MATEMATEKA WARNA

DURAPOSITA CHEM
 COLOR NEWS May 1, 1997
TM

DIGITAL COLOR MODEL PUTS COLOR IN A NEW LIGHT

Breakthroughs in color
technology provide need for
new model to represent and
understand color.

By Ken Davies

More consumers than ever are

buying digital imaging products.
Digital cameras, color printers
and color scanners have become
less expensive and therefore,
more accessible to new users.
Accompanying this revolution in
color usage is the need to
understand digital color and its
inherent complexity.

Research indicates that typical

end-users are baffled by the
intricate behavior of color and
often complain that “the colors TM
that print do not match what is on
the monitor”. The COLORCUBE is a 3-dimensional model by which one
can understand and teach digital color theory. This elegant
In spite of astounding techno- representation of color bridges the gap between additive
logical advances in color, it is
readily apparent that few people
and subtractive systems of color, and defines the method
understand the theory of how by which colors are stored, manipulated, and reproduced
digital color works. This inability using computer technology.
to fully comprehend new color
technologies can lead to customer SITE FOR SORE EYES YOUR OWN COLORCUBE!!
dissatisfaction and products that
fall short of user expectations. Additional information on COLORCUBE kits feature:
Spittin' Image Software in-
the COLORCUBE model primary paints, prism,
troduces a new “low-tech” and color theory is instruction manual and 11”
invention designed to explain the available on the Internet: COLORCUBE model.
principles of digital color. This
recently U.S.-patented device, www.colorcube.com Contact Spittin' Image Software
aptly named the COLORCUBE,
serves as a physical model of
to order.
how color is stored, manipulated,

Copyright © 1997, Spittin’ Image Software Inc. # 102, 416 6th St. New Westminster, BC, Canada V3L 3B2 (604) 525-2170
www.colorcube.com
and reproduced using digital
processes.

Included with the COLOR-

CUBE is a manual describing the
10 steps to understanding digital
color. The following description
is provided as an overview:

1 How the Human

Eye sees Color

The eye contains two kinds of

receptors: rods and cones. While
the rods convey shades of gray,
the cones allow the brain to
perceive color hues. Of the three
types of cones, the first is
sensitive to red-orange light, the
second to green light and the
Spectral Sensitivity Curve for each of the cones in the human eye.
our perception is yellow. The eye visible colors through the
cannot differentiate between proportionate adjustment of just
spectral yellow, and some three colors: red, green and blue.
combination of red and green.

third to blue-violet light. When a
single cone is stimulated, the
brain perceives the corresponding
color. That is, if our green cones
are stimulated, we see “green”.
Or if our red-orange cones are
stimulated, we see “red”. If both
our green and red-orange cones
are simultaneously stimulated,
The same effect accounts for our
perception of cyan, magenta, and
the other in-between spectral
colors.
Because of this physiological
response, the eye can be “fooled”
into seeing the full range of
2
Identifying
Primary Colors
Any color can be spectrally
analyzed using a prism to
determine its red, green and blue
primary values (additive color

Viewing these circles through a prism isolates the primary colors. The circle on a white background
breaks into Cyan/Magenta/Yellow primaries. The same circle on a black background breaks into
Red/Green/Blue primaries.

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space), or its cyan, magenta and
yellow primary values
(subtractive color space). This
simple yet powerful technique
can be used to identify true
primary colors. Choosing the
correct three primaries
maximizes the number of colors
reproducible within a color space.

3 Additive and
Subtractive Color

Televisions, cameras, scanners

and computer monitors are based
on the additive system of color
(RGB), where red, green and blue
light projected together yield
white.

Offset printing, digital printing,

paints, plastics, fabric and
photographic prints are based on
the subtractive system of color
(CMY/CMYK) in which cyan,
magenta and yellow mix to form
black (K).
The unique feature of the
COLORCUBE is that both
systems are integrated within one
model. Switching between RGB
and CMY color systems is as
simple as turning the model over.
RGB and CMY vertices, when placed in the same referential
color space, form the outer dimensions of a cube.
almost a century old, are based down into a grid of tiny pixels
on a three-dimensional system of (dots). Each pixel is sampled for
color using the true primaries the amount of red, green, and
cyan, magenta and yellow. blue light present. The entire
image is then stored one pixel at
Other models of color used by a time. To store a 3-inch square
specialists in their respective image at 150 dots per inch
vocations include: Hue/ requires storing 202,500 pixels or
Saturation/Value (HSV), CMYK 607,500 bytes.

4
charts, RGB Color Space,
Pantone color system, CIE Color
Color Models Space, DIN color chips and
spectral luminance graphs.
With each color theory Computers and other digital
advancement comes a new model devices define color based on a
by which to understand it. new model of color known as a
Unfortunately, users of older COLORCUBE, which defines
color technologies rarely, if ever, the digital representation of color.
The theoretical model describing
how colors are stored in a
computer is often displayed as a
cube. This method of storing
color has proven to be
remarkably adaptive, allowing
conversions to a wide variety of
color models; including the color
wheel, CIE color space, HSV

adopt these new models. For
example, the color wheel is
virtually identical in appearance
and operation to how it was first
conceived by Sir Isaac Newton.
Painters continue to incorrectly
define primary colors as red,
yellow and blue according to the
color wheel despite the fact that
such technologies as offset
printing and photography, each
5
Storing Images
in Computers
All digital color devices that
handle the storage, manipulation,
and reproduction of color images
do so by storing RGB values.
Digitally storing an image
requires that it first be broken
color, Munsell Sphere, Pantone
system, DIN chips, and spectral
definitions of color.
The fundamental difference
between the COLORCUBE and
all other models of color is that it
describes colors within a color
space based on measured input
quantities (what quantities of
primary pigments are used to

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make the color). Other models of
color are based on measured
output values (what the color
looks like). Basing a color system
on input values considerably
simplifies issues related to color
naming, color reproduction, color
visualization, color calibration,
color manipulation, and color
mapping between color spaces.

6
Visualizing a
Color Space
The ability to visualize all the
available colors within a three-
dimensional color space and to
see the inter-relationships
between those colors is a huge
advantage when working with
color. Although there are a
number of computer diagrams
Color math in subtractive color space:
1) Equal amounts cyan, magenta and yellow (ABC) yield black (K).
2) Because of the following:
• Equal amounts magenta and yellow yield red
• Equal amounts cyan and yellow yield green
• Equal amounts cyan and magenta yield blue
3) Color math can be used to determine that equal amounts red,
green and blue also yield black.
points. This then defines the naming, mixing, and describing a
outer dimensions of the visible color, and ensures that within a
color space, while allowing the defined color space, digital colors
viewer to see the internal remain consistently reproducible.

simulating a theoretical color
space, the COLORCUBE model
is the first of its kind to define a
physical model with the interior
colors visible.
As the eye can see over 16
million colors, the key to the
COLORCUBE concept is that
the external edge points of the
elements. Color cubes of
increasing density can then be
generated based on a required
“total” number of colors desired.
A COLORCUBE that defines all
colors reproducible within a color
space would be 256 cubes on
each side, for a total of
16,777,216 elements.
8
Color Selection
The unique three-dimensional
placement of colors within the
COLORCUBE model works
well as a color selection tool.

7
cube are defined, and interior
colors then approximate the Color Mixing
range of colors between end-
Each color element within a
COLORCUBE has a unique
numeric identifier indicating
what proportionate input values
Using the cube, it is easy to
choose complementary colors,
harmonious color runs, warm
colors, cool colors, tints, shades,
and colors of equal value. All
color relationships can be shown
to be mathematical in nature, and
can be modeled using simple
XYZ axis Cartesian math.

were used to reproduce the color.
Each element also has a unique
position within the cube, thereby
ensuring that one can easily map
between positional information
and mixing information. If the
mixing information is given, then
the positional information can be
deduced. If the positional
information is given, then the
mixing information can be
deduced. This feature of the
COLORCUBE eliminates much
of the guess work associated with
Planes of color in 3D color space
9
Color
Manipulation
To manipulate colors within a
color space one must first define
a set of mathematical rules by
which colors can be modified.
Color Math, as it is referred to,
relies upon first breaking colors
into their constituent primary
values, then doing the
mathematical operation. The end

-4-
result is mixing instructions for a
new color that can be found in
the COLORCUBE.
For example, to predict the result
of adding two colors together,
break down each color into its
primary proportionate values.
Then, add together the like
primary values from both colors.
The combined total for each
primary yields the positional
coordinates for the resulting color
within the COLORCUBE.
Similar logic can be applied to
color subtraction (subtracting one
color from the other), and to
higher level operations such as
adjusting contrast, brightness,
and saturation.
colors is to find the best
approximation so that the final
image does not appear blatantly
altered.
The current solution to correctly
mapping colors between two
color spaces requires spectrally
analyzing the output character-
istics of each device under
controlled lighting conditions,
and mapping the colors back to a
CIE definition.
Color mapping models in such
popular software programs as
Corel Photo Paint, and Hewlett
Packard Scanning software,
provide two-dimensional color
calibration interfaces which are
difficult to use, are incomplete,
the end user is likely to conclude
they need more training.
However, if a $5,000 digital color
system does not perform to
expectations, the end user is
likely to conclude the product is
broken.
As digital color products become
less expensive and sales volumes
increase, the availability of
economical product training will
become an important issue. For
users to understand how best to
recognize and deal with complex
color problems, they must
become familiar with the
fundamentals of digital color.
The COLORCUBE is an elegant
model of digital color which can

10
Color Mapping
and Calibration
The root of all color calibration
and color mapping problems is
that color spaces used by
different color reproduction
processes do not define the same
visible area. Each color space is a
subset of the true range of visible
colors. To effectively map colors
between different color spaces, a
calculation must first be made to
determine the color relationships
between each of the color spaces.
The objective when mapping
and require sophisticated
knowledge about color.
Software user interfaces that
support color mapping could be
vastly improved by recognizing
the three-dimensional nature of
color. Color space mappings
could be visually represented in
three-dimensional space relative
to each other, and relative to the
theoretical set of visible colors.
In Conclusion
If a $50,000 digital color system
does not perform to expectations,
be used to teach simple color
concepts. Users can learn and
properly understand the basic
physiology of color perception,
the intricate relationship between
additive and subtractive color
systems, and the mathematics of
color image manipulation.
At a time when art, science and
other color-intensive industries
are converging in the digital
realm, a unified vision of color
must emerge. The definitive
model for that vision is the
COLORCUBE.

References:
1. The International Color Consortium. 7. True Internet Color.
http://www.color.org http://www.colorific.com/products/tic1.html

2. Color Management: Current Practice and The Adoption of a 8. The Reproduction of Colour. Fourth edition.
New Standard. R.W.G. Hunt. Fountain Press, 1987.
http://www.color.org/overview.html
9. The Color PC - Production Techniques.
3. QMS: Color Reproduction Basics. Marc D. Miller, Randy Zaucha. Haden Books, 1995.
http://www.qms.com.www.products/color_paper/
10. Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and
4. Is CIE L*a*b* Good Enough for Desktop Publishing? Formulae
http://www.Is.com/cielab.html (defunct link) Gunter Wyszecki, W.S. Stiles. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1982.

5. The Munsell System of Color Notation.
http://munsell.com/munsell1.htm (defunct link)
6. Through the 6x6x6 Color Cube - An Interactive Voyage.
http://world.std.com/~wij/color/index.html
11. Color Theory made easy. A new approach to color theory and
how it applies…
Jim Ames. Watson-Guptill, 1996.
12. Color Harmony 2. A guide to creative color combinations
Bride M. Whelan. Rockport Publishers, 1994.

Copyright © 1997, Spittin’ Image Software Inc. # 102, 416 6th St. New Westminster, BC, Canada V3L 3B2 (604) 525-2170
www.colorcube.com
-5-
The Color Math Concept
The human eye is able to decipher patterns of light according to the primary colors of the additive system:
red, green and blue (RGB). However, it is the subtractive system’s primaries: cyan, magenta and yellow
(CMY) that best lend themselves to understanding the COLORCUBE and the concept of Color Math. This
chapter unveils the inner workings of the COLORCUBE Model and the tools that are required for
navigation in and about it.

Within any given subtractive color space, as defined by the three primaries CMY, the use of Color Math
will allow us to map the relationships of all the colors encompassed by that cubic area. Bridging the
additive and subtractive systems of color, mixing colors, selecting color complements and converting color
media equivalents all become matters of mathematics rather than that of guess work or compromise.

Following a brief introduction to basic logic and scientific fundamentals, as they are relevant to color, we
will expand upon the Color Math concept. By the conclusion of this chapter, we will be able to apply Color
Math to a variety of tasks such as dissecting the COLORCUBE, dispelling critical aspects of traditional
color theory, mixing colors, determining color complements and charting print-to-paint media conversions.

Principles of Color Math

The similarity to commonly applied basics in mathematics and algebra will make these initial color
principles appear somewhat elementary. However, their value will become apparent as the problems that
we will encounter become increasingly complex.

The diagram below illustrates the principle of symmetry that states that the order in which colors are
added to one another does not alter the outcome.

Figure 1. Color A + Color B = Color B + Color A

The addition (or subtraction) of two or more colors will likely cause a visible change in hue but we must
also pay particular attention to the cumulative volume of the operation. For example, mixing one
measurable unit of color with another yields twice the volume of the resulting color. The following diagram
highlights this change in quantity using simple, like colors.

Figure 2(a). 1 part Color A + 1 part Color A = 2 parts Color A

Also, this principle of cumulative volume applies to those operations involving varying colors as well.

Figure 2(b). 1 Color A + 1 Color B = 2 Color C

As easy as these fundamentals are to grasp, the visual aids accompanying the upcoming problems shown
may be counter-intuitive. The derivations of the Color Math “building blocks” presented in the next section
will be the first step in making them fully comprehensible.

Primary colors
We have stated that all of the colors captured within a color space are functions of the primaries cyan,
magenta and yellow. The vertices or corner points on a COLORCUBE are these three pure hues (labeled A,
B and C below), along with their various combinations. Together, these eight colors represent the key
elements used in all Color Math calculations.

Figure 3. Primary colors in the subtractive system

Although considered primary in the additive system of color, red, green and blue are the secondary colors
in the subtractive system. By combining cyan with magenta, cyan with yellow and magenta with yellow,
we are able to make blue, green and red respectively. As long as each primary ingredient is at full
saturation and in equivalent quantities, the following operations hold true.

Figure 4(a). 1 Cyan + 1 Magenta = 2 Blue

Figure 4(b). 1 Cyan + 1 Yellow = 2 Green

Figure 4(c). 1 Magenta + 1 Yellow = 2 Red

When all three primaries are mixed together in equal proportion, the resulting color is black. (editor’s note:
this color mixture is mainly theoretical as we have yet to encounter perfect subtractive primaries that make
a perfect black when mixed.)

Figure 5. 1 Cyan + 1 Magenta + 1 Yellow = 3 Black

Black is also achieved when certain combinations of the primary and secondary elements are mixed. We
recall from figure 4 (c), that red is made up of equal parts magenta and yellow. Therefore, we can add cyan
to red in order to form black by virtue of the equation below:

Figure 6. Color A + SUM Colors BC = Color ABC

And so,
Figure 7(a). 1 part Cyan + 2 parts Red = 3 parts Black

Because each secondary color is merely a combination of two primaries, black is the result in each of the
following mixtures. Please note the unequal quantities of the inputs and the constant amount of the sum.

Figure 7(b). 1 Magenta + 2 Green = 3 Black

Figure 7(c). 1 Yellow + 2 Blue = 3 Black

The operations shown above may beg the question: what happens when the secondary colors are added
together in equal quantities, as in the diagram below?
Figure 8. Red + Green + Blue?

Answering this question correctly requires a break down of each of the inputs into its’ constituent CMY
elements in order to investigate the exact quantities being mixed. In order to simplify this task, we will take
single units of red, green and blue and discover that they yield the following:

Figure 9. Adding Red + Green + Blue (in terms of CMY)

Upon analyzing the CMY proportions in the sum, we recognize the color as black! This solution may strike
you as odd. After all, if equal quantities of primary colors cyan, magenta and yellow make black, how can
the same amounts of secondary colors red, green and blue possibly produce an identical result? Can the
following diagram really be true?

Figure 10. 1 Red + 1 Green + 1 Blue = 3 Black

The answer is “yes” because we have learned that, by definition; black is CMY in equal amounts at full
saturation. (If the saturation or purity of the primary hues is less than full, some form of gray will emerge
from the mixture. The value of the gray will depend on the amount of base color present.) So, in
deconstructing red, green and blue into their respective CMY elements, we discover that these three colors
cumulatively do indeed carry the correct CMY proportions to create black. Color Math will be used later in
the chapter to prove the validity of this conclusion.
White as “Base” Color
In the parentheses above, we alluded briefly to the concept of the base color. This is the color that is
perceived when no primary hues are present. For instance, in color media that utilize the additive system of
color, black is considered to be the base color. That is, the eye responds to the absence of red, green and
blue (primaries in the additive system) and its perception is the color black. The opposite occurs in the
subtractive system where zero values of cyan, magenta and yellow result in the perception of white.

While the use of a non-white, non-black base is possible; the result is a truncated colorspace and a
somewhat skewed COLORCUBE. Such is the case when looking through tinted eyewear or offset printing
onto colored paper. Thus, in order to maximize the set of visible colors within our CMY color space, white
will be the assumed base color.

To this point in our discussion, all of the colors have been fully saturated containing no white or base color.
We now attempt to understand the impact of the base color by infusing white base with increasing amounts
of primary hues and observe the changes to the resulting color.

Our analysis begins with total white base to which we add rising increments of yellow primary. As long as
the overall volume of each color sample is held constant, the progression from 100% white leads to a fully
saturated yellow. As the horizontal bars in the top left diagram show, the reduction of base color, white
gives way to an increase of non-base content. The changes in the “base-to-primary” ratio results in
graduated versions of a mixed color (known as tints due to the presence of white) as shown in the color
circles. The upper right corner of the diagram below maps the same procedure using magenta primary.

Figure 11. Adding primaries to a white base.

Let us now conduct a similar operation with two primary colors adding them both to the base color, white.
We should recognize that the combination of equal parts yellow and magenta creates red but as illustrated
above in the bottom left box, this mixture does not affect the proportion of the white base. The base color
maintains its percentage value of 100, 75, 50, 25 and 0% of the total color respectively, regardless of the
amounts of multiple primaries which make up the remainder.

The same effect takes place when all three primaries are added to decreasing amounts of white base. As
demonstrated in the bottom right corner above, grays and black are the result of mixing cyan, magenta and
yellow with a white base. It is important to remember from these exercises that the CMY primary mixture
occupies only the portion of the color that is non-base.

Constructing the COLORCUBE

Returning momentarily to the progressions of magenta and yellow tints, we in fact derived two axes of the
COLORCUBE. The plane of color, constructed in the figure 12, is what bridges the color space that exists
between those two axes. Using a similar strategy to that exhibited earlier, we start with 100% white and
incrementally reduce the amount of base color while increasing the primary content. The non-base portions
of each color shown in the diagram are mixtures containing magenta and/or yellow. Horizontal bars once
again capture the systematic increases in these mixtures within the fixed overall volume of color.
Figure 12. White-Yellow/Magenta plane

It should seem obvious that moving away from the white square horizontally implies a larger presence of
yellow and likewise, a vertical movement downward results in the addition of magenta. What may not be
so obvious is that these increases in primaries affect only the portion of color that is non-base. For instance,
although magenta and yellow are maximized at a certain point in the “25% base color” diagram, they only
contribute 37.5% each to the whole color. (In case this is unclear, the “certain point” that is being referred
to is in the bottom left diagram, located in the middle of the color group and is the corner of the colored
squares).

The next diagram depicts the unified yellow-magenta plane previously constructed. The horizontal bars of
color have been attached to their corresponding color to illustrate the proportions of base and non-base
content in each. These “Color Bars” also make the pattern that exists between the relative quantities of the
primaries themselves visually apparent.

Figure 13. Unified Yellow-Magenta plane

We will continue to attach these Color Bars to color samples in order to assist our understanding of how the
COLORCUBE is built. They are graphic and mathematical representations of the ingredients present in
each color and are standardized to a constant length for the purposes of measurement and comparison.

The next phase of COLORCUBE construction involves the addition of the remaining primary, in this case,
cyan. The above plane was theoretically conceptualized by taking the white-yellow axis and incrementally
increasing magenta content while adjusting base content to maintain its proportion. This resulted in
multiple axes containing various combinations of the white and primary colors.

The incremental addition of cyan to this entire magenta-yellow plane will yield similar results in the form
of multiple planes of color. This third dimension of color, as in the diagram below, is organized in terms of
base color percentage (exactly as above) and each plane is separated according to cyan content. The Color
Bars once again fix the overall volume of each color to a single value and allow us to see the actual color
that each formula represents.
Figure 14. Increasing Cyan content incrementally

Applying Color Math

Having completed our derivation of an entire COLORCUBE, we revisit the color theory basics from the
beginning of the chapter and attempt to prove these operations using Color Math. In doing so we will
introduce tools and techniques that will assist our understanding of CMY addition and subtraction as well
as create a visual grounding to Color Math procedures.

Color Bars
Horizontal bars of color were used extensively during the construction of the COLORCUBE to graphically
depict the base and non-base content of each color they represented. They were extremely useful in
allowing us to detect and map the patterns that exist within a color space. In this section these diagrams
become accessories to the addition of color and precursors to actual Color Math.
Remembering that each Color Bar is standardized to a Figure 15
single set length, we are able to add these fixed
amounts together in order to determine the
configuration of their sum.

For example, a given quantity of 100% white plus an

equal amount of 100% primary yellow would yield a
color that is half base, half non-base with a 50%
yellow hue.

Figure 15 demonstrates this graphically. It shows that

once the input colors are combined and the mixture is
reset to the size standard of the original Color Bar(s),
the resulting color is one that contains equal parts
white base and yellow primary.

The diagram to the left is another situation that

Figure 16
involves base white. However, this example
shows the second input to be a color containing
unequal multiple primaries.

When these Color Bars are added together we can

see that the sum contains four parts base white to
four parts non-base primary, which is made up of
three parts magenta and one part yellow.

Once this result is subsequently resized to the

standardized length, we learn that the four white
squares are proportionately equal to half of the
resulting color. Likewise, the primaries magenta
and yellow occupy 1.5 and .5 of the remaining
units, respectively.

When adding colors using Color Bars, the Figure 17

presence of three primaries adds complexity to the
equation but the procedure for solving it is the
same.

Figure 17 shows the summarization of three

mixed colors. Each of the ingredients are gathered
and grouped according their CMYW category.

After this sorting process, these input values are

sized down to the normal Color Bar in order to
discover the formula of the resulting color.

Grasping the need to calibrate all color

combinations to a fixed amount is important
because this normalization process allows us to
estimate the colors with which we are dealing
 Figure 18 using the cube diagrams in the previous section.
Having become familiar with the patterns inherent to
the COLORCUBE, we can navigate within that color
space using the Color Bars as guides.

Let us take for our next equation the sums of the last
two operations and use them as inputs. After adding
the Color Bars together, we can sort and recalibrate
the sum to a fixed amount with all of the constituent
elements intact.

It should be clear by now that the usefulness of this

“Color Bar” addition is severely compromised by the
increasing complexity of the operations and a general
inability to distinguish minute proportions with any
degree of precision. Alleviating this requires a Color
Math process that relies strictly on the objectivity of
percentage values and quantities of color rather than
that of a guessing science.

Color Boxes
A method that addresses our need for exact numbers while retaining the benefits granted us by the Color
Bars must begin with the information on hand being organized in a practical manner. The tables introduced
here place the CMY formula of a color in a usable format that allows any color to be added and/or
subtracted. It also takes into consideration the volume of color as well.

Suppose we have three units of color gold (C20 M40 Y60) which is one of our inputs in a Color Math
operation. Our first step is to determine its percentage base content by subtracting the CMY quantity that is
greatest from 100. In this instance, yellow is most dominant with a value of 60. Consequently, this color
contains 40% base white.

The remaining 60% consists of primary colors cyan, magenta and yellow in relative proportion to the
color’s CMY formula. Thus, we divide each of the primary quantities (20, 40, and 60) by the sum of those
primaries (120) and multiply each by 60%. This yields adjusted weights of 10, 20 and 30% for CMY
respectively. We find that this shade of gold is 10% cyan, 20% magenta, 30% yellow and 40% white. The
table below summarizes this information as well as provides the volume calculation.

Figure 19. Table for CMY breakdown

The next diagram displays the above information in a graphical format that actually maps the relative
strength of each of the CMY element and places the overall proportion of the base color in the forefront.
This Color Box format adds a visual dimension to the CMY formula and offers insight to the color itself.
Figure 20. Color Box

This Color Math documentation also makes use of tables and diagrams that isolate the current operation.
These are fairly self-explanatory in that they summarize the actual quantities and volumes of color that are
being added or subtracted in columnar form. In figure 21, “A” and “B” represent the input colors and “C”
symbolizes the resultant color.

Figure 21. Table of operation and accompanying graphic.

Introduction Complete
At this point, the basics of Color Math have been fully explained. We pause here to welcome comments
from you that either accept or reject the theories explored here. Please contact Spittin’ Image Software
(604/525.2170 or info@colorcube.com) for more information on Color Math and look for future
developments on this fascinating subject on this website.
 COLOR NEWS July 28, 1997
TM

MIXING IT UP WITH THE DIGITAL COLORCUBE MODEL

COLORCUBE provides a
simplified method and
conceptual model for
mixing colors as a way to
understand digital color
behavior.

By Ken Davies
A B
The COLORCUBE defines the
set of colors that can be
reproduced by mixing varying
proportions of three primary
colors. In the subtractive color
space, these primaries are cyan,
magenta and yellow, plus white
as the base color.

C D

Visualizing the COLORCUBE in terms of “primary color

The color space is called
planes” allows one to grasp the relationship between
subtractive because white, its
base color, reflects all spectral CMY input value coordinates and the perceived colors of
wavelengths and any color added a given color space. The above diagrams are various
to white absorbs or “subtracts” stages of progression from CMY content to full color.
different wavelengths. The longer
wavelengths of the visible SITE FOR SORE EYES YOUR OWN COLORCUBE!!
spectrum, which are normally
perceived as red, are absorbed by
cyan. Magenta absorbs the Additional information on COLORCUBE kits feature:
middle wavelengths (green) and the COLORCUBE model primary paints, prism, color
yellow absorbs the shorter and digital color theory is instruction manual and the
wavelengths of the visible available on the Internet: COLORCUBE model.
spectrum (blue-violet). Mixing
cyan, magenta and yellow
together “subtracts” all www.colorcube.com Contact Spittin' Image
wavelengths of visible light and Software to order.
as a result, we see black.

Copyright © 1997, Spittin’ Image Software Inc. # 102, 416 6th St. New Westminster, BC, Canada V3L 3B2 (604) 525-2170
www.colorcube.com
Introducing a Model
Every color medium that uses
paint or color pigment is said to
operate in the subtractive color
space. Understanding how color
behaves in this system is
essential for anyone who prints,
paints or reproduces color
documents. Learning the “hows
and whys” about color is made
simple by the COLORCUBE
model. Unlike most other color
models, this 3D representation of
color defines color based on the
input values of primaries, not by
the measured output value. This
document illustrates, using paint
examples, how this model allows
colors to be naturally described
as products of cyan, magenta and
yellow (CMY) rather than as
colors from a restricted list or
subjective interpretations.
3D Color Space
The underlying structure of the
COLORCUBE can be described
as a series of intersecting color
planes. The planes are arranged
along an axis and progress from
“no primary content” (0%) to
As CMY pigments are
added to a white base
medium, the resulting color
can be predicted using the
COLORCUBE. Beginning
at the white cube, simply
count the number of planes
crossed along the
corresponding CMY axis.
“maximum primary content”
(100%) for each of the three
CMY primary colors. Each
reproducible color is
geometrically placed in a 3D
matrix based on the proportional
quantities of primary CMY
inputs used to mix each color.
For example, the white cube in
the previous diagram contains
zero cyan. Progressing to the
right, each plane contains
incremental increases of cyan. To
simplify this concept, we will
equate planes of color to drops of
paint. Therefore, each series of
planes will run from 0-4
inclusive and correspond to a like
number of paint drops.
Using paint pigments for
illustrating color concepts will
require us to operate in the
subtractive color space. Please
keep in mind other color media
will involve slight variations in
the following color mixing
procedures.
Color Identification
Each color within the
COLORCUBE is uniquely
defined by the intersection of
three planes. This feature of the
model provides coordinates for
each color and a basis for both
color naming and color mixing.
This diagram shows the
color that is located at CMY
coordinates {cyan 3,
magenta 1, yellow 3}. The
white cube is at {0, 0, 0}.
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The position of a color within the
COLORCUBE identifies its
mixing formula. For instance, a
color that is located in yellow
plane 3, cyan plane 3, and
magenta plane 1 can be defined
as containing 3 drops of yellow
paint, 3 drops of cyan, and 1 drop
of magenta. This is distinct from
the color located at yellow plane
3, cyan plane 3 and magenta
plane 0 as the latter has no
magenta content. These
coordinates, however, do not
offer the complete formula for
mixing the color because we still
need to account for the presence
of white or base color.
Base Content
The following diagram illustrates
the impact of white on a saturated
hue.
See how the addition of
yellow to white base changes
the resulting color. Please
note that the overall amount
of paint in this example
remains constant.
In the subtractive color space,
white is referred to as the base
color. Adding portions of
primary colors to white reduces
the amount of light reflected back
to the viewer, resulting in the
color becoming darker. Adding
portions of white to any
combination of primary colors
increases the amount of light
reflected back to the viewer,
resulting in the color appearing
lighter.
Each color within the
COLORCUBE contains a
measured quantity of white. This
amount depends on the actual
distance between the color and
the white cube. All colors within
the COLORCUBE contain an
increasing proportion of white
the closer they are to the white
corner.
To calculate the amount of white
to add when mixing a color, first
measure the distance between the
selected color and the white cube.
Do this by drawing a line from
white to the outside edge of the
COLORCUBE making sure the
line passes through the color you
are measuring.
Measure the distance between
given color and white cube to
find the percentage of white.
Observe the progression from
red to white as the percentage
of base color decreases along
the black line.
The relative distance from the
color to the outside edge of the
COLORCUBE defines the
percentage amount of white in
the mixed color.
Simple Color Runs
To get a better understanding of
how to use the COLORCUBE to
mix colors, let us first look at the
mixing instructions for colors on
the outside edge of the cube.
Here we look at the range of
color between yellow and
magenta.
“Cyan Plane 0”: Add yellow
to white (across top). Add
magenta to yellow (down left).
Subtract yellow (across
bottom).
Starting at white, you can trace
the progression of input primary
colors as you move between the
primaries yellow and magenta.
Earlier we described the addition
of yellow to white as seen across
the top of the above face. As we
move downwards towards red,
yellow and cyan remain constant
while magenta increases in
quantity. Once red is achieved,
we see magenta and yellow are at
their full values. Now, as we
move to the right, toward
magenta, the amount of magenta
and cyan remain constant, and
the amount of yellow decreases.
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To further illustrate this point,
consider the mixing table
provided below:
Starting at 100% yellow,
add incremental amounts of
magenta. After reaching
red, reducing the amount of
yellow in the mixture results
in pure magenta.
The mixing instructions for each
color are derived by first defining
the positional information for that
color. By recognizing that the
COLORCUBE is divided into
planes of primary color, then
reading the positional
information in terms of color
planes, you can easily translate
positional information into
mixing information.
Adding a 3rd Primary
We will now discuss the third
dimension of CMY color. The
diagrams below depict how the
run of colors shown above (white
to yellow to red to magenta)
changes with the addition of the
third primary color, cyan.
These changes are illustrated
graphically and in terms of paint
strokes. See how mixing cyan
with the original colors from
cyan plane 0 changes their
appearance. This progression is
physically captured by the
COLORCUBE as each of the
colors move along the cyan axis.
“Cyan Planes 0 and 1”:
Move entire plane along
cyan axis to achieve colors
with 1 part cyan.
By continuing to add cyan to
each of the resultant colors, you
will soon reach the position
defined by cyan plane 4. Note
that the former color red will
have progressed to black when
the cyan content matches that of
saturated magenta and yellow.
By first identifying a color based
on its positional information
within the COLORCUBE, you
can then derive the proportions of
primary and base color which
you need to mix to get that color.
This serves as a good starting
point for mixing color. However,
when mixing any color there will
always be some variance from
the exact mixing proportions,
resulting in some variance in the
color achieved. This brings us to
final rule describing color mixing
– color adjustments.
Color Adjustments
Once the color is mixed, you can
fine-tune it by adjusting the
proportions of primary and base
color, moving it in one of eight
directions within the color space.
To move a color progressively
along a CMY axis, simply add
more yellow, more magenta, or
more cyan to it. Adding white
will make the color lighter
(closer to the white cube) and
adding an equal proportion of all
primaries will make the color
darker (closer to the black cube).
Recognizing the consequences of
each of the additions will allow
you better control when adjusting
color combinations.
To move along a CMY axis in
the opposite direction, you must
remove a primary color. How to
do this depends somewhat on
what color is being modified. To
reduce one of the four input
colors, you must add more of the
other three.

The procedure for mixing any particular color is as follows:

1. Locate the desired color within the COLORCUBE.

Add cyan to each of the
colors already discussed in
order to enter the third
dimension of paint color
Add cyan to each of the
colors already discussed in
order to enter the third
dimension of paint color
space.
2. Identify the three planes that intersect the color.
3. Translate the point at the 3-plane intersection to mixing
instructions. Plane 1 of yellow means one drop of yellow; plane
2 of yellow means two drops of yellow, etc. Do this for each of
the three planes.
4. Draw a line from white through the color to the outside edge
of the cube. The relative distance from the color to the outside
edge of the cube defines the percentage amount of white to
add. If the color contains 5 drops of primary color, and it lies
one quarter the way from the closest outside edge of the cube,
then the final mixture needs to contain 25% white
(approximately 2 drops).
5. Adjust color as needed by adding or subtracting primary
colors using COLORCUBE as a reference guide.

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Removing Yellow Removing Cyan Removing Magenta

Removing cyan from blue-

Adding cyan to green
effectively “subtracts” yellow
resulting in a color
infinitesimally close to cyan.
The same is achieved when
cyan and magenta are added
to black and when magenta
and white are added to peach.
Follow the lines below to see
the progression of these
operations.
violet is as simple as adding
magenta. The result will
eventually be a near-
saturated magenta. To move
from light purple to light
pink, add magenta and white
incrementally as in the
diagrams.
To arrive at green from
black, add yellow and cyan
effectively removing
magenta. As in the diagram
below, add yellow to red to
get orange/yellow and add
white to magenta to get light
pink.

The above examples illustrate

removing yellow, cyan, or magenta
from a color. As stated,
“subtracting” a primary color is
merely the addition of other
primaries. Thus, the destination
color results from the relative
changes in the primary mixture.

The diagram to the right captures

the essence of color adjustment.
Navigating from a certain color
will take place in one of eight
directions. The COLORCUBE
allows you to master color mixing
by displaying the likely results of
adding or subtracting each of the
primaries.
Middle gray plus or minus cyan, magenta or yellow content will move the color in
some direction along the appropriate axis. The same holds true for black and white.

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Maximize Color Space
The size of a color space gamut is
most definitely a function of the
three primaries that are used. If
one or more of the primary colors
are not pure, then the range of
colors will be restricted. For
example, a cube of paint
constructed using the traditional
painter primaries of red, yellow,
and blue, will be ill -formed and
irregular, as this combination of
colors does not reproduce a full
color gamut because of improper
primaries. Remember, red can be
made by mixing yellow and
magenta; Painters’ blue can be
made by adding magenta to cyan.
One of the best ways to test
whether a color is primary is to
use a prism. A separate brochure
will explain this procedure in
detail.
Copyright © 1997, Spittin’ Image Software Inc. # 102, 416 6th St. New Westminster, BC, Canada V3L 3B2 (604) 525-2170
Conclusion with the color concepts embodied
by the COLORCUBE makes
By modeling how the human eye understanding digital color
sees color, the COLORCUBE technology easier, especially as
represents a new way of teaching color expertise relies on
the principles of color. The computer knowledge.
concepts of color mixing, color
naming and color visualization Finally, there is a color model
are all simplified by using a that unites both the artist and the
visible cubic color space. Mixing scientist. The COLORCUBE
paint pigment is but one way to allows the language of color, as
demonstrate the various uses of defined by artists, and the science
this three-dimensional model. of color, as defined by color
theorists, to be understood by all
Learning to navigate about a individuals using a single model.
color space is an intuitive skill
that comes with a great deal of
practice and experience. With an
invaluable tool like the
COLORCUBE, most color
concepts become elementary.
The COLORCUBE also defines
the model by which color is
stored and manipulated within a
computer. Becoming familiar
www.colorcube.com
-6-
 The Color of Music
Music, like color, is not easily categorized. Broad musical classifications including: Jazz, Blues, Rap, Classical,
Heavy Metal, Celtic, Pop, Rock, Country, Easy Listening, Muzak, and so forth - provide only a simple description
for a vast variety of expressionistic styles.

Musical styles can also be associated with color, texture, and flavor. Think of the Blues, purple Jazz, white noise,
and other descriptive attributes such as: dark, light, gray, raspy, sweet, sour, sharp, harmonious and disharmonious.

Music can also be described in terms of melody, harmony, and rhythm, with different musical compositions
placing different emphasis on each of the three musical elements. Coincidentally, color too can be described in
terms of elements, or primaries, where the three primaries cyan, magenta, and yellow, mixed in combination with
white define a visible color space.

The COLORCUBE, a recent invention designed to help visualize color relationships within the three-dimensional
color space, also can be used as a visualization tool in mapping the color of music.

To understand this concept, first envision a cube made up of smaller cubes, each one a distinct color. Starting with
white in one corner, there are three directions of movement within the cube. In the one direction you add cyan, in
the other you add magenta, and the third direction you add yellow. In terms of geographic directions, as you move
through the COLORCUBE away from white, you can either move north/south, east/west, or up/down.

Any color within the COLORCUBE can now be defined as some unique combination of each of the three primaries.
Light brown is 100% yellow, 50% cyan, and 25% magenta. Chromatic green is 100% yellow, 100% cyan, and 0%
magenta. The absence of color is white. All three primaries in equal combination yield black. In other words, a
particular color can be categorized by where it lies in the color space in relation to the other colors.

Relating this back to music, if we were to map melody, rhythm and harmony onto cyan, magenta, and yellow within
the COLORCUBE, we could then talk about music in terms of its color, and describe the relationship between
different styles of music as differences in color within a three-dimensional framework.

For example, sound without melody, harmony, or rhythm is known as white noise. Speech, or the sound of someone
talking, takes on the equal attributes of melody, rhythm and harmony, and extends along the gray line within the
interior of the COLORCUBE. Chimes, which are harmonious, without melody or rhythm, map to the color yellow.
Classical music, with melody and harmony, but without the hard driving rhythm of rock, is appropriately green in
color. Pop music, with lots of melody, but without complicated rhythm or harmony is cyan in color. A simple
melody with hard driving rhythm gives you the Blues. Jazz, with lots of rhythm, some melody, and some harmony,
is predominantly purple in color. Rap music, with lots of rhythm and some harmony, but little melody, is red in
color. And finally, take a song with lots of rhythm, harmony and melody, and you've got Black Music, Man!

This is not meant to infer that all Classical music is green, or that all Jazz is purple. Celtic music, for example, is a
genre containing large differences in melodic, rhythmic and harmonic content. Mapping the various flavors of
Celtic music to colors within a color space provides a second classification index indicating what type of music it is.
Two different songs within a particular genre of music can then be compared as being ‘greener’, or ‘redder’ than the
other, or being ‘too yellow’ or ‘too magenta’, or ‘too red’.

Music, like color, if categorized in terms of melody, harmony, and rhythm, can be described in relation to other
musical styles as differences in color by mapping it to a three dimensional structure based on color space. This
method of categorization can be used to describe differences between music within, and between, various musical
genres, in a way that enhances what is already intuitively understood by those who love and enjoy music.

The COLORCUBE Puzzle is a patented invention, available exclusively from Spittin’ Image Software Inc. New
Westminster, B.C. Canada. V3L 3B2. Tel: (604) 525-2170. Fax: (604) 520-0029.

For more information about color and the COLORCUBE, visit www.colorcube.com.
Copyright (c) 1998 Spittin’ Image Software Inc.
 COLOR NEWS July 31, 1997
TM

COLOR MODEL TIMELINE GIVES BIRTH TO NEW GEM

This collection of color

models, compiled by F.
Gerritsen, shows the
extensive thought and
theory that surrounds A)
the phenomenon of D)
color.

By Winston Wong

Every revelation in color

theory has brought about new
models by which the
perception of color can be
understood and subsequently,
taught. Whether driven by a
new discovery or technological B)
advance, each progression
changes the way we think E)
about color.

This historical account of color

is not unlike a “color model
museum” where, like most
concepts, significant changes
in knowledge are recorded for
posterity.
C)
The majority of these color
F)
models are thematic around
basic geometric shapes.
Circular models, which later
COLORCUBE 1997
become spherical, appear the
most frequently and are very Various models of significance:
much in use today. Triangles A) Newton’s color wheel – resulting from splitting white light into
are also used fairly extensively the colors of the rainbow.
having evolved into intricate B) Munsell Sphere – a popular spherical model.
cones and pyramids. It is the C) Hickethier – the first known “cubic” model.
square and cubic models, D) CIE – model used by official international organization.
however, that draw an E) Gerritsen – invented by the color theorist who compiled the
increasing amount of attention models shown here.
as a means of mapping out
F) COLORCUBE - the latest step in color model technology.
visual color spaces.

Copyright © 1997, Spittin’ Image Software Inc. # 102, 416 6th St. New Westminster, BC, Canada V3L 3B2 (604) 525-2170
www.colorcube.com
Other models of significance in
the diagrams are the Munsell
Spheres and the CIE diagrams
that, in their own rights, are the
standards by which color is
generally measured.

For the purposes of teaching

color especially with respect to
color storage and manipulation
within computer technology, the
COLORCUBE model proves to
be excellent. It is at once
artistically simple and
scientifically relevant. At last,
there is a model that meets the
needs of artists and scientists
alike.

We hope you enjoy seeing and

contemplating how others have
tried to understand color. This
begs the question: what model
best defines how you envision
color?

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-3-
 COLORCUBE 1997

Copyright © 1997, Spittin’ Image Software Inc. # 102, 416 6th St. New Westminster, BC, Canada V3L 3B2 (604) 525-2170
www.colorcube.com
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