conform to the VDE-ARN4105:2011-08. Beginning from 50.2 Hz there is a droop with gradient of 40% per Hz. For this specic example the droop characteristic can be calculated with Equation 5.4. SPV = 1 HZ 1 Hz = 0.4 98.7 MW 39.48 MW SPV = (5.8)

1 Hz (5.9) 39.48 MW The graph in Figure 5.9 can be divided into 3 frequency control intervals which are denoted in the graph as I, II and III: {I} up to 50.2 Hz: Primary control is covered by the synchronous machines, {II} between 50.2 Hz and the intersection-point of the primary control limit (red line) and SSM (y ): the primary frequency control is supported by the PV systems {III} between the intersection-point of the primary control limit (red line) and SSM and 51.5 Hz, where all PV systems disconnect: only PV systems cover the primary control. To get a comparison to real control areas in Table 5.3 the maximal primary frequency control reserves and the maximal activation frequency of some synchronous areas of ENTSO-E are shown. The content discussed in this section gives the background to understand the dynamics and results of the simulations in the following subsection. We

44

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS PCR [MW] 3000 1800 560 fmax [mHz] 200 500 500

RG CE RG Nordic RG Ireland

Table 5.3: Primary Frequency Control Reserves and Maximum Activation Frequency [2]

Figure 5.10: Maximal Frequency Response in Case of Overfrequency for Dierent Primary Control Reserves and PV Shares have to keep in mind besides the primary control action there are other minimal inuences from system inertia, time delay of the synchronous machines and secondary frequency control.

5.4.2

Simulation Results with Standard Parameters

In previous subsections the described simulations were conducted. As expected we observe a signicant dierence between the new and the old regulation: there is no underfrequency problem anymore like in the old regulation the PV systems support the primary frequency control. In Figure 5.10 the maximal frequency responses of the systems with different primary frequency control reserves and PV shares are shown. We see

5.4. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08

45

that systems with lower primary frequency control have higher frequency responses, which means that the maximal activation frequency fmax will be reached sooner in the systems with lower PCRmax than in the systems with higher PCRmax . From this point only the PV systems speed droop characteristic controls the frequency. This frequency interval is denoted as {III} in Figure 5.9. In this frequency area we only have the frequency droop SPV from Equation 5.4. From the results in Figure 5.10 and Equation 5.4 we observe that the higher the power injection by PV systems, the lower the speed droop characteristic in the area III and accordingly low are the frequency response. The dierence of primary frequency control support by the PV systems can be observed more clearly in Figure 5.11. We see a clear dierence between the systems with 12.5% and 1% of primary frequency control reserves. In Figure 5.11(a) there are almost no dierences between dierent PV shares, since there are enough primary control reserves and the part where only the PV systems control the frequency very low, while in Figure 5.11(f) are differences signicant. In Appendix A.2.1 in Table A.1 the maximal frequency responses of the simulations are listed.

5.4.3

Variation of Parameters

In order to further estimate the inuence of the new regulations on the frequency stability the droop starting point was varied. Equation 5.3 can be generalized as follows PPV = 0.4 PM (fPV f ), (5.10)

where fPV is the starting point of the linear droop. The simulations from the previous subsection were repeated with values 50.15 Hz and 50.10 Hz for fPV . The maximal frequency responses are shown in Figure ?? and listed in Appendix A.2.1 in Tables A.2 and A.3. If we compare the results of the simulations, we get the following numerical values: the maximal dierence between fPV = 50.2 Hz and fPV = 50.15 Hz was 0.1131 Hz at 10% PV share and 1% PCR the maximal dierence between fPV = 50.2 Hz and fPV = 50.10 Hz was 0.1187 Hz at 10% PV share and 1% PCR. The dierences between these results are more signicant for systems with low primary frequency control. When the primary control of synchronous machines is fully activated, the starting point of the PV systems droop could make a big dierence.

46

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 5.11: Frequency Response (a) 12.5% Primary Frequecy Reserve(PCR) (b) 10% PCR (c) 7.5% PCR (d) 5% PCR (e) 2.5% PCR (f) 1% PCR

5.4. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE VDE-AR-N4105:2011-08

47

Figure 5.12: Maximal Frequency Response in Case of Overfrequency for Dierent Primary Control Reserves and PV Shares with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.15 Hz.

Figure 5.13: Maximal Frequency Response in Case of Overfrequency for Dierent Primary Control Reserves and PV Shares with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.10 Hz.

48

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

Chapter 6

Conclusion
In this masters thesis the inuence of decentralized PV systems on the grid stability was analyzed. The focus was on frequency stability, but the voltage stability constraints were considered in all simulations. The scaled grid model was used with dierent shares of PV systems. The software environment DIgSILENT was chosen in order to conduct the dynamical simulations. The PV systems settings were corresponding to 2 dierent regulations in Germany, the actual one and the preceding one. The main question of this thesis was, how the electric grids are reacting in case of overfrequency. Frequency responses of the systems with dierent primary frequency control reserves were analyzed. In the grid with the preceding regulation the PV systems have to be automatically disconnected from the grid at 50.2 Hz. The numerical values of the PV share where the systems primary control is able to withstand the disconnection of PV systems and the systems frequency could be stabilized, were determined. As expected, a higher PV share needs more primary frequency control reserve. In the actual regulation the PV systems have to reduce the active power infeed with a linear gradient of 40% in the case of an overfrequency greater than 50.2 Hz. It was shown that there are no frequency stability problems. We conclude that in the overfrequency fault case the more PV share the lower the frequency response. The PV systems support the primary frequency control. Further, it was shown that there is a bigger potential of supporting the stability in case of overfrequency with shifting of the speed droop starting point from 50.2 Hz to lower frequency. The used model of the grid is a scaled IEEE 9 bus system with peak demand of 315 MW and with longest line of 1 km. The local frequency measurement dierences on the buses were negligible small. Studies on larger grid models with frequency measurement dierences are reasonable. Further, the model has only two kind of generation units, the thermal synchronous machines and PV systems. In future works other kind of power plants with 49

50

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION

tight constraints of minimal and maximal operation frequency should be considered. Studies about daily based ancillary services provision by PV systems during peak hours with economical evaluation could be done as well.

Appendix A

Simulation Results
A.1 Automatic Disconnection of PV System

Fixed Primary Control Reserves and Variation PV Shares

Figure A.1: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-50% PV Share, unlimited Primary Control Reserves

51

52

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure A.2: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-40% PV Share, 20% Primary Control Reserves

Figure A.3: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-30% PV Share, 15% Primary Control Reserves

A.1. AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION OF PV SYSTEM

53

Figure A.4: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-20% PV Share, 10% Primary Control Reserves

Figure A.5: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-20% PV Share, 7.5% Primary Control Reserves

54

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure A.6: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10-20% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves

Figure A.7: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10% PV Share, 2.5% Primary Control Reserves

A.1. AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION OF PV SYSTEM

55

Figure A.8: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 10% PV Share, 1% Primary Control Reserves

56

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

Detailed Plots of Automatic Disconnection

Figure A.9: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 30% PV Share, Unlimited Primary Control Reserves

A.1. AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION OF PV SYSTEM

57

Figure A.10: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 20% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves

58

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure A.11: Frequency Response, Automatic Disconnection, 30% PV Share, 15% Primary Control Reserves

A.2. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (40% PER HERTZ)

59

A.2

Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz)

Figure A.12: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, unlimited Primary Control Reserves

Figure A.13: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 10% Primary Control Reserves

60

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure A.14: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 7.5% Primary Control Reserves

Figure A.15: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves

A.2. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (40% PER HERTZ)

61

Figure A.16: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 2.5% Primary Control Reserves

Figure A.17: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 10-60% PV Share, 1% Primary Control Reserves

62

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

Detailed Plots of the Characteristic Curve Regulation

Figure A.18: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 40% PV Share, 7.5% Primary Control Reserves

A.2. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (40% PER HERTZ)

63

Figure A.19: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 40% PV Share, 5% Primary Control Reserves

64

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure A.20: Frequency Response, Characteristic Curve (40% per Hertz), 40% PV Share, 2.5% Primary Control Reserves

A.2. CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (40% PER HERTZ)

65

A.2.1
PCR unlim. 10% 7.5% 5% 2.5% 1%

Variation of Parameters
PV Share 30% 40% 50.2276 50.227 50.0000 50.0000 50.2582 50.2539 50.0000 50.0000 50.3333 50.3175 50.0000 50.0000 50.4513 50.4117 50.0000 50.0000 50.6019 50.528 50.0000 50.0000 50.7027 50.6044 49.9903 49.991

fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin

10% 50.2287 50.0000 50.2752 50.0000 50.4033 50.0000 50.6532 50.0000 51.0332 50.0000 51.3106 49.9813

20% 50.2281 50.0000 50.2627 50.0000 50.3545 50.0000 50.5118 50.0000 50.7247 50.0000 50.8711 49.9896

50% 50.2264 50.0000 50.2505 50.0000 50.3056 50.0000 50.3837 50.0000 50.4782 50.0000 50.54 49.9914

60% 50.2259 50.0000 50.2475 50.0000 50.2959 50.0000 50.3629 50.0000 50.4424 50.0000 50.4939 49.9918

Table A.1: Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Characteristic Curve PV Share 30% 40% 50.2186 50.2157 50.0000 50.0000 50.2406 50.2328 50.0000 50.0000 50.3072 50.2880 50.0000 50.0000 50.4173 50.3755 50.0000 50.0000 50.5627 50.4875 50.0000 50.0000 50.6614 50.5623 49.9912 49.9902

PCR 12.5% 10% 7.5% 5% 2.5% 1% fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin

10% 50.2252 50.0000 50.2603 50.0000 50.3725 50.0000 50.6015 50.0000 50.9624 50.0000 51.1975 49.9919

20% 50.2218 50.0000 50.2497 50.0000 50.3331 50.0000 50.4820 50.0000 50.6887 50.0000 50.8360 49.9901

50% 50.2129 50.0000 50.2268 50.0000 50.2733 50.0000 50.3511 50.0000 50.4356 50.0000 50.4956 49.9928

60% 50.2102 50.0000 50.2220 50.0000 50.2274 50.0000 50.3236 50.0000 50.3995 50.0000 50.4497 49.9923

Table A.2: Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Characteristic Curve with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.15 Hz

66

APPENDIX A. SIMULATION RESULTS

PCR 12.5%. 10% 7.5% 5% 2.5% 1% fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin fmax fmin

10% 50.2212 50.0000 50.2509 50.0000 50.3557 50.0000 50.5753 50.0000 50.9271 50.0000 51.1919 49.9917

20% 50.2143 50.0000 50.2338 50.0000 50.3093 50.0000 50.45 50.0000 50.6567 50.0000 50.8035 49.9837

PV Share 30% 40% 50.2081 50.2025 50.0000 50.0000 50.2211 50.2116 50.0000 50.0000 50.2786 50.2573 50.0000 50.0000 50.3815 50.3379 50.0000 50.0000 50.5215 50.4452 50.0000 50.0000 50.6178 50.5181 49.9888 49.9889

50% 50.1973 50.0000 50.2038 50.0000 50.2402 50.0000 50.3116 50.0000 50.3116 50.0000 50.4506 49.9907

60% 50.1925 50.0000 50.1973 50.0000 50.2274 50.0000 50.2832 50.0000 50.3555 50.0000 50.4040 49.9904

Table A.3: Maximal and Minimal Frequency Responses [Hz] at Overfrequency and Characteristic Curve with Speed Droop Characteristic starting from 50.10 Hz

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