Building services and integration - II

PROJECT -I
(INTEGRATED BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM)

SUBMITTED BY
P.LAVANYAVIDYA S.SUJATHA

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Building Management System (BMS):

A Building Management System (BMS) is a computer-based control system installed in buildings that controls and monitors the buildings mechanical and electrical equipment such as ventilation, lighting, power systems, fire systems, and security systems. A BMS consists of software and hardware; the software program, usually configured in a hierarchical manner, can be proprietary, using such protocols as C-bus, Profibus, and so on. Vendors are also producing BMSs that integrate using Internet protocols and open standards such as Device Net, SOAP, XML, BAC net, Lon Works and Modbus.

A BMS system normally comprises

Power systems Illumination system Electric power control system Heating, Ventilation and Air-conditioning HVAC System Security and observation system Magnetic card and access system Fire alarm system Elevator 2|Page

Characteristics
A BMS is most common in a large building. Its core function is to manage the environment within the building and may control temperature, carbon dioxide levels and humidity within a building. As a core function in most BMS systems, it controls heating and cooling, manages the systems that distribute this air throughout the building (for example by operating fans or opening/closing dampers), and then locally controls the mixture of heating and cooling to achieve the desired room temperature. A secondary function sometimes is to monitor the level of human-generated CO2, mixing in outside air with waste air to increase the amount of oxygen while also minimising heat/cooling losses. Systems linked to a BMS typically represent 40% of a building's energy usage; if lighting is included, this number approaches 70%. BMS systems are a critical component to managing energy demand. Improperly configured BMS systems are believed to account for 20% of building energy usage, or approximately 8% of total energy usage in the United States. As well as controlling the building's internal environment, BMS systems are sometimes linked to access control (turnstiles and access doors controlling who is allowed access and egress to the building) or other security systems such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) and motion detectors. Fire alarm systems and elevators are also sometimes linked to a BMS, for example, if a fire is detected then the system could shut off dampers in the ventilation system to stop smoke spreading and send all the elevators to the ground floor and park them to prevent people from using them in the event of a fire.

History
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Building Management Systems have been employed for as long as commercial buildings have existed, whether this be through manpower loading coal into coal fired boilers or opening water pipe valves manually with the use of a handle so to enable heated water to flow through a radiator circuit. However, "BMS" as a phrase, is relatively new, the concept being introduced in the early 1970s (the terms BAS-building automation system, and EMS-energy management system are also used); the phrase has only really existed since the introduction of complex electronic devices that are capable of retaining data for the purposes of managing services such as power, lighting, heating and so on. It was the advent of the "modem", or "modulator-demodulator" which allowed analog signals to be digitized so that they could be communicated over long distances with a high degree of accuracy that spurred the development and deployment of modern BMSs. The Powers 570 was an example of such a system. Developed and marketed by Powers Regulator Company (later purchased by Siemens), it was deployed into the market in May 1970, as the model number suggests. Before the modern, computer-controlled BMSs came into being, various electromechanical systems were in use to control buildings. Many facilities management offices had panels consisting of manual switches or more commonly, lights showing the status of various items of plant, allowing building maintenance staff to react if something failed. Some of these systems also include an audible alarm. Advancements in signal communications technology have allowed the migration of early pneumatic and "home run" hard wired systems, to modems communicating on a single twisted pair cable, to ultra fast IP based communication on "broad band" or "fiber optic" cable.

Functions of Building Management Systems

To create a central computer controlled method which has three basic functions: CONTROLLING MONITORING OPTIMIZING the buildings facilities, mechanical and electrical equipments for comfort, safety and efficiency.

Benefits of BMS
Building tenant/occupants Good control of internal comfort conditions Possibility of individual room control Increased staff productivity Effective monitoring and targeting of energy consumption Improved plant reliability and life Effective response to HVAC-related complaints 4|Page

Save time and money during the maintenance Building owner Higher rental value Flexibility on change of building use Individual tenant billing for services facilities manager Central or remote control and monitoring of building Increased level of comfort and time saving Maintenance Companies Ease of information availability problem diagnostics. Computerized maintenance scheduling Effective use of maintenance staff Early detection of problems More satisfied occupants

GREEN BUILDING REQUIREMENTS In order to fulfill the requirements of Green Building standards and initiatives, the systems shall support integration with a standard integration platform, advanced controllability, and sophisticated monitoring, measurement, verification and versatile reporting. The most important prerequisite for achieving Green Building status is the efficient functional integration of building systems. The systems shall function smoothly together according to modes of the building or the space, prevailing conditions and needs/preferences of the users. The integrated operations shall be fully automatic, triggered by one input, having appropriate impact to all systems in the building. System integration shall enable significantly lower energy consumption, real-time control and monitoring, and dynamic graphics according to needs. System integration shall create better environmental air quality, radically improved energy performance and increased water efficiency, according to requirements of LEED and other Green Building standard and initiatives. System integration shall also allow for efficient system maintenance and full-scale service provisioning with radically lower cost and better quality services. Easy access to building systems shall ensures that everything is in perfect condition and functions in
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the optimal way at all times. Should anything disturbing happen, immediate response shall be available. Integration shall facilitate undisturbed conditions in the building and sustainable development through minimized energy consumption, first-class security and significantly lower life cycle costs. SYSTEM INTEGRATION The System provider shall furnish and install a fully integrated Building Management System (BMS), incorporating distributed control techniques and standard open communication networks. The system shall be implemented as an integrated, open solution, which enables Service Center connectivity through standard Building Operating System (BOS) interface. The integrated systems shall include controls and monitoring of the whole building (BMS and Security) and each room/apartment whenever applicable. Integrated Building Management and Security Systems shall include the following subsystems: - BMS / Building automation (cooling/heating control, ventilation control, pumps, etc.) - Lighting control of common areas - Consumption metering of water, electricity, cooling (heating) energy and gas - Access control system for common areas - Intruder alarm system for common areas - Video monitoring system for common areas - Fire alarm system - Central battery system Whenever applicable, Guest Room Controls shall include the following subsystems: - Room temperature controls - Lighting controls, dimming groups - Lighting controls, on/off groups - Controlled sockets, enabled/disabled - Curtain controls (optional) - Water consumption metering (optional) - Electricity consumption metering (optional) - Cooling energy consumption metering (optional) Whenever applicable, Home Automation shall include the following subsystems: - Cooling/heating control of each apartment - Ventilation control (when applicable) - Lighting controls - Curtain controls - Other electrical controls - Leakage/moisture alarms
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- Access control - Intruder alarms - Camera surveillance (when applicable) All systems shall be integrated with the open Building Operating System (BOS) platform as described in the System Architecture. The BOS shall provide standard connectivity to the Service Center, which shall be capable of providing advanced maintenance and security services. USER INTERFACES Systems shall be accessed through the Building Operating System (BOS). System must have two main user interface types professional user interface and occupant user interface.

Professional User Interface

The system shall enable a client-based User Interface for professional usage and for central monitoring of systems (Service Center usage). The professional User Interface shall allow for at least the following: - Alarm monitoring and alarm handling by multiple operators - Intruder alarms - Fire alarms - Alarms from electrical and mechanical systems - System maintenance alarms - Video monitoring - Remote diagnostics, energy optimization and trending - Setpoint adjustment - Control optimization - Peak load management - Trending - Remote diagnostics of system/devices - Preventive maintenance - Consumption reports for energy management and billing - Logs and reporting - User profile and role management - Access rights management The professional User Interface shall be implemented as a client application, which includes an automatically adapting tree structure of the building, buildings parts, individual spaces, different systems and parts of systems. The tree structure can be used for navigation through the system. All systems connected to Building Operating System can be accessed through the same graphical User Interface. The client software can be installed to unlimited number of remote computers or laptops. The client software shall allow for remote Internet usage of several sites using the same client. 7|Page

The professional User Interface shall show system views, floor plan views, trend view, alarm view and event log view per building and system layer. Any alarm shall be shown in red color in both graphical views and tree structure. Each alarm message shall include shortcut to relevant graphical system and floor plan view.

Occupant User Interface

Subsystems in e.g. meeting rooms, hotel rooms or residences shall be usable through a graphical browser-based occupant User Interface, using touch screen panel PCs, tablet PCs, IPTV, home computers, laptops, PDAs and mobile phones. The User Interface shall comply with requirements defined in the System Architecture. The browser-based occupant User Interface shall be generated automatically using the structure of the building defined in the Building Information Model. The browser-based User Interface shall utilize latest web technologies, such as AJAX. The user interfaces shall provide easy access to frequently needed functionality, such as lighting controls, temperature set point modifications, alarms, and configuration of scenes and modes of the space. The same user interface functionality shall be usable through any device with a browser. The browser-based occupant User Interface shall allow for at least the following actions: - Changing the mode of the space - Modifying the mode settings of the controlled devices - Changing the setpoints - Modifying the control settings (e.g. dimming level) - Manual controls - Door controls - Camera views - Alarm list browsing SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE The system shall be implemented as an integrated, open solution, which enables Service Center connectivity through standard Building Operating System (BOS) interface. The System Architecture shall consist of four levels: - Service Level - Management Level - Control Level - Field Level The system shall be completely modular in structure and freely expandable at any stage. Each level of the system shall operate independently of the next level up as specified in the system architecture. For example, Control Level shall operate independently without support from Management Level. The system shall be fully consistent with the latest industry standards. To enable efficient functional system integration and to provide maximum flexibility and to respond to changes in the building use, the system offered shall support the use of LonWorks, Modbus, M-bus, Ethernet TCP/IP and Internet communication technologies. Service Level Service Level shall allow the systems to be connected without additional software to one or several Service Center(s), for providing centralized remote monitoring, alarm and fault detection of connected building management and security systems. The Service Center shall be capable of accessing remotely the systems through a standard interface through the BOS platform. The standard connectivity shall enable providing advanced maintenance and security services, such as security alarm monitoring, maintenance alarm monitoring, remote 8|Page

diagnostics, main user capability, remote control and optimization of all systems, energy optimization, trending and reporting services. The Service Center shall support connectivity of multiple sites in multi-operator environment. Predefined alarms from connected sites e.g. intruder alarms, dirty filter notifications or leakage alarms, for example shall appear in the alarm list with a specified priority. Alarms shall be stored in the central database. Remote diagnostics of site systems and devices shall enable proactive maintenance of technical systems, energy optimization and efficient management of the infrastructure. Centralized monitoring of all connected sites with main user capability shall enable e.g. set point changes, manual controls and camera controls by using the remote connection. Management Level Management Level shall provide a uniform view to all systems through the open Building Operating System (BOS) platform. All the systems - controls of cooling, ventilation and lighting, consumption measurements, access controls, intruder alarms, fire alarms and NVR/DVR systems shall be integrated with the BOS using device drivers. The BOS shall offer at least the following common services to be used by all connected systems: o Alarms o Historical trending o Logs and reporting o User profile and role management To ensure fault-tolerant system functionality, the Management Layer shall not be responsible for any controls. The critical control functionality is taken care of by the intelligence on the Control Layer. The Management Layer shall provide standard connectivity through the BOS platform with the Service Level, with capability to support very advanced maintenance and security services. The BOS software shall also be capable of acting as a gateway between systems conveying messages, for example, from IP or Modbus devices to LON devices and vice versa. The BOS shall collect trends from defined points, collect and forward alarms from the systems. The BOS shall enable efficient management of user rights. The BOS shall be capable of forwarding alarms to mobile phones using SMS, local alarm printers or to Service Center. It shall be possible to browse the alarm history for reporting and statistical purposes. The BOS shall include a structured XML object model of the building, its parts and spaces, its connected systems, system parts and effect areas of each system. The XML object model shall comply with COBA XML schema. The BOS shall include an open interface for other applications to interact with the connected systems. Communication method between BOS and Client applications shall include at least Java Messaging Service (JMS). No other primary interfaces are recommended. Web interfaces shall be used for lightweight clients, e.g. automatically generated browser-based user interfaces in residences for Panel PCs, PDAs or IPTV. The network technology shall be based on the IT standards, such as TCP/IP, and be compatible with latest LAN/WAN technology. The operating system of the BOS server shall be Linux. The BOS shall be capable of supporting current and future building management protocols through implementation of network interface drivers. The BOS shall be capable of current and future systems and devices through implementation of device drivers. Control Level The Control Level shall consist of a distributed network of smart controllers, which communicate to each other using a commonly known field bus as specified herein. Connectivity towards Management Level shall utilize standard TCP/IP protocol. The controllers shall include all the intelligence of the system. All communication shall be event based, real-time peer-to-peer communication. All controllers shall be capable of operating autonomously 9|Page

independently of Management Layer. For example, all systems react to alarms on the Control Layer without interference from upper layers. Each automation controller shall be capable of handling several different systems in parallel through flexible distribution of I/O points. Automation controllers shall function as autonomous units and form an intelligent system by communicating in real time over the free topology (FTT-10) Local Operating Network (LON) using standard network variables (SNVT). Security controllers shall utilize RS-485 connection between the network controller and the interface panels. Field Level The Field Level shall consist of industry standard sensors and actuators, industry standard (wiegand) card readers and IP cameras. 2 Building Management and Security Systems Building Management and Security Systems, including building automation, lighting controls, consumption measurements, access control, intruder alarms, video monitoring, fire alarms, central battery system and home automation, shall be integrated using the Building Operating System (BOS) as the integration platform, which shall provide functionality as described in the System Architecture. BUILDING AUTOMATION Building automation includes control and monitoring of cooling/heating system, ventilation system, pumps, tanks, lifts etc. All mechanical and electrical systems shall be monitored and controlled by smart control nodes connected to Local Operating Network (LON). Building automation systems shall be integrated with lighting controls, security systems and fire alarm system as specified in the System Architecture. Building automation shall be connected to the central user interface through the Building Operating System (BOS). Distribution of intelligence The intelligence of the automation systems shall be distributed into Smart Control Nodes, which are connected to control network (LON). Smart Control Nodes must be commonly used during past 10 years in large scale commercial facilities, such as offices, business centers or hotels. It shall be possible to integrate the systems on Control Level without interference of Management Level, according to System Architecture. Communication between Smart Control Nodes shall be peer-to-peer communication via a Free Topology (FTT-10) Local Operating Network (LON) with the Standard Network Variables Types (SNVT). All communication shall be event based. Nodes shall be intelligent modules, capable of operating autonomously independently of Management Level. For example, all systems must be able to react to alarms on the Control Level without interference from upper levels. Usage of I/O points Each node shall have about 10 I/O points to achieve maximum reliability and flexibility. Each node shall be capable of handling several different systems in parallel through flexible distribution of I/O points. The I/O points of the Control nodes shall be as follows: - DI: Digital indication, from potential free contact - DO: Digital control, open collector - AI: Analog input, standard measurements 0-10 VDC, PT1000 or Ni1000-LG. - AO: Analog control, 0-10 VDC or 20 mA The Control nodes shall include PID controllers and ON/OFF (thermostat) functions for implementing the control loops used in engineering system process controls. Logical functions shall be implemented using configurable software objects in the Control nodes. Field devices are connected to Control nodes using the common industry standards: - PT-1000 for temperature 10 | P a g e

- 0-10 V for other sensors and actuators - Potential free contacts for ON/OFF indications and push buttons - 24 V relays for ON/OFF controls - Impulses for consumption measurements To guarantee openness, flexibility and cost-efficient maintenance of the integrated systems, the field devices shall not include independent control logic. Control nodes are placed to the nearest electric cabin, side of air-handling units or in separate cabins when adequate. All systems shall use the same control network cabling, which uses free topology to maximize flexibility for future modifications and to minimize the need for cables. Electrical design should utilize star topology for controlled loads to maximize flexibility for changes. General Purpose Controllers General Purpose Controllers shall be freely configurable to achieve maximum reliability and flexibility and to meet the sequence of operation and future modifications. Configuration shall be done with a graphical system configuration tool, which shall be compatible with the Building Operating System (BOS). The tool shall produce BOS compatible XML document about all integrated systems, which can be used as such to run the BOS. Special Purpose Controllers Special Purpose Controllers shall be used as autonomous controllers in rooms, zones and fan coil units. Each Special Purpose Controller alone shall be capable of controlling temperature, air quality (CO2) and lighting in the room or zone. Special Purpose Controllers shall communicate on LON bus. It shall be possible for the FCU controller to automatically change the FCU motor speed based on temperature deviation. The FCU controller shall regulate the cooling valve to meet the desired temperature conditions. FCU controllers shall communicate on LON bus and shall be integrated with BMS system to enable energy optimization and reporting. LIGHTING CONTROLS Lighting of common areas of the building shall be controlled by smart control nodes, which shall be connected to LON field bus in the same way as desribed in the chapter Building Automation. Lighting controls shall be implemented as part of the integrated Building Automation system. Lighting groups in the common areas are on/off controlled (and/or dimmed) as follows: - Using local push buttons (on/off, on/off/up/down, lighting scenes) - On occupancy - Based on illumination level (dusk) - Time schedules Lighting controls are integrated with building automation and security systems and connected to the central user interface through BOS. CONSUMPTION METERING Consumptions of water, electricity, gas and cooling energy shall be measured in each area / apartment. Water and electricity meters shall be equipped with impulse outputs. Impulse outputs are connected to Smart Control Nodes, which are connected to Local Operating Network (LON). BTU meters shall be connected direct to control network. All consumptions shall be trended into BOSs database for generating regular consumption reports. Different type of reports have to be generated for professional users and occupants. Occupant reports must be easy to understand and they must increase environmental awareness according to LEED and other green building initiatives. ACCESS CONTROL AND INTRUDER ALARMS 11 | P a g e

Access control system shall be integrated with building automation, lighting controls and other security systems using the Building Operating System (BOS) as the integration platform. Access control shall be implemented with proximity readers, control nodes, electronic keys and electronic locks. Users can be classified so that they have access only to the spaces they are allowed to enter according to programmed time schedules. The access control system is connected to BOS for full control and reporting, and integrated into the central user interface. Intruder alarm system shall include perimeter protection and indoor surveillance. Monitored doors and windows shall be equipped with magnetic contacts. Movement detectors used in indoor surveillance shall be sensitive enough for presence detection of a single person, so that they can also be used for lighting controls and air-conditioning controls. Intruder alarms are seamlessly integrated on software level to access control, CCTV/DVR/NVR, lighting control and building automation. Granted access disarms the alarm zones automatically. In case of burglary the system gives an alarm, which is relayed through BOS to Service Center and/or to specified mobile phones. Network Controllers Network Controllers shall connect access control and intruder alarm system with Management Level using an open interface utilizing TCP/IP protocol. Network Controllers shall connect with up to 32 Interface Panels using RS-485 bus. The door/reader Interface Panels shall operate also autonomously with no connection to a Network Controller. Network Controllers shall buffer the offline transactions from Interface Panels when connection to the BOS server is down and send the transactions when the connection is restored. The Network Controller shall enable access control database with 44.000 card holders. The memory of the Network Controller shall be easily expandable to accommodate up to 250.000 card holders. Each card holder can belong to max 8 access groups. The total number of available access groups in the system shall be 65.535. Each access group shall have a schedule based access to defined door groups. The Network Controllers shall be able to communicate with each other to create large-scale area control solutions with independent control logics. Area control solutions shall be expandable using TCP/IP network to include door/reader Interface Panels located under several Network Controllers. Network Controller shall have local inputs for tamper and battery failure for indications and alarms. Interface Panels The selection of Interface Panels shall include at least Door/Reader Interface Panel, Input Monitor Interface Panel and Output Control Interface Panel. The Interface Panels shall connect with Network Controllers using RS-485 bus. Door/Reader Interface Panels shall have two reader interfaces utilizing standard Wiegand protocol. Depending on application, the panel can be configured to control two sets of separate doors with a reader and an exit button, or one door with two-side readers (entry/exit). In addition to the two reader interfaces, the Door/Reader Interface Panels shall have the following inputs and outputs: door monitor input, exit button input, strike relay output, auxiliary relay output. Door/Reader Interface Panels shall be capable of indicating door forced and door held alarms also locally by using the internal beeper of the reader. Interface Panels shall have local inputs for tamper and battery failure for indications and alarms. The Input Monitoring Interface Panel shall be used to interface e.g. magnetic contacts and motion detectors to indicate alarm events. The Input Monitoring Interface Panel shall include 16 supervised alarm inputs and 2 relay outputs. Output Control Interface Panel shall be used mainly to control lifts. The Output Control Interface Panel shall have 12 relay outputs and 2 supervised alarm inputs. It shall be possible to create complex I/O linking and rules between Network Controllers and Interface Panels. Readers 12 | P a g e

The system shall support a variety of readers using standard Wiegand protocol, including plain readers, keypad readers, long-range readers and biometric readers. Readers should be based on 125 kHz proximity technology or 13.56 MHz contactless smart card technology, e.g. Mifare or iCLASS. The system shall support a variety of credentials, including but not limited to e.g. traditional proximity cards and tags. VIDEO MONITORING Video monitoring shall be implemented with Digital Video Recording (DVR) or a fully IP based Network Video Recording (NVR) system. The video monitoring system shall be integrated to BOS server so that the system shall start recording video stream upon triggering from intruder alarm system, access control, CCTV or any other system integrated to BMS. The video monitoring system shall support both analog and IP cameras. The system shall preferably run on Linux operating system. Usage can be done both via video monitoring systems own User Interface Client and the integrated user interface of the BOS. In addition to the software based user interface, it shall be possible to additionally expand the operator workstation with hardware based keypad and joystick interfaced with the system. FIRE ALARMS Fire alarm system shall be integrated with BMS for monitoring. Fire alarm system can be integrated either by 1.) using potential free contacts of Fire Alarm Panels connected to control modules or as 2.) using system driver which gives alarm information on individual sensor level to BOS. In both cases alarms are relayed to BOS and shown in the integrated graphical user interfaces. Ventilation is shut down in the area concerned. Biometric Technologies Although the biometric technologies are segmented in the technologies they analyze, each end product operates essentially in the same way. The first crucial step in building any biometric system is to obtain a sample of the biometric characteristic during an enrollment process, [4.]. This step is crucial in the effectiveness of the system, because this is when the initial characteristics of a user are determined. During the enrollment process, each user, beginning with the administrator who controls the system, provides samples of that systems specific biometric characteristic, . This is accomplished by interacting with the scanning hardware that the system provides . The unique features of the sample are then extracted and converted by the system into a mathematical code and the sample is then stored as the biometric template for that person, . The biometric template that is stored may reside in the biometric system itself, or in any other form of memory storage, such as a computer database, a smart card, or a bar-code,. All biometric systems use a procedure that consists of four stages: capture, extraction, comparison, and matching. The only difference is the methods and techniques that each biometric system uses to deal with the human characteristic involved. The capture stage refers to the physical or behavioral sample that is captured during the enrollment process, .The extraction stage refers to the extraction of unique data from the captured sample and then used in the creation of a template. The comparison stage refers to the comparing of a new sample with that of the original sample imprinted on the template. Finally, the matching stage refers to the process in which the biometric system will determine whether the new sample accurately matches the original sample or not.

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BACK GROUND AND OBJECTIVES Biometrics such as fingerprints, irises, and faces are increasingly prevalent in authentication, encryption and access control. Biometrics are slightly different each time they are measured. Therefore they cannot be stored in encrypted form as passwords are because the encrypted form of the original biometric and the encrypted form of a later measurement of the same biometric would not match. At the same time the authentication method needs to be robust to the natural measurement variation of the biometric. Fingerprint Verification Presently, fingerprint biometrics are the most widely adopted biometric technologies in the industry. This is because the stability and uniqueness of the fingerprint are well established, . For instance, upon careful examination, it is estimated that the chance of two people, including twins, having the same print is less than one in a billion, Many fingerprint scanners work by analyzing the position of minutiae, which are small unique marks on the finger image, To further elaborate, minutiae are the points where two ridges on a fingertip meet, Normally, a fingerprint will contain up to 100 of these points. Presently, the largest application of fingerprint technology is in Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), which is used by police forces throughout the U.S. and in over 30 foreign countries,

Advantages Obtaining a fingerprint via a scanner is non-invasive. It is very hard to forge a fingerprint . It is not possible to re-construct the original fingerprint from the template i.e. identify theft is not possible through this way. Replay attacks are hard to implement as the scanner and host computer use various methodologies to combat it. Encrypted messages are sent between the scanner and host using public/private keys. The host computer issues uses time stamps / challenge response to ensure messages are not being diverted or replayed 14 | P a g e

The reliability of fingerprint authentication is good, false rejection rates are typically below 0.1%, false acceptance rates are typically below 0.01%. These rates vary depending on the scanner and the matching algorithm used. Disadvantages Fingerprint authentication is a very similar methodology to passwords; businesses may not see the advantage of them. Although it is time consuming, it is possible to fool some scanners with fake fingers. Scars, bruises and dry skin affect the quality of the image obtained; bad quality images will be rejected by the host computer. The system is only as secure as the security level at the time of enrolment; an attacker may impersonate a valid user and enroll their own fingerprint as that of the valid user, hence gaining access to the system and denying access to an authorized user. It may be possible to remove the scanning device and interface directly with the chip in the scanner using a computer. An image file a fingerprint could then be sent via the chip, the image would then be encrypted with the right key. However it would be possible to make the hardware tamper resistant.

Hand Geometry Hand geometry has had a 20-year history of live applications, in biometrics and is currently employed at over 8,000 locations, including the Columbian legislature, San Francisco International Airport, day care centers, a sperm bank, welfare agencies, hospitals and immigration facilities for the INSPASS frequent international traveler system, A biometric hand geometry device measures the shape and length of the fingers and knuckles, Such devices are useful for controlling access to a building with a limited number of occupants, They have also proven popular among time and attendance recording applications

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Eye Patterns Biometric technologies that analyze the eyes can be separated into two categories: iris scanning and retinal scanning. Iris biometric technologies analyze the complex pattern of the iris, which can be a combination of specific characteristics known as cornea, crypts, filaments, freckles, pits, radial furrows and striations, This technology does not require that the user focus on the target due to the fact that the iris pattern is on the eyes surface, and can even be taken up to three feet away, Similarly, retinal biometric technologies analyze an area known as the fovea which allows the capturing of a unique pattern of blood vessels, These patterns are scanned by a low intensity light source via an optical coupler, However, unlike iris scanning, retinal scanning requires the user to look into a receptacle and focus on a given point,

Facial Recognition Facial recognition biometric technologies are currently one of the fastest growing areas of the biometric industry in terms of new development effort, Many of these efforts employ neural either network technology or statistical correlations of the faces geometric shape, A facial image, or collection of images, is captured using standard video techniques, From the captured image(s), a number of points on the face can then be mapped out, to create a unique template. As an alternative, a three-dimensional map of the face may be created from the captured image, However, when using standard video techniques to capture an image, the precise position of the users face and the surrounding lighting conditions may affect the systems performance, Another alternative used in facial recognition is thermal imaging. The use of a thermal or infrared camera captures the hidden, heat-generated pattern of blood vessels lurking underneath the skin, Lighting is not important when referring to an infrared camera, so systems such as these can capture images in the dark, The use of facial recognition biometric technologies allow for the facial image to be captured from several meters away, The obvious allure to facial recognition resides in the fact that it is the method most akin to the way that we as humans identify people

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Advantages For low security identification no co-operation is needed as the camera can be placed like a CCTV camera, this will allow covert monitoring. Re-enrolment is not needed under normal operation as facial features do not change with age they are subject to intentional disfigurement of course. When combining 3D modeling with thermogram a truly unique pattern is created that is totally unique, unlike DNA for example where identical twins share the same DNA . An advantage over fingerprints is the number of reference points used to build up the model / template. A 3D thermogram includes over 19,000 points whereas a fingerprint template will have around 80. Disadvantages Thermogram images are drastically affected by alcohol levels as this dehydrates the body which leads to an overall increase in the temperature level. As a 3D model is comprised of over 19,000 points is it a very realistic portrait which easily identifies the subject in question. What effects will the Data Protection Act have over the storage of the models (fingerprint templates do not constitute personal data). The cost of extremely accurate facial authentication systems is high especially if combining different types of cameras. This cost can be prohibitive. When using the technology for high security verification the techniques are extremely susceptible to light and camera distance changes and controlled rooms are needed, which prevents covert analysis.

Signature Dynamics Biometric technologies that measure signature dynamics are often referred to as dynamic signature verification (DSV) and they look at the way we sign our names,. Signature verification enjoys a synergy with existing processes that other biometrics do not, because it is extremely common for people to use signatures as a means of transaction related identity verification and most people would see nothing unusual in extending this to encompass biometrics, DSV focuses on the method of signing rather than the finished signature and is not based on a static image. DSV can extract and measure a number of characteristics, such as the velocity and acceleration of the signature, the 17 | P a g e

pressure exerted when holding the pen, as well as the number of times the pen is lifted from the paper, In spite of the common usage of the signature, there have been relatively few significant applications to date in comparison with other biometric methodologies,. Voice Recognition When referring to voice recognition biometric technologies, it is important to distinguish this technology from those that recognize words and act on commands, Voice recognition software that can recognize words and type a letter or automate instructions given over the telephone are not considered to be biometric technologies . In contrast, voice recognition biometric technologies measure the sound of a human voice that is caused by resonance in the vocal tract, . The sound of a human voice is based on the length of the vocal tract, as well as the shape of the mouth and nasal cavities, Thus, these characteristics can affect every sound made by a human. The method that voice recognition biometric technologies use to measure the voice may use either text-dependent or textindependent methods, Text-dependent methods capture the sound of a voice by having the user utter a specifically designated password combining phrases, words or numbers, whereas text-independent methods capture the sound of a voice by having the user utter any form of phrase, words or numbers, Voice verification biometrics are currently being used in access control for medium-security or highsecurity throughput situations such as offices and labs as well as in remote banking applications, Biometric technologies are also being used to prevent fraudulent access to telephone systems. With the popular emergence of cellular telephones, Dial Inward System Access (DISA) and a range of telecommunication services, the global communications industry is finding that they are even more vulnerable to fraud than ever before . For example, cellular companies are vulnerable to cloning (where a new phone is created using stolen code numbers) and also to new subscription fraud (where a phone is obtained using a false identity), The arena of Dial Inward System Access, which allows authorized individuals to contact a central exchange and make free calls, is finding that it is being targeted by telephone hackers,

DNA DNA has not been considered as a form of Biometric until recently. It dictates how we look and develop; it serves as a full set of building blocks / 'blueprints' for each person and is as unique as a fingerprint. DNA is short for Deoxyribonucleic Acid .

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With sufficient amounts of technical equipment and specialist knowledge, it is possible to look at the molecular structure of two people and tell exactly how they differ from one another. Humans share 99.9% of DNA [13]; it is the 0.1% which DNA sequencing / analysis looks at. It is estimated that 1 in every 1,200 to 1,500 bases differ between individuals. DNA is a large molecule, whose shape resembles a 'double helix' which conceptually looks very much like a ladder twisted into a spiral. Each molecule consists of a string of nucleotides; each nucleotide has three components: a sugar molecule, a phosphate molecule and a nitrogenous base. The use of DNA in biometric applications focuses on the nitrogenous bases which are referred to as 'bases' for short. There are four distinct bases:

Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Thymine (T)

Each base combines with its counterpart to form a base pair: Adenine pairs with Thymine and Cytosine with Guanine. DNA is measured in a unit called nt (nucleotides). Over 90% of the variation between individuals' DNA comes from SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) which are the mutation of a single base within a DNA molecule, changing the complete structure of the individual . The diagram shown below illustrates the structure of a DNA molecule and the base pairings that take place between nucleotides. Advantages DNA is easy to represent in binary format; four digits are used to encode each base, allowing the matching process to be done quickly and efficiently. It is seen as the most complex biometric due to the complexity of the sequencing and matching processes. People tend to think that DNA is the most secure technology and this would be true if it were only to be used for high security applications. It is extremely hard to forge or imitate as it proves difficult to extract good samples that are likely to match the template stored for the individual in the system. DNA has been used by government sources to confirm the identity of particular individuals, an example of such as use is for the identification of Saddam Hussain after the war in Iraq earlier this year. To authenticate such an individual on a large scale and prove their identity to the whole world requires a reliable biometric. Information used in other Biometric systems is analogue; there is no chance of verification achieving true recall and accuracy with other Biometric technologies. DNA is digital, increasing the accuracy and allowing true recall to be gained for the process of authentication [19]. Disadvantages Enrollment is highly intrusive; it requires a sample of blood from the individual that is to be registered with the system and more than one sample may need to be taken if the process needs to be repeated many times.To perform Enrollment requires specialist knowledge and equipment; both are expensive to acquire. As a result of this, the only situation in which DNA would be cost-effective is in high 19 | P a g e

security applications, such as defense and national security. Recent advancements in science such as cloning and the near-completion of the Human Genome sequencing project means that the concept of 'uniqueness' for DNA could be obliterated. Identical twins share the same DNA; hence this biometric would not be able to distinguish any points for authentication for identical twins.

Access Control Identification

As a leader in the field of identification and authentication, Gunnebo offers a large range of multi-technology readers, smart cards and controllers to regulate, manage and control movements of people and accessibility to particular areas By drawing on its security technologies and others derived from very close partnerships with leading market players, Gunnebo is able to offer a full and diverse range of secure pre-coded cards and biometric, magnetic, hands-free or long-distance readers that combine quality expertise in the main technologies on the market.

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Cards

From simple read-only proximity cards to contactless read-write smart cards, Gunnebo supplies solutions for identifying people and vehicles which meet all the requirements of international standards:

Multi-technology: magnetic, contact (Dallas key), contactless, biometrics. Multi-application : single multi-function cards providing several services (access control, companies restaurant, time and attendance). To complete its product offering, Gunnebo provides card personalization services for visual customization Readers

As a manufacturer, Gunnebo offers a products portfolio of readers built on its strong expertise and others derived from technology partnerhips with the leading players:

PASS readers (3.25 MHz contactless technology) Smart readers (13.56 MHz contactless technology) Biometrics

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Entrance Control Gunnebo is the worlds leading specialist in entrance control solutions and we manufacture indoor and outdoor turnstiles, interlocking doors and high performance doors, windows and partitions for a wide range of applications. From simple Tripod Turnstiles, Entrance Gates, Full-Height Turnstiles to advanced Speed Gates, Security Revolving Doors; Interlocks ranging from classic access control up to certified equipments with burglary, blast and bullet resistance; and Performance Doors, Windows and Partitions offering high-performance physical protection to resist burglar, ballistic and explosive attack. Our entrance control product range is designed to create a secure environment, whether it involves entering a company lobby, a shop, an entertainment area, an industrial zone and a metro station without restricting the freedom of movement or operating within sites with higher security level requirements such as airports, embassies, nuclear power plants and prisons. Interlocks & Automation

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Interlocks and Door Automation Systems developed by Gunnebo offer the right protection for your premises since required security levels vary not only from site to site, but also at different points within each site. Our Interlocks prevent piggybacking and tailgating and create a very secure solution for protecting the people and assets within a building. They are the solution in any building where sensitive areas need protection from intrusion, economic intelligence, theft or sabotage. Our Security Airlocks, Security Portals and Semi-Portals provide protection against manual attacks and the level of security can be increased through the use of approved burglary, bullet and blast resistant parts. Our complete range of Interlocks can be programmed to provide the required type of system by adding single passage detection, an intercom, remote mountings, video cameras or biometric identifications. In short, Interlocks and Door Automation Systems designed by Gunnebo are fully customisable to meet security requirements. Automatic Doors Automatic Door SliSec by Gunnebo is the solid and reliable sliding or telescopic door solution which can be fitted to most Gunnebo interlocking doors.

Integrated Detection Systems Integrated detection systems from Gunnebo complement and increase the access control performance of our interlocks and doors. UniRitz II is the infra-red beam array system integrated into the frame of aluminium doors developed by Gunnebo providing invisibility from the outside. To allow this single-passage detection system fitting most of existing doorways, Gunnebo has also developed a surface-mounted version. To enable remote monitoring Gunnebo proposes seamless video camera integration into the frame of Gunnebo aluminium doors. Public Transport System

Security is a transports and strive to make station, airport attractive and staff can high

prime concern in public airports. At Gunnebo we your metro or railway or seaport a much more place where passengers feel safe surrounded by technology user friendly 23 | P a g e

entrance control solutions. So public transport systems designed by Gunnebo offer the possibility for passengers to move quickly from station to platform, from check-in to boarding gate or from border control to baggage claim, without compromising the strictest security demands Boarding Gates Boarding gates designed by Gunnebo are the answer to increasing seat capacities in planes. User-friendly, BoardSec is the right solution for boarding areas by simplifying passenger travel, increasing efficiency of passenger flow, releasing airport staff for other duties and reducing operating costs Outdoor Perimeter Security Gunnebos offer includes crash rated gates, wedge barriers, bollards, roadblockers, electro-fencing as well as boom barriers, turnstiles, sliding- and swing gates in aluminum and steel. . Gunnebo is one of Europes leading suppliers of outdoor perimeter security solutions. Our target groups are embassies, military installations and other sites in need of security solutions. 1. Boom Barriers 2. Electromechanical Boom Barrier 3. Hydraulic Barrier 4. Manual Boom Barrier A boom barrier is a bar, or pole pivoted in such a way as to allow the boom to block vehicular access through a controlled point. Typically the tip of a boom gate rises in a vertical arc to a near vertical position. Boom gates are often counterweighted, so the pole is easily tipped. Boom gates are often paired either end to end, or offset appropriately to block traffic in both directions. Some boom gates also have a second arm, which pivots on links that allow the second arm to hang 300 to 400 mm below the upper arm when it descends into the horizontal position, in order to increase approach visibility. Boom gates are typically found at level (rail) crossings, drawbridges, parking facilities, checkpoints and entrances to restricted areas. They are also the usual method for controlling passage through toll booths. Some boom gates are automatic and powered, others are manually operated. Manual gates are sometimes hung in the manner of a normal gate (i.e. hinged horizontally).In some places, boom gates are installed across suburban streets as a traffic calming measure, preventing through traffic, while allowing authorised vehicles such as emergency services and buses to take advantage of the shorter and more direct route. Automatic full barriers are a set of four half-barriers closing a road at a railway level crossing. Typically the barriers on the approach side to the crossing are lowered first with those on the exit side following shortly after. The sequence timing is set to allow enough time for a vehicle or pedestrian on the crossing to exit before the exit barriers come down. There are no examples of these in the UK. All full barrier level crossings in the UK are manually operated and not automatic. 24 | P a g e

Boom Barriers The boom barrier consists of a robust steel construction and is designed for continuous use. Several versions are available such as hydraulicelectromechanical and manual boom barriers. One of the distinguishing features is their simplicity of assembly Electromechanical Boom Barrier

The electromechanical boom barrier is a high quality industrial boom barrier for continuous day and night use in demanding application areas. Several types and lengths are available which are all perfectly adapted to the customer requirements. Hydraulic Barrier

Hydraulic boom barriers are the strongest boom barrier in the market. Every time that an over-length boom is required or gate barriers are needed, the hydraulic boom barrier is the solution Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may employ point to point (P2P), point to multipoint, or mesh wireless links. Though almost all video cameras fit this definition, the term is most often applied to those used for surveillance in areas that may need monitoring such as banks, casinos, airports, military installations, and convenience stores. Videotelephony is seldom called "CCTV" but the use of video in distance education, where it is an important tool, is often so called.[1][2] In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a central control room, for example when the environment is not suitable for humans. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event. A more advanced form of CCTV, utilizing Digital Video Recorders (DVRs), provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features (such as motion-detection and email alerts). More recently, decentralized IP-based CCTV cameras, some equipped with megapixel sensors, support recording directly to network-attached storage devices, or internal flash for completely stand-alone operation. Surveillance of the public using CCTV is particularly common in the UK, where there are reportedly more cameras per person than in any other country in the world.[3] There and elsewhere, its increasing use has triggered a debate about security versus privacy. 25 | P a g e

Traffic monitoring Many cities and motorway networks have extensive traffic-monitoring systems, using closedcircuit television to detect congestion and notice accidents. Many of these cameras however, are owned by private companies and transmit data to drivers' GPS systems. The UK Highways Agency has a publicly owned CCTV network of over 1200 cameras covering the English motorway and trunk road network. These cameras are primarily used to monitor traffic conditions and are not used as speed cameras. With the addition of fixed cameras for the Active Traffic Management system the number of cameras on the Highways Agency CCTV network is likely to increase significantly over the next few years. The London congestion charge is enforced by cameras positioned at the boundaries of and inside the congestion charge zone, which automatically read the registration plates of cars. If the driver does not pay the charge then a fine will be imposed. Similar systems are being developed as a means of locating cars reported stolen. Other surveillance cameras serve as traffic enforcement cameras. Transport safety

Digital Video Recorder for Public Transport A CCTV system may be installed where an operator of a machine cannot directly observe people who may be injured by some unexpected machine operation. For example, on a subway train, CCTV cameras may allow the operator to confirm that people are clear of doors before closing them and starting the train. Operators of an amusement park ride may use a CCTV system to observe that people are not endangered by starting the ride. A CCTV camera and dashboard monitor can make reversing a vehicle safer, if it allows the driver to observe objects or people not otherwise visible. Outside the UK The use of CCTV in the United States is less common, though increasing, and generally meets stronger opposition. In 1998 3,000 CCTV systems were in use in New York City.[29] There are more than 10,000 CCTV systems in Chicago. In the last few years particularly, the percentage of people in the U.S having installed a security camera system has increased dramatically. Global Security Solutions with the help of Zone Tech Systems first announced the launch of IP surveillance in the US security industry by partnering up with Axis Communications (an IP pioneer). Today's CCTV market has transformed the shift towards IP-based security products and systems, and is often touted as an example of a disruptive technology that has had and will continue to have profound consequences for the electronic security industry as a whole.[31] In Latin America, the CCTV market is growing rapidly with the increase of property crime.[32] Criminal use 26 | P a g e

Criminals may use surveillance cameras, for example a hidden camera at an ATM to capture people's PINs without their knowledge. The devices are small enough not to be noticed, and are placed where they can monitor the keypad of the machine as people enter their PINs. Images may be transmitted wirelessly to the crimina

Privacy

A surveillance room

A mobile closed-circuit TV van monitoring a street market Opponents of CCTV point out the loss of privacy of the people under surveillance, and the negative impact of surveillance on civil liberties. Furthermore, they argue that CCTV displaces crime, rather than reducing it. Critics often dub CCTV as "Big Brother surveillance", a reference to George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, which featured a two-way telescreen in every home through which The Party would monitor the populace. Civil liberties campaign group Big Brother Watch have published several research papers into CCTV systems. In December 2009 they released a report documenting council controlled CCTV cameras.[34] More positive views of CCTV cameras have argued that the cameras are not intruding into people's privacy, as they are not surveilling private, but public space, where an individual's right to privacy can reasonably be weighed against the public's need for protection from presumptively innocent people .[35] However, both the United States Supreme Court in Katz vs. The United States and anti-surveillance activists have held that there is a right to privacy in public areas. [36][37] 27 | P a g e

The recent growth of CCTV in housing areas also raises serious issues about the extent to which CCTV is being used as a social control measure rather than simply a deterrent to crime. However, since the September 11 attacks of 2001, many studies have suggested that public opinion of CCTV has grown more favorable. Many proponents of CCTV cite the attacks of the London Underground bombings as one example of how effective surveillance led to swift progress in post-event investigations. Quite apart from government-permitted use (or abuse), questions are also raised about illegal access to CCTV recordings. The Data Protection Act 1998 in the United Kingdom led to legal restrictions on the uses of CCTV recordings, and also mandated their registration with the Data Protection Agency. In 2004, the successor to the Data Protection Agency, the Information Commissioner's Office clarified that this required registration of all CCTV systems with the Commissioner, and prompt deletion of archived recordings. However subsequent case law (Durant vs. FSA) has limited the scope of the protection provided by this law, and not all CCTV systems are currently regulated.[38] Private sector personnel in the UK who operate or monitor CCTV devices or systems are now considered security guards and have been made subject to state licensing. A 2007 report by the UK's Information Commissioner's Office, highlighted the need for the public to be made more aware of the "creeping encroachment" into their civil liberties created by the growing use of surveillance apparatus. A year prior to the report Richard Thomas, the Information Commissioner, warned that Britain was "sleepwalking into a surveillance society". In 2007, the UK watchdog CameraWatch claimed that the majority of CCTV cameras in the UK are operated illegally or are in breach of privacy guidelines. In response, the Information Commissioner's Office denied the claim adding that any reported abuses of the Data Protection Act are swiftly investigated.[39] In the United States, there are no such data protection mechanisms. It has been questioned whether CCTV evidence is allowable under the Fourth Amendment, which prohibits "unreasonable searches and seizures". The courts have generally not taken this view. In Canada, the use of video surveillance has grown very rapidly. In Ontario, both the municipal and provincial versions of the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act [40] outline very specific guidelines that control how images and information can be gathered by this method and/or released. Technological developments

Surveillance camera at London (Heathrow) Airport with a wiper for clear images during rain 28 | P a g e

Computerized monitoring The first closed-circuit television cameras used in public spaces were crude, conspicuous, low definition black and white systems without the ability to zoom or pan. Modern CCTV cameras use small high definition color cameras that can not only focus to resolve minute detail, but by linking the control of the cameras to a computer, objects can be tracked semi-automatically. The technology that enable this is often referred to as Video Content Analysis (VCA), and is currently being developed by a large number of technological companies around the world. The current technology enable the systems to recognize if a moving object is a walking person, a crawling person or a vehicle. It can also determine the color of the object. NEC claim to have a system that can identify a person's age by evaluating a picture of him/her. Other technologies claim to be able to identify people by their biometrics.

CCTV monitoring station run by the West Yorkshire Police at the Elland Road football ground in Leeds The system identifies where a person is, how he is moving and whether he is a person or for instance a car. Based on this information the system developers implement features such as blurring faces or "virtual walls" that block the sight of a camera where it is not allowed to film. It is also possible to provide the system with rules, such as for example "sound the alarm whenever a person is walking close to that fence" or in a museum "set off an alarm if a painting is taken down from the wall". VCA can also be used for forensics after the film has been made. It is then possible to search for certain actions within the recorded video. For example if you know a criminal is driving a yellow car, you can set the system to search for yellow cars and the system will provide you with a list of all the times where there is a yellow car visible in the picture. These conditions can be made more precise by searching for "a person moving around in a certain area for a suspicious amount of time", for example if someone is standing around an ATM machine without using it.

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Surveillance camera outside a McDonalds highway drive-in Maintenance of CCTV systems is important in case forensic examination is necessary after a crime has been committed.In crowds the system is limited to finding anomalies, for instance a person moving in the opposite direction to the crowd, which might be a case in airports where passengers are only supposed to walk in one direction out of a plane, or in a subway where people are not supposed to exit through the entrances.[citation needed] VCA also has the ability to track people on a map by calculating their position from the images. It is then possible to link many cameras and track a person through an entire building or area. This can allow a person to be followed without having to analyze many hours of film. Currently the cameras have difficulty identifying individuals from video alone, but if connected to a key-card system, identities can be established and displayed as a tag over their heads on the video.

Monitoring station of a small office building There is also a significant difference in where the VCA technology is placed, either the data is being processed within the cameras (on the edge) or by a centralized server. Both technologies have their pros and cons.The implementation of automatic number plate recognition produces a potential source of information on the location of persons or groups. There is no technological limitation preventing a network of such cameras from tracking the movement of individuals. Reports have also been made of plate recognition misreading numbers leading to the billing of the entirely wrong person.[41] In the UK, car cloning is a crime where, by 30 | P a g e

altering, defacing or replacing their number plates with stolen ones, perpetrators attempt to avoid speeding and congestion charge fines and even to steal petrol from garage forecourts. CCTV critics see the most disturbing extension to this technology as the recognition of faces from high-definition CCTV images.[citation needed] This could determine a person's identity without alerting him that his identity is being checked and logged. The systems can check many thousands of faces in a database in under a second.The combination of CCTV and facial recognition has been tried as a form of mass surveillance, but has been ineffective because of the low discriminating power of facial recognition technology and the very high number of false positives generated. This type of system has been proposed to compare faces at airports and seaports with those of suspected terrorists or other undesirable entrants. Eye-in-the-sky surveillance dome camera watching from a high steel pole Computerized monitoring of CCTV images is under development, so that a human CCTV operator does not have to endlessly look at all the screens, allowing an operator to observe many more CCTV cameras.[citation needed] These systems do not observe people directly. Instead they track their behaviour by looking for particular types of body movement behavior, or particular types of clothing or baggage.The theory behind this is that in public spaces people behave in predictable ways. People who are not part of the 'crowd', for example car thieves, do not behave in the same way. The computer can identify their movements, and alert the operator that they are acting out of the ordinary. Recently in the latter part of 2006, news reports on UK television brought to light newly developed technology that uses microphones If a person is observed to be shouting in an aggressive manner (e.g., provoking a fight), the camera can automatically zoom in and pinpoint the individual and alert a camera operator. Of course this then lead to the discussion that the technology can also be used to eavesdrop and record private conversations from a reasonable distance (e.g., 100 metres or about 330 feet). The same type of system can track identified individuals as they move through the area covered by CCTV. Such applications have been introduced in the early 2000s, mainly in the USA, France, Israel and Australia. With software tools, the system is able to develop three-dimensional models of an area, and to track and monitor the movement of objects within it.To many, the development of CCTV in public areas, linked to computer databases of people's pictures and identity, presents a serious breach of civil liberties. Critics fear the possibility that one would not be able to meet anonymously in a public place or drive and walk anonymously around a city.[citation needed] Demonstrations or assemblies in public places could be affected as the state would be able to collate lists of those leading them, taking part, or even just talking with protesters in the street. Retention, storage and preservation The long-term storage and archiving of CCTV recordings is an issue of concern in the implementation of a CCTV system. Re-usable media such as tape may be cycled through the recording process at regular intervals. There are statutory limits on retention of data.Recordings are kept for several purposes. Firstly, the primary purpose for which they were created (e.g. to monitor a facility). Secondly, they need to be preserved for a reasonable amount of time to recover any evidence of other important activity they might document (e.g. a group of people passing a facility the night a crime was committed). Finally, the recordings may be evaluated for historical, research or other long-term information of value they may contain (e.g. samples kept to help understand trends for a business or community).

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Recordings are more commonly stored using hard disk drives in lieu of video cassette recorders. The quality of digital recordings are subject to compression ratios, images stored per second, image size and duration of image retention before being overwritten. Different vendors of digital video recorders use different compression standards and varying compression ratios. Closed-circuit digital photography (CCDP) A development in the world of CCTV (October 2005) is in the use of megapixel digital still cameras that can take 1600 x 1200 pixel resolution images of the camera scene either on a time lapse or motion detection basis. Images taken with a digital still camera have higher resolution than those taken with a typical video camera. Relatively low-cost digital still cameras can be used for CCTV purposes, using CCDP software that controls the camera from the PC. Images of the camera scene are transferred automatically to a computer every few seconds. Images may be monitored remotely if the computer is connected to a network.Combinations of PIR activated floodlights with 1.3Mpix and better digital cameras are now appearing. They save the images to a flash memory card which is inserted into a slot on the device. The flash card can be removed for viewing on a computer if ever an incident happens. They are not intended for live viewing, but are a very simple and cheap "install and forget" approach to this issue.Closed-circuit digital photography (CCDP) is more suited for capturing and saving recorded photographs, whereas closed-circuit television (CCTV) is more suitable for live monitoring purposes.

IP cameras

Easy Connect Wireless IP camera A growing branch in CCTV is internet protocol cameras (IP cameras). IP cameras use the Internet Protocol (IP) used by most Local Area Networks (LANs) to transmit video across data networks in 32 | P a g e

digital form. IP can optionally be transmitted across the public Internet, allowing users to view their camera(s) through any internet connection available through a computer or a 3G phone. For professional or public infrastructure security applications, IP video is restricted to within a private network or VP Networking CCTV cameras The city of Chicago operates a networked video surveillance system which combines CCTV video feeds of government agencies with those of the private sector, installed in city buses, businesses, public schools, subway stations, housing projects etc. Even home owners are able to contribute footage. It is estimated to incorporate the video feeds of a total of 15,000 cameras. The system is used by Chicago's Office of Emergency Management in case of an emergency call: it detects the caller's location and instantly displays the real-time video feed of the nearest security camera to the operator, not requiring any user intervention. While the system is far too vast to allow complete real-time monitoring, it stores the video data for later usage in order to provide possible evidence in criminal cases.[43] London also has a network of CCTV systems that allows multiple authorities to view and control CCTV cameras in real time. The system allows authorities including the Metropolitan Police Service, Transport for London and a number of London boroughs to share CCTV images between them. It uses a network protocol called Television Network Protocol to allow access to many more cameras than each individual system owner could afford to run and maintain. The Glynn County Police Department uses a wireless mesh networked system of portable batterypowered tripods for live megapixel video surveillance and central monitoring of tactical police situations. The systems can be used either on a stand-alone basis with secure communications to nearby police laptops, or within a larger mesh system with multiple tripods feeding video back to the command vehicle via wireless, and to police headquarters via 3G.

Integrated systems

An integrated systems unit. Integrated systems allow users to connect remotely from the internet and view what their cameras are viewing remotely, similar to that of IP cameras. In one incident, a lady from Boynton Beach, Florida was able to watch her house get robbed and contacted police directly from her office at work.[44] 33 | P a g e

Wireless security cameras

Wireless security camera Many consumers are turning to wireless security cameras for home surveillance. Wireless cameras do not require a video cable for video/audio transmission, simply a cable for power. Wireless cameras are also easy and inexpensive to install. Previous generations of wireless security cameras relied on analog technology; modern wireless cameras use digital technology which delivers crisper audio, sharper video, and a secure and interference-free signal. CCTV countermeasures Unless physically protected, CCTV cameras have been found to be vulnerable against a variety of (mostly illegal) tactics:

Some people will deliberately destroy cameras. Some outdoor cameras, such as those employed by the Chicago Police Department, have bullet-resistant housing.[citation needed] Spraying substances over the lens can make the image too blurry to be read. Lasers can blind or damage them. However, since most lasers are monochromatic, colour filters can reduce the effect of laser pointers. However filters will also impair image quality and overall light sensitivity of cameras (see laser safety article for details on issues with filters). Also, complete protection from infrared, red, green, blue and UV lasers would require use of completely black filters, rendering the camera useless. For wireless networks, broadcasting a signal at the same frequency of the CCTV network is reportedly able to jam it

Video cameras

A couple of CS-mount lenses for surveillance cameras. The left one is designed to be hidden behind a wall. 34 | P a g e

Video cameras are either analogue or digital, which means that they work on the basis of sending analogue or digital signals to a storage device such as a video tape recorder or desktop computer or laptop computer. Analogue video cameras Can record straight to a video tape recorder which are able to record analogue signals as pictures. If the analogue signals are recorded to tape, then the tape must run at a very slow speed in order to operate continuously. This is because in order to allow a 3 hour tape to run for 24 hours, it must be set to run on a time lapse basis which is usually about 4 frames a second. In one second, the camera scene can change dramatically. A person for example can have walked a distance of 1 meter, and therefore if the distance is divided into 4 parts i.e. 4 frames or 'snapshots' in time, then each frame invariably looks like a blur, unless the subject keeps relatively still. Analogue signals can also be converted into a digital signal to enable the recordings to be stored on a PC as digital recordings. In that case the analogue video camera must be plugged directly into a video capture card in the computer, and the card then converts the analogue signal to digital. These cards are relatively cheap, but inevitably the resulting digital signals are compressed 5:1 (MPEG compression) in order for the video recordings to be saved on a continuous basis.Another way to store recordings on a non-analogue media is through the use of a digital video recorder (DVR). Such a device is similar in functionality to a PC with a capture card and appropriate video recording software. Unlike PCs, most DVRs designed for CCTV purposes are embedded devices that require less maintenance and simpler setup than a PC-based solution, for a medium to large number of analogue cameras. Some DVRs also allow digital broadcasting of the video signal, thus acting like a network camera. If a device does allow broadcasting of the video, but does not record it, then it's called a video server. These devices effectively turn any analogue camera (or any analogue video signal) into a network tv. Digital video cameras

A traffic surveillance camera in Stockholm, Sweden These cameras do not require a video capture card because they work using a digital signal which can be saved directly to a computer. The signal is compressed 5:1, but DVD quality can be achieved with more compression (MPEG-2 is standard for DVD-video, and has a higher compression ratio than 5:1, with a slightly lower video quality than 5:1 at best, and is adjustable for the amount of space to be taken up versus the quality of picture needed or desired). The highest picture quality of DVD is only slightly lower than the quality of basic 5:1-compression DV. Saving uncompressed digital recordings takes up an enormous amount of hard drive space, and a few hours of uncompressed video could quickly fill up a hard drive. Holiday uncompressed recordings 35 | P a g e

may look fine but one could not run uncompressed quality recordings on a continuous basis. Motion detection is therefore sometimes used as a work around solution to record in uncompressed quality.However, in any situation where standard-definition video cameras are used, the quality is going to be poor because the maximum pixel resolution of the image chips in most of these devices is 320,000 pixels (analogue quality is measured in TV lines but the results are the same); they generally capture horizontal and vertical fields of lines and blend them together to make a single frame; the maximum frame rate is normally 30 frames per second. That said, multi-megapixel IP-CCTV cameras are coming on the market. Still quite expensive, but they can capture video images at resolutions of 1, 2, 3, 5 and even up to 11 Mpix. Unlike with analogue cameras, details such as number plates are easily readable. At 11 Mpix, forensic quality images are made where each hand on a person can be distinguished. Because of the much higher resolutions available with these types of cameras, they can be set up to cover a wide area where normally several analogue cameras would have been needed.An Internet protocol camera, or IP camera, is a type of digital video camera commonly employed for surveillance, and which unlike analog closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras can send and receive data via a computer network and the Internet. Although most cameras that do this are webcams, the term "IP camera" is usually applied only to those used for surveillance. There are two kinds of IP cameras:

Centralized IP cameras, which require a central Network Video Recorder (NVR) to handle the recording, video and alarm management. Decentralized IP cameras, do not require a central Network Video Recorder (NVR), as the cameras have recording functionality built-in and can thus record directly to digital storage media, such as flash drives, hard disk drives or network attached storage. The first centralized IP camera was released in 1996 by Axis Communications. It used a custom web server internal to the camera. In late 1999, the company started using embedded Linux to operate its cameras. Axis also released documentation for its low-level API called "VAPIX", which builds on the open standards of HTTP and real time streaming protocol (RTSP). This open architecture was intended to encourage third-party software manufacturers to develop compatible management and recording software. The first decentralized IP camera was released in 1999 by Mobotix. The camera's Linux system contains video, alarm and recording management functionality, thus the camera system does not require licensed video management software to manage the recording, event and video management. IP cameras are available at resolutions of from one to 11 Megapixels. Standards Analog closed circuit television uses established CCTV and broadcast television formats (e.g. Common intermediate format (CIF), NTSC, PAL, and SECAM). Generally speaking, each make of IP camera will differ in its features and functions, video encoding (compression) schemes, supported network protocols, and the API to be used by video management software. In order to address issues of standardization of IP video surveillance, two industry groups were formed in 2008. The Open Network Video Interface Forum (ONVIF) and the Physical Security Interoperability Alliance (PSIA). While the PSIA was founded by 20 member companies including Honeywell, GE Security and Cisco, and ONVIF was founded by Axis, Bosch and Sony, each group now has numerous members. As of January 2009, each group had released version 1.0 of their specification. 36 | P a g e

Potential advantages

Two-way audio via a single network cable allows users to communicate with what they are seeing (e.g. gas station clerk assisting a customer on how to use the prepay pumps) Higher image resolution: IP cameras have a resolution of at least 640x480 and can provide multimegapixel resolution and HDTV image quality at 30 frames per second. Flexibility: IP cameras can be moved around anywhere on an IP network (including wireless). Distributed intelligence: with IP cameras, video analytics can be placed in the camera itself allowing scalability in analytics solutions. Transmission of commands for PTZ (pan, tilt, zoom) cameras via a single network cable. Encryption & authentication: IP cameras offer secure data transmission through encryption and authentication methods such as WEP, WPA, WPA2, TKIP, AES. Remote accessibility: live video from selected cameras can be viewed from any computer, anywhere, and also from many mobile smartphones and other devices.[1] Cost-advantage for larger systems. Studies show that for systems with less than 16 cameras, analog technology is cheaper, between 16 and 32 they are equal, and beyond 32 cameras, IP-based systems are more cost-effective.[2] IP cameras are able to function on a wireless network. Initial configuration has to be done through a router; after the IP camera is installed it can then be used on the wireless network[3] These cameras are used in navigation purpose in defence forces. PoE - Power over ethernet. Modern IP cameras have the ability to operate without an additional power supply. They can work with the PoE-protocol which gives power via the ethernet-cable Potential disadvantages

Higher initial cost per camera, except where cheap webcams are used. High network bandwidth requirements: a typical CCTV camera with resolution of 640x480 pixels and 10 frames per second (10 frame/s) in MJPEG mode requires about 3 Mbit/s.[4] Technical barrier. Most security systems including both CCTV and IP camera systems may require a professional technician may be required to install the system. As with a CCTV/DVR system, if the video is transmitted over the public Internet rather than a private IP LAN, the system becomes open to hacking and hoaxing via internet. Criminals can hack into a CCTV system to observe security measures and personnel, thereby facilitating criminal acts and rendering the IP technology counterproductive.

Access Control Identification Biometrics Cards Readers CCTV Systems 37 | P a g e

Cameras CCTV Applications VisioCast System CCTV Systems

Gunnebo is a specialist in many areas of video application domain and supplies a large range of CCTV solutions and services : Recording systems and matrix, Transmissions and management applications, Variety of cameras. Gunnebos CCTV systems are based on an open architecture and are available in stand-alone version or fully integrated into the Gunnebos supervision systems. Cameras

Gunnebo offers various types of analog and IP cameras and selects the top-of-the-range products, from simple to complex issues, depending on the level of risk and environment: Black and white cameras, Colour cameras, Day/night cameras, Fixed dome cameras, Video Applications 38 | P a g e

Through very close partnerships with leading market players, Gunnebo is able to offer IP CCTV solutions to manage digital video, audio and data across IP network

VisioCast

A recorder server and video multiplexing matrix available in hybrid and full IP, the VisioCast system comes with a complete set of remote management and monitoring software. VisioCast is open system and upgradable and integrates advanced modules such as applications for monitoring point-of-sales terminals, counting or detecting abandoned and unexpected objects. VisioCast includes a web server, so that many users can manage it via Internet Explorer Fire hydrant

Fire hydrant in Charlottesville, Virginia, USA A fire hydrant (also known colloquially as a fire plug in the United States or as a johnny pump in New York City, because the firemen of the late 19th century were called Johnnies[citation needed]), is an active fire protection measure, and a source of water provided in most urban, suburban and rural areas with municipal water service to enable firefighters to tap into the municipal water supply to assist in extinguishing a fire. Buildings near a hydrant may qualify for an insurance discount since firefighters should be able to more rapidly extinguish a fire on the insured property. 39 | P a g e

The concept of fire plugs dates to at least the 17th century. This was a time when firefighters responding to a call would dig down to the wooden water mains and hastily bore a hole to secure water to fight fires. The water would fill the hole creating a temporary well, and be transported from the well to the fire via bucket brigades or, later, via hand pumped fire engines. The holes were then plugged with stoppers, normally redwood, which over time came to be known as fire plugs. The location of the plug would often be recorded or marked so that it could be reused in future fires. This is the source of the colloquial term fire plug still used for fire hydrants today. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, the city installed water mains with holes drilled at intervals, equipped with risers, allowing an access point to the wooden fire plugs from street level.[1][2] It has been claimed that Birdsill Holly invented the fire hydrant, but his 1869 design was preceded by many other patents for fire hydrants, and a number of these earlier designs were produced and successfully marketed. Numerous wooden cased fire hydrant designs existed prior to the development of the familiar cast iron hydrant. Although the development of the first above ground hydrant in the USA traces back to Philadelphia in 1803,[3] underground fire hydrants common in parts of Europe and Asia have existed since the 18th century. Operation A hose is attached to the fire hydrant, then the valve is opened to provide a powerful flow of water, on the order of 350 kPa (50 lbf/in) (this pressure varies according to region and depends on various factors including the size and location of the attached water main). This hose can be further attached to a fire engine, which can then use a powerful pump to boost the water pressure and possibly split it into multiple streams. The hose may be connected with a threaded connection or a Storz connector. Care should be taken not to open or close a fire hydrant too quickly, as this can create a water hammer which can damage nearby pipes and equipment. The water inside a charged hoseline causes it to be very heavy and high water pressure causes it to be stiff and unable to make a tight turn while pressurized. When a fire hydrant is unobstructed, this is not a problem, as there is enough room to adequately position the hose.

Clapper valve Most fire hydrant valves are not designed to throttle the water flow; they are designed to be operated full-on or full-off. The valving arrangement of most dry-barrel hydrants is for the drain valve to be open at anything other than full operation. Usage at partial-opening can consequently result in considerable flow directly into the soil surrounding the hydrant, which, over time, can cause severe scouring. A hose with a closed nozzle valve, or fire truck connection, or closed gate valve is always attached to the hydrant prior to opening the hydrant's main valve. When a firefighter is operating a hydrant, appropriate personal protective equipment, such as gloves and a helmet with face shield, are typically worn. High pressure water coursing through a potentially aging and corroding hydrant could cause a failure, injuring the firefighter operating the hydrant or bystanders.In most jurisdictions it is illegal to park a car within a certain distance of a fire hydrant. In North America the distances are commonly 3 to 5 m or 10 to 15 ft, often indicated by yellow or red paint on the curb. In the UK, yellow lines are used to keep cars from parking over underground hydrants. Parking restrictions are sometimes ignored (especially in cities where available street parking 40 | P a g e

is scarce), however these laws are usually enforced. The rationale is that hydrants need to be visible and accessible in an emergency.

A New York City hydrant hooked to an FDNY fire engine with a turgid hose actively pumping water. Construction

Hydrant installation in Ontario, Canada

In areas subject to freezing temperatures, only a portion of the hydrant is above ground. The valve is located below the frost line and connected via a riser to the above-ground portion. A valve rod extends from the valve itself up through a seal at the top of the hydrant, where it can be operated with the proper wrench. This design is known as a "dry barrel" hydrant, in that the barrel, or vertical body of the hydrant, is normally dry. A drain valve underground opens when the water valve is completely closed; this allows all water to drain from the hydrant body to prevent the hydrant from freezing. In warm areas, hydrants are used with one or more valves in the above-ground portion. Unlike coldweather hydrants, it is possible to turn the water supply on and off to each port. This style is known as a "wet barrel" hydrant. Both wet- and dry- barrel hydrants typically have multiple outlets. Wet barrel hydrant outlets are typically individually controlled, while a single stem operates all the outlets of a dry barrel hydrant simultaneously. Thus, wet barrel hydrants allow single outlets to be opened, requiring somewhat more effort but simultaneously allowing more flexibility. A typical U.S. dry-barrel hydrant has two smaller outlets and one larger outlet. The larger outlet is often a Storz connection if the local fire department has standardized on hose using Storz fittings for large diameter supply line. The larger outlet is known as a "steamer" connection (because they were once used to supply steam powered water pumps), and a hydrant with such an outlet may be referred to as a "steamer hydrant" although this usage is becoming archaic. Likewise, an older hydrant without a steamer connection may be referred to as a "village hydrant."

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A German fire hydrant showing Storz hose connections Hydrant coloring may be due either to purely practical criteria or more artistic. In the United States, the AWWA and NFPA recommend hydrants be colored chrome yellow for rapid identification apart from the bonnet and nozzle caps which should be coded according to their available flow. Class AA hydrants (>1500gpm) should have their nozzle caps and bonnet colored light blue, Class A hydrants (1000-1499gpm), green, Class B hydrants (500-999gpm), orange, and Class C hydrants (0-499gpm), red. This aids arriving firefighters in determining how much water is available and whether to call for additional resources, or locate another hydrant. Other codings can be and frequently are used, some of greater complexity, incorporating pressure information, others more simplistic. In Ottawa, hydrant colors communicate different messages to firefighters; for example, if the inside of the hydrant is corroded so much that the interior diameter is too narrow for good pressure, it will be painted in a specific scheme to indicate to firefighters to move on to the next one. In many localities, a white or purple top indicates that the hydrant provides non-potable water. Where artistic and/or aesthetic considerations are paramount, hydrants can be extremely varied, or more subdued. In both instances this is usually at the cost of reduced practicality. In Germany, most hydrants are located below ground (Unterflurhydrant) and are accessed by a Standrohr which provides the connections for the hoses. In the UK and Ireland, hydrants are located in the ground. Yellow "H" hydrant signs indicate the location of the hydrants, and are similar to the blue signs in Finland. Mounted on a small post or nearby wall etc., the two numbers indicate the size of the water main (top number) and the distance from the sign (lower number). Modern signs show these measurements in millimetres and metres, whereas older signs use Imperial units. Because the orders of magnitude are so different (6 inches versus 150 mm) there is no ambiguity whichever measuring system is used.

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In areas of the United States without winter snow cover, blue reflectors embedded in the street are used to allow rapid identification of hydrants at night. In areas with snow cover, tall signs or flags are used so that hydrants can be located even if covered with snow. In rural areas tall narrow posts painted with visible colours such as red are attached to the hydrants to allow them to be located during heavy snowfall periods. In Australia, Hydrant signage varies, with several types displayed across the country. Most Australian hydrants are underground, being of a ballcock system, and a standpipe with a central plunger is used to open the valve. Due to this, hydrant signage is essential, due to their concealed nature.

Painted markers - Usually a white or yellow (sometimes reflective paint) triangle or arrow painted on the road, pointing towards the side of the road the hydrant will be found on. These are most common in old areas, or on new roads where more advanced signs have not been installed. These are almost always coupled with a secondary form of signage. Hydrant Marker Plates - Found on power poles, fences, or street-signs, these are a comprehensive and effective system of identification. The plate consists of several codes; H (Potable water Hydrant), RH (Recycled/Non Potable), P (Pathway, where the hydrant cover can be found), R (Roadway). The plate is vertically oriented, around 8 cm wide, and 15 cm high. Found on this plate, from top to bottom, are the following features: The codes listed above, Potable/Non-potable at the top, Path/Roadway on the bottom of the plate. Below this, a number giving the distance to the hydrant (in meters), then a second number below that giving the size (in millimeters) of the water main. A black line across the center of the plate indicated the hydrant is found on the opposite side of the road to which the plate is affixed. Plates for recycled water have a purple background, as well as the RH code, normal potable hydrants are white, with the H code. Road reflectors or 'Catseyes' - Almost exclusively blue, these are placed on the center line of the road, usually with little indication on which side of the road the hydrant lies. They are visible for several hundred meters at night in heavy rain, further in clear conditions.

Inspection and maintenance

A fire hydrant that was hit by a snow plow and knocked over. Note that only the sacrificial bolts were damaged 43 | P a g e

In most areas fire hydrants require annual inspections and maintenance - they normally only have a one year warranty, but some have 5 or even 10 year warranties, although the longer warranty does not remove the need for periodic inspections or maintenance. These inspections are generally performed by the local municipalities but they often do not inspect hydrants that are identified as private. Private hydrants are usually located on larger properties to adequately protect large buildings in case of a fire and in order to comply with the fire code. Such hydrants have met the requirements of insurance underwriters and are often referred to as UL/FM hydrants. Some companies are contracted out to inspect private fire hydrants unless the municipality has undertaken that task. Some fire Hydrant manufacturers recommend lubricating the head mechanism and restoring the head gaskets and o-rings annually in order that the fire hydrant perform the service expected of them, while others have incorporate proprietary features to provide long-term lubrication of the hydrant's operating mechanism. In any case, periodic inspection of lubricates is recommended. Lubrication is generally done with a food grade non-petroleum lubricant to avoid contamination of the distribution system. Occasionally a stone or foreign object will mar the seat gasket. In this case, most hydrants have a special seat wrench that allows removal of the seat to replace the gasket or other broken parts without removing the hydrant from the ground. Hydrants extensions are also available for raising a hydrant if the grade around the hydrant changes. Without extending the height, the wrenches to remove caps would not clear and the break flanges for traffic models would not be located correctly in case they were hit. Hydrant repair kits are also available to repair sacrificial parts designed to break when hit by a vehicle. Many departments use the hydrants for flushing out water line sediments. When doing so, they often use a hydrant diffuser, which is a device that diffuses the water so that it doesn't damage property and is less dangerous to bystanders than a solid stream. Some diffusers also dechlorinate the water to avoid ground contamination. Hydrants are also sometimes used as entry or exit points for pipe cleaning pigs. Non-pressurized (dry) hydrants

In rural areas where municipal water systems are not available, dry hydrants are used to supply water for fighting fires. A dry hydrant is analogous to a standpipe. A dry hydrant is usually an unpressurized, permanently installed pipe that has one end below the water level of a lake or pond. This end usually has a strainer to prevent debris from entering the pipe. The other end is above ground and has a hard sleeve connector. When needed, a pumper fire engine will pump from the lake or pond by drafting water. This is done by vacuuming the air out of the dry hydrant, hard sleeve, and the fire engine pump with a primer. Because lower pressure exists at the pump intake, atmospheric pressure on the pond or lake forces water into part of the dry hydrant above water, into the hard sleeve, and finally into the pump. This water can then be pumped by the engine's centrifugal pump. Other types 44 | P a g e

Water wells are also sometimes classified as fire hydrants if they can supply enough water volume and pressure. Standpipes are connections for firehoses within a building and serve the same purpose as fire hydrants in larger structures. Standpipes may be "dry" or "wet" (permanently filled with water). Fire prevention Fire Prevention is a function of many fire departments. The goal of fire prevention is to educate the public to take precautions to prevent fires, and be educated about surviving them. It is a proactive method of reducing emergencies and the damage caused by them. Many fire departments have a Fire Prevention Officer. Fire sprinkler Fire sprinkler A fire sprinkler is the part of a fire sprinkler system that discharges water when the effects of a fire have been detected, such as when a predetermined temperature has been reached.

US regulatory requirements Fire sprinkler application and installation guidelines, and overall fire sprinkler system design guidelines, are provided by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 13, (NFPA) 13D, and (NFPA) 13R. Fire sprinklers can be automatic or open orifice. Automatic fire sprinklers operate at a predetermined temperature, utilizing a fusible element, a portion of which melts, or a frangible glass bulb containing liquid which breaks, allowing the plug in the orifice to be pushed out of the orifice by the water pressure in the fire sprinkler piping, resulting in water flow from the orifice. The water stream impacts a deflector, which produces a specific spray pattern designed in support of the goals of the sprinkler type (i.e., control or suppression). Modern sprinkler heads are designed to direct spray downwards. Spray nozzles are available to provide spray in various directions and patterns. The majority of automatic fire sprinklers operate individually in a fire. Contrary to motion picture representation, the entire sprinkler system does not activate, unless the system is a special deluge type. Open orifice sprinklers are only used in water spray systems or deluge sprinklers systems. They are identical to the automatic sprinkler on which they are based, with the heat sensitive operating element removed. Automatic fire sprinklers utilizing frangible bulbs follow a standardized color coding convention indicating their operating temperature. Activation temperatures correspond to the type of hazard against which the sprinkler system protects. Residential occupancies are provided with a special type of fast response sprinkler with the unique goal of life safety. Operation Each closed-head sprinkler is held closed by either a heat-sensitive glass bulb (see below) or a twopart metal link held together with fusible alloy such as Wood's metal[1] and other alloys with similar compositions.[2][3] The glass bulb or link applies pressure to a pip cap which acts as a plug which 45 | P a g e

prevents water from flowing until the ambient temperature around the sprinkler reaches the design activation temperature of the individual sprinkler. Because each sprinkler activates independently when the predetermined heat level is reached, the number of sprinklers that operate is limited to only those near the fire, thereby maximizing the available water pressure over the point of fire origin. The bulb breaks as a result of the thermal expansion of the liquid inside the bulb.[4] The time it takes before a bulb breaks is dependent on the temperature. Below the design temperature, it does not break, and above the design temperature, it takes less time for higher temperatures. The response time is expressed as a response time index (RTI), which typically has values between 35 and 250 ms, where a low value indicates a fast response.[5] Under standard testing procedures (135 C air at a velocity of 2.5 m/s), a 68 C sprinkler bulb will break within 7 to 33 seconds, depending on the RTI.[6] The RTI can also be specified in imperial units, where 1 fts is equivalent to 0.55 ms. Of course, if a ceiling has been painted, and some paint gets on a bulb, it will not operate as it should. Maximum Ceiling Temperature 100F / 38C 150F / 66C 225F / 107C 300F / 149C 375F / 191C 475F / 246C 625F / 329C Temperature Rating 135-170F / 5777C 175-225F / 79107C 250-300F / 121-149C 325-375F / 163-191C 400-475F / 204-246C 500-575F / 260-302C 650F / 343C Temperature Classification Ordinary Intermediate High Extra High Very Extra High Ultra High Ultra High Color Code (with Fusible Link) Uncolored or Black White Blue Red Green Orange Orange Glass Bulb Color Orange (135F) or Red (155F) Yellow (175F) or Green (200F) Blue Purple Black Black Black

From Table 6.2.5.1 NFPA13 2007 Edition indicates the maximum ceiling temperature, nominal operating temperature of the sprinkler, color of the bulb or link and the temperature classification. Sprinkler types ESFR ESFR, or ESFR Sprinkler, denotes a special type of fire sprinkler. Early Supression Fast Response sprinkler heads were developed in the 1990s to take advantage of the latest fast-response fire sprinkler technology to provide fire suppression of specific high-challenge fire hazards. The sprinklers are specifically designed to fully suppress a fire that is within the design limits of the piping system. Prior to the introduction of these sprinklers, protection systems were designed to control fires until the arrival of the fire department. Fire alarm system

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A fire alarm notification appliance with a strobe light. An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence of fire by monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion. In general, a fire alarm system is classified as either automatically actuated, manually actuated, or both. Automatic fire alarm systems can be used to notify people to evacuate in the event of a fire or other emergency, to summon emergency services, and to prepare the structure and associated systems to control the spread of fire and smoke.

Design After the fire protection goals are established - usually by referencing the minimum levels of protection mandated by the appropriate model building code, insurance agencies, and other authorities - the fire alarm designer undertakes to detail specific components, arrangements, and interfaces necessary to accomplish these goals. Equipment specifically manufactured for these purposes are selected and standardized installation methods are anticipated during the design. In the United States, NFPA 72, The National Fire Alarm Code is an established and widely used installation standard. Fundamental configuration

A Honeywell DeltaNet FS90 fire alarm control panel. Fire alarm control panel: This component, the hub of the system, monitors inputs and system integrity, controls outputs and relays information. Primary Power supply: Commonly the non-switched 120 or 240 Volt Alternating Current source supplied from a commercial power utility. In non-residential applications, a branch circuit is dedicated to the fire alarm system and its constituents. "Dedicated branch circuits" should not be confused with "Individual branch circuits" which supply energy to a single appliance. Secondary (backup) Power supplies: This component, commonly consisting of sealed lead-acid storage batteries or other emergency sources including generators, is used to supply energy in the event of a primary power failure.

Initiating Devices: This component acts as an input to the fire alarm control unit and are either manually or automatically actuated. Examples would be devices like pull stations or smoke detectors. Notification appliances: This component uses energy supplied from the fire alarm system or other stored energy source, to inform the proximate persons of the need to take action, usually to evacuate. This is done by means of a flashing light, strobe light, electromechanical horn, speaker, or a combination of these devices.

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Building Safety Interfaces: This interface allows the fire alarm system to control aspects of the built environment and to prepare the building for fire and to control the spread of smoke fumes and fire by influencing air movement, lighting, process control, human transport and exit. Initiating devices

Manually actuated devices; Break glass stations, Buttons and manual pull station are constructed to be readily located (near the exits), identified, and operated. Automatically actuated devices can take many forms intended to respond to any number of detectable physical changes associated with fire: convected thermal energy; heat detector, products of combustion; smoke detector, radiant energy; flame detector, combustion gasses; carbon monoxide detector and release of extinguishing agents; water-flow detector. The newest innovations can use cameras and computer algorithms to analyze the visible effects of fire and movement in applications inappropriate for or hostile to other detection methods. Notification appliances Fire alarm notification appliance A Honeywell speaker and a Space Age Electronics V33 remote light. Audible, visible, tactile, textual or even olfactory stimuli (odorizer).[1] to alert the occupants. Audible or visible signals are the most common and may utilize speakers to deliver live or prerecorded instructions to the occupants. In the United States, fire alarm evacuation signals are required to use a standardized interrupted four count temporal pattern to avoid confusion with other signals using similar sounding appliances. Other methods include: Audible textual appliances, which are employed as part of a fire alarm system that includes Emergency Voice Alarm Communications (EVAC) capabilities. High reliability speakers are used to notify the occupants of the need for action in connection with a fire or other emergency. These speakers are employed in large facilities where general undirected evacuation is considered impracticable or undesirable. The signals from the speakers are used to direct the occupant's response. The system may be controlled from one or more locations within the building known as Fire Wardens Stations, or from a single location designated as the building Fire Command Center. Speakers are automatically actuated by the fire alarm system in a fire event, and following a pre-alert tone, selected groups of speakers may transmit one or more prerecorded messages directing the occupants to safety. These messages may be repeated in one or more languages. Trained personnel activating and speaking into a dedicated microphone can suppress the replay of automated messages in order to initiate or relay real time voice instructions. Building safety interfaces S.H. Couch F5GX non-coded fire alarm pull station below a Couch 10" bell. Magnetic Smoke Door Holders: Wall or floor mounted solenoids or electromagnets controlled by a fire alarm system or detection component that magnetically secures spring-loaded self-closing smoke tight doors in the open position. Designed to de-magnetize to allow automatic closure of the door on command from the fire control or upon failure of the power source, interconnection or controlling element. Stored energy in the form of a spring or gravity can then 48 | P a g e

close the door to restrict the passage of smoke from one space to another in an effort to maintain a tenable atmosphere on either side of the door during evacuation and fire fighting efforts.

Duct Mounted Smoke Detection: Smoke detection mounted in such a manner as to sample the airflow through duct work and other plenums specifically fabricated for the transport of environmental air into conditioned spaces. Interconnection to the fan motor control circuits are intended to stop air movement, close dampers and generally prevent the recirculation of toxic smoke and fumes produced by fire into occupiable spaces. UK fire alarm system categories There are many types of fire alarm systems each suited to different building types and applications. A fire alarm system can vary dramatically in both price and complexity, from a single panel with a detector and sounder in a small commercial property to an addressable fire alarm system in a multioccupancy building. Systems have to protect both buildings and occupants.The categories of fire alarm systems are L if they are designed to protect life, P to protect buildings and M if they are manual systems. Manual systems, e.g. hand bells, gongs, etc. These may be purely manual or manual electric, the latter may have call points and sounders. They rely on the occupants of the building discovering the fire and acting to warn others by operating the system. Such systems form the basic requirement for places of employment with no sleeping risk. The system is installed throughout the building - the objective being to call the fire brigade as early as possible to ensure that any damage caused by fire is minimized. Small low risk areas can be excepted, such as toilets and cupboards less than 1m. Detection should be provided in parts of the building where the risk of ignition is high and/or the contents are particularly valuable. Category 2 systems provide fire detection in specified parts of the building where there is either high risk or where business disruption must be minimised. A category L1 system is designed for the protection of life and which has automatic detectors installed throughout all areas of the building (including roof spaces and voids) with the aim of providing the earliest possible warning. A category L1 system is likely to be appropriate for the majority of residential care premises. In practice, detectors should be placed in nearly all spaces and voids. With category 1 systems, the whole of a building is covered apart from minor exceptions. A category L2 system designed for the protection of life and which has automatic detectors installed in escape routes, rooms adjoining escape routes and high hazard rooms. In a medium sized premises (sleeping no more than ten residents), a category L2 system is ideal. These fire alarm systems are identical to an L3 system but with additional detection in an area where there is a high chance of ignition, e.g., kitchen) or where the risk to people is particularly increased (e.g., sleeping risk). This category is designed to give early warning to everyone. Detectors should be placed in all escape routes and all rooms that open onto escape routes. Category 3 systems provide more extensive cover than category 4. The objective is to warn the occupants of the building early enough to ensure that all are able to exit the building before escape routes become impassable. Category 4 systems cover escape routes and circulation areas only. Therefore, detectors will be placed in escape routes, although this may not be suitable depending on the risk assessment or if the size and complexity of a building is increased. Detectors might be sited in other areas of the building, but the objective is to protect the escape route. This is the "all other situations" category, e.g., computer rooms, which may be protected with an 49 | P a g e

P1

P2

L1

L2

L3

L4 L5

extinguishing system triggered by automatic detection. Category 5 systems are the "custom" category and relate to some special requirement that cannot be covered by any other category. Fire alarm control panel A Siemens MXL fire alarm control panel (top) and graphic annunciator (bottom) for Potomac Hall, at James Madison University. A fire alarm control panel (FACP), or fire alarm control unit (FACU), is an electric panel that is the controlling component of a fire alarm system. The panel receives information from environmental sensors designed to detect changes associated with fire, monitors their operational integrity and provides for automatic control of equipment, and transmission of information necessary to prepare the facility for fire based on a predetermined sequence. The panel may also supply electrical energy to operate any associated sensor, control, transmitter, or relay. There are four basic types of panels: coded panels, conventional panels, addressable panels, and multiplex systems. A fire alarm control panel is required under the building code for a majority of new commercial building construction in most countries. Coded panels A Simplex 4247 fire alarm control panel. Coded panels were the earliest type of central fire alarm control, and were made during the 1800s to the 1970s. A coded panel is similar in many ways to a modern conventional panel (described below), except each zone was connected to its own code wheel (Ex: An alarm in zone 1 would sound code 1-2-4 [through the bells or horns in the building], while zone 2 would sound 1-2-5), which, depending on the way the panel was set up, would either do sets of four rounds of code until the initiating pull station was reset (similar to a coded pull station) or run continuously until the panel itself was reset. Large panels could take up an entire wall in a mechanical room, with dozens of code wheels. Lists of codes had to be maintained, sometimes with copies being posted above certain pull stations (this setup is commonly seen in older wings of hospitals). Smaller panels could be set up in one of two ways. Most of the time, the panel would only have one zone, and therefore, only one code. Common one-zone codes were 4-4-0 and 17-0-0 (which is similar to the 120 bpm March Time setting found on modern panels). Alternatively, the panel could be made with no code wheels, using only what was called the gong relay. Normally, this would be used in a system with coded pull stations to retransmit the coding strikes from the pulls. However, it could also be used as its own zone, with the connected horns or bells sounding continuously instead of in a particular code. These panels are not very common today, but can sometimes be found in older buildings such as those on college campuses or hospitals. Conventional panels 50 | P a g e

A Simplex 4002 conventional FACP Conventional panels have been around ever since electronics became small enough to make them viable. They are no longer used frequently in large buildings, but are still used on smaller sites such as small schools, stores, restaurants, and apartments. A conventional system employs one or more initiating circuits, connected to sensors (initiating devices) wired in parallel. These sensors are devised to decrease the circuits resistance when the environmental influence on any sensor exceeds a predetermined threshold. In a conventional system the information density is limited to the number of such circuits used. A small map of the building is often placed near the main entrance with the defined zones drawn up, and LEDs indicating whether a particular circuit/zone has been activated. Another common method is to have the different zones listed in a column, with an LED to the left of each zone name, or to use an LCD interface to display information. The main drawback with conventional panels is that one cannot tell which device has been activated within a circuit. The fire may be in one small room, but as far as emergency responders can tell, a fire could exist anywhere within a zone. The same applies to coded panels, which nowadays are no longer made, but can be found in old systems. These, if the decision is made to keep them, are "grandfathered" in under NFPA regulations.

A wiring diagram for a simple fire alarm system consisting of two input loops (one closed, one open) Multiplex systems Simplex 2120 (left) next to a Simplex 4100 classic.

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Multiplex systems, a sort of transition between conventional and modern addressable systems, were often used in large buildings and complexes from the mid to late 1970s into the late 1980s. Early on, these systems were programmed to function as large conventional systems. Gradually, later installations began to feature components and features of modern addressable systems. These systems were often capable of controlling more than a building's fire alarm system (i.e. HVAC, security, electronic door locks...) without any type of alarm or trouble condition present. While the main panel was the brains of the system and could be used to access certain functions, fire alarm controls were usually accessed through transponders. These were smaller conventional panels programmed to 'communicate' the status of part of the system to the main panel and also could be used to access basic fire alarm control functions. The original Simplex 4100 was meant to be used this way. Releasing panels Releasing panels are capable of usings solenoids to disperse fire-fighting chemical agents such as halon or water from piping located throughout a building. A releasing panel usually will have a manual abort switch to abort an accidental release which could damage property or equipment. Releasing capability can be part of both addressable or conventional panels. Addressable panels A Simplex 4100U InfoALARM addressable fire alarm control panel: note the voice-evacuation microphone built into it. Addressable panels are usually much more advanced than their conventional counterparts, with a higher degree of programming flexibility and single point detection. Addressable fire alarm panels were introduced by many manufacturers during the microcontroller boom in the mid 1980s. Signaling line circuit loops Panels usually have a number of signaling line circuit loops - usually referred to as loops or SLC loops - ranging between one and thirty. Depending on the protocol used, a loop can monitor and control several hundred devices. Some protocols permit any mix of detectors and input/output modules, while other protocols have 50% of channel capacity restricted to detectors/sensors and 50% restricted to input/output modules. Each SLC polls the devices connected, which can number from a few devices to several hundred, depending on the manufacturer. Large systems may have multiple SLCs, and SLCs are further divided into sub-groups through the use of fault-isolation modules. [1] [2] Each device on a SLC has its own address, and so the panel knows the state of each individual device connected to it. Common addressable input (initiating) devices include

Smoke detectors Heat Detectors (Rate of Rise and Fixed Temperature) Manual call points or manual pull stations Notification appliances (Simplex systems with TrueAlert signals only) Responders 52 | P a g e

 o o o o

Fire sprinkler system inputs Switches Flow control Pressure Isolate Standard switches Addressable output devices are known as relays and include

(Warning System/Bell) Relays Door Holder Relays Auxiliary (Control Function) Relays Relays are used to control a variety of functions such as

Switching fans on or off Closing/opening doors Activating fire suppression systems Activating notification appliances Shutting down industrial equipment Recalling elevators to a safe exit floor Activating another fire alarm panel or communicator Mapping Also known as "cause and effect" or "programming", mapping is the process of activating outputs depending on which inputs have been activated. Traditionally, when an input device is activated, a certain output device (or relay) is activated. As time has progressed, more and more advanced techniques have become available, often with large variations in style between different companies. Zones Zones are usually made by dividing a building, or area into different sections, and placing each device in the building in a different zone. Groups Groups contain multiple output devices such as relays. This allows a single input, such as a smoke detector or MCP, to have only one output programmed to a group, which then maps to between two to many outputs or relays. This enables an installer to simplify programming by having many inputs map to the same outputs, and be able to change them all at once, and also allows mapping to more outputs than the programming space for a single detector/input allows. 53 | P a g e

Boolean logic This is the part of a fire panel that has the largest variation between different panels. It allows a panel to be programmed to implement fairly complex inputs. For instance, a panel could be programmed to notify the fire department only if more than one device has activated. It can also be used for staged evacuation procedures in conjunction with timers. Networking The principle of networking involves connecting several panels together to form a system. Inputs on one panel may activate outputs on another, for example, or the network may allow monitoring of many systems. Networking is often used in situations where one panel is not large enough, or in multiple-building situations. These are often done with manufacturers' "top of the line" control panels.Although quasi-standards exist that allow panels from different manufacturers to be networked with each other, they are not in favor with a lot of companies. One of the most common protocols used BACnet which is used for various type of industrial networks. More recently, some panels are being networked with standard Ethernet, but this is not yet very common. Most organizations choose to create their own proprietary protocol, which has the added benefit of allowing them to do anything they like, allowing the technology to progress further. However, a bridging layer between the proprietary network and BACnet is usually available. Networking may be used to allow a number of different panels to be monitored by one graphical monitoring system. Monitoring In nearly every state in the USA, the International Building Code requires fire alarm and sprinkler systems to be monitored by an approved supervising station. A fire alarm system consists of a computer-based control connected to a central station. The majority of fire alarm systems installed in the USA are monitored by a UL listed or FM Global approved supervising station. These systems will generally have a top level map of the entire site, with various building levels displayed. The user (most likely a security guard) can progress through the different stages. From top level site building plan floor plan zone plan, or however else the building's security system is organised. A lot of these systems have touch screens, but most users tend to prefer a mouse (and a normal monitor), as it is quite easy for a touch screen to become misaligned and for mistakes to be made. With the advent of the optical mouse, this is now a very viable option. System functions

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A police officer resets the fire alarm control panel for Potomac Hall at James Madison University. There are many functions on a fire alarm panel. Some of these are: System reset This resets the panel after an alarm condition. All initiating devices are reset, and the panel is cleared of any alarm conditions. If an initiating device is still in alarm after the system is reset, such as a smoke detector continuing to sense smoke, or a manual pull station still in an activated position, another alarm will be initiated. A system reset is often required to clear supervisory conditions. A system reset does not usually clear trouble conditions. Most trouble conditions will clear automatically when conditions are returned to normal. On UK and most US panels, a "Silence" or "Acknowledge" is usually required before a "System Reset" can be performed. Acknowledge This function, also abbreviated to "ACK", is used to acknowledge an abnormal situation such as an alarm, trouble or supervisory. The acknowledge function tells the panel that building personnel or emergency responders are aware of the alarm, trouble, or supervisory condition. Acknowledging the alarm or trouble condition also normally silences the panel's own sounder, but does not silence any Notification Appliances. Fire alarm panel, showing drill switch (at top) Drill Also known as "manual evacuation" or "evacuate". On panels that have this function, the drill function activates the system's notification appliances, often for purposes of conducting a fire drill. Using the drill function, an alarm is normally not transmitted to the fire department or monitoring center. However, building personnel often notify these agencies in advance in case an alarm is inadvertently transmitted. Walk test Walk test allows the functional testing of the system's devices without the assistance of additional people at the control panel 55 | P a g e

itself. It is also designed to allow initiating devices to be tested without setting off the building's alarms. Most panels offer the option for a silent walk test (no alarms activate) or an audible walk test (alarms activate for a brief period when a device is initiated). A system trouble is typically generated while the panel is in walk test mode. On European panels, this is usually an engineer-only function and cannot be activated by a user. Signal silence Also known as "alarm silence" or "audible silence". Depending on the configuration of the alarm system, this function will either silence the system's notification appliances completely, or will silence only the audible alarm, with strobe lights continuing to flash. Audible silence allows for easier communication amongst emergency responders while responding to an alarm. This can also be used during construction as a means of a preliminary test, before the final full test. Lamp test Also known as "flash test". This button is known to have become obsolete, but is still used on many panels. This function is used to check the condition of the LEDs themselves. A "Lamp Test" button is required by code on multi-zone panels installed in Canada. Many panels do a lamp test when the system is reset. Alarm circuit supervision Various forms of alarm circuit supervision have been used to indicate trouble with an alarm circuit. Possible alarm circuit faults on a two wire circuit include one of the conductors being shorted to ground, open circuit (conductor continuity break), or a short circuit between the conductors. Also the circuits could be tampered with by having an external AC or DC voltage applied with various duty cycles or waveforms. There are a number of US patents that address this issue and some have been implemented in available system products. One of the first to address this issue was Patent No. 3,588,890 "Resistance Sensing Supervisory System" issued on June 28, 1971 and assigned to General Motors Corporation. General Motors used this supervision on all circuits installed in GM plants starting in 1970.[3] An improvement to this basic "Resistance Sensing Supervisory System" can be obtained by providing a pulsed or time dependent variable voltage applied to the alarm circuit and is addressed in US patent numbers 4,030,095 [1] and 4,716,401 [2]. Panel alerting Many panels today have the capability of alerting building personnel of a situation which can arise into a potentially serious problem. Fire alarm panels indicate an abnormal condition is via a solid or flashing LED. Some panels also contain a small sounder, used in conjunction with the visual alert. A number of indicators are shown below. Note that not all fire alarm panels have all of these indicators. Alarm Also known as "Fire" or "General Alarm". This indicator is lit when an alarm condition exists in the system, initiated by smoke detectors, heat detectors, sprinkler flow switches, manual pull stations, manual call points, or otherwise. Along with the indicator on the panel, notification appliances, such as horns and strobes, are also activated, signaling a need to evacuate to building occupants. In an alarm condition, the fire alarm panel indicates where the alarm originated. The alarm panel can be reset once the device which initiated the alarm is reset, such as returning the handle of a manual pull station to its normal position. 56 | P a g e

Audible silence The Audible Silence indicator is used in conjunction with the "Alarm" indicator. It indicates that the fire alarm panel is still in an alarm condition, but that notification appliances have been silenced. While the alarm is silenced, other functions in an alarm condition continue to operate, such as emergency service for elevators, stairway pressurization, and ventilation functions. A new alarm initiation while the alarm is silenced will take the panel out of Audible Silence and reactivate the notification appliances. Report Also known as "Brigade Called". This indicator is activated when emergency responders have been automatically notified by the fire alarm system. A variant of this LED known as "kissoff" activates when the monitoring center replies back to the panel, indicating a successful communication. Requirements vary depending on jurisdiction regarding whether a direct connection to the fire department is required, optional, or prohibited. If a connection to the fire department is optional, or is prohibited, a fire alarm system is often connected to a monitoring center at the building owner's discretion. Drill Also known as "Manual Evacuation" or "Evacuate". On panels containing this function, the "Drill" indicator shows that the alarm condition was activated from the fire alarm panel, often in order to conduct a fire drill. When an alarm is initiated for a drill, the fire department or monitoring company is usually not notified automatically. However, building personnel preparing to conduct a fire drill often will provide advance notice of a drill to the fire department and monitoring center in case an alarm is unintentionally transmitted. Prealarm This LED is often used in conjunction with a two-stage system, in which the panel requires two devices to be activated (and/or a predetermined time limit to run out after one device is activated) in order to go into full alarm.[4] This is mostly used in areas where false alarms are a common problem, or in large applications (such as hospitals) where evacuating the entire building would not be efficient. The prealarm LED is lit when one device has tripped. The prealarm LED may also be used if an analog smoke detector registers low levels of smoke in the detection chamber, but not enough to trigger a full alarm.[5] Depending on the system's layout, the NAC's may or may not activate for prealarm conditions. In a two-stage system, the NAC's are typically coded to a special first-stage coding, or in some situations where a loud alarm signal could be disruptive, chimes will activate. If there is a voice evacuation system, it will usually instruct building occupants to await further instructions while the alarm is being investigated. Priority 2 alarm Also known as "Security". This LED is common on top-of-the-line intelligent panels. This LED can only activate if there is a secondary device hooked into the "Priority 2 Alarm" terminals. This secondary device could be a security system, building management system, or another fire alarm control panel. Depending on how the panel is programmed, the panel's alarms may or may not activate when a condition like this is present. Trouble 57 | P a g e

Also known as "Fault" or "Defect". When held steady or flashing, it means that a trouble condition exists on the panel. Trouble conditions are often activated by a contaminated smoke detector or an electrical problem within the system. Trouble conditions are also activated by a zone being disabled (disconnected from the system), a circuit being disabled, low power on the backup battery, the disabling of a notification appliance, the ground faults, or short or open circuits. Usually the alarm panel's sounder will activate if a trouble condition exists, though older systems would sometimes activate a bell or other audible signal connected to the panel. In a trouble condition, the panel displays the zone or devices causing the condition. The "Trouble" indicator goes out automatically when the situation causing the trouble condition is rectified and some panels have more specific indicators such as 'Trouble-PSU' which shows when the panel itself is compromised and 'Trouble-Bell' ('Sounder fault' on UK panels) which shows that the sounders are not functioning correctly. Supervisory This signal indicates that a portion of the building's fire protection system has been disabled (such as a fire sprinkler control valve being closed and, consequentially, a sprinkler tamper switch being activated), or, less frequently, that a lower priority initiating device has been triggered (such as a duct smoke detector). Depending on the system's design, the supervisory point may be latching, meaning the panel must be reset to clear the supervisory condition, or non-latching, meaning the indicator automatically goes out when the condition has cleared. However, some panels require a reset regardless if the supervisory is latching or non-latching. AC power Also known as "Normal". When this indicator is lit, power is being provided to the system from the building's electrical system, and not from the backup battery. When an AC power condition changes, the Trouble indicator comes on and the AC power indicator goes off and the screen alerts building personnel of a power failure. If the AC power indicator is lit without any other indicators also lit, then the system is in a normal condition. If no LEDs are lit, there is no power source feeding the panel. DC power This is used to tell the operator that DC power (batteries) are being charged or used. While using DC power, the system remains in a trouble condition. Commercial smoke detectors An integrated locking mechanism for commercial building doors. Inside an enclosure are a locking device, smoke detector and power supply. Commercial smoke detectors are either conventional or analog addressable, and are wired up to security monitoring systems or fire alarm control panels (FACP). These are the most common type of detector, and usually cost a lot more than a household smoke alarms. They exist in most commercial and industrial facilities, such as high rises, ships and trains. These detectors don't need to have built in alarms, as alarm systems can be controlled by the connected FACP, which will set off relevant alarms, and can also implement complex functions such as a staged evacuation. 58 | P a g e

Conventional The word Conventional is slang used to distinguish the method used to communicate with the control unit from that used by addressable detectors whose methods were unconventional at the time of their introduction. So called Conventional Detectors cannot be individually identified by the control unit and resemble an electrical switch in their information capacity. These detectors are connected in parallel to the signaling path or (initiating device circuit) so that the current flow is monitored to indicate a closure of the circuit path by any connected detector when smoke or other similar environmental stimulus sufficiently influences any detector. The resulting increase in current flow is interpreted and processed by the control unit as a confirmation of the presence of smoke and a fire alarm signal is generated. Addressable This type of installation gives each detector on a system an individual number, or address. Thus, addressable detectors allow an FACP, and therefore fire fighters, to know the exact location of an alarm where the address is indicated on a diagram. Analog addressable detectors provide information about the amount of smoke in their detection area, so that the FACP can decide itself, if there is an alarm condition in that area (possibly considering day/night time and the readings of surrounding areas). These are usually more expensive than autonomous deciding detectors.[10] Standalone smoke alarms The main function of a standalone smoke alarm is to alert persons at risk. Several methods are used and documented in industry specifications published by Underwriters Laboratories[11] Alerting methods include:
o

Audible tones Usually around 3200 Hz due to component constraints (Audio advancements for persons with hearing impairments have been made; see External links) 85 dBA at 10 feet Spoken voice alert Visual strobe lights 110 candela output Tactile stimulation, e.g., bed or pillow shaker (No standards exist as of 2008 for tactile stimulation alarm devices.) Some models have a hush or temporary silence feature that allows silencing without removing the battery. This is especially useful in locations where false alarms can be relatively common (e.g. due to "toast burning") or users could remove the battery permanently to avoid the annoyance of false alarms, but removing the battery permanently is strongly discouraged. While current technology is very effective at detecting smoke and fire conditions, the deaf and hard of hearing community has raised concerns about the effectiveness of the alerting function in awakening sleeping individuals in certain high risk groups such as the elderly, those with hearing loss and those who are intoxicated.[12] Between 2005 and 2007, research sponsored by the United States' National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has focused on understanding the cause of a higher number of deaths seen in such high risk groups. 59 | P a g e

o o

Initial research into the effectiveness of the various alerting methods is sparse. Research findings suggest that a low frequency (520 Hz) square wave output is significantly more effective at awakening high risk individuals. Wireless smoke and carbon monoxide detectors linked to alert mechanisms such as vibrating pillow pads for the hearing impaired, strobes, and remote warning handsets are more effective at waking people with serious hearing loss than other alarms.[13] Batteries Photoelectric smoke detector equipped with strobe light for the hearing impaired Most residential smoke detectors run on 9-volt alkaline or carbonzinc batteries. When these batteries run down, the smoke detector becomes inactive. Most smoke detectors will signal a low-battery condition. The alarm may chirp at intervals if the battery is low, though if there is more than one unit within earshot, it can be hard to locate. It is common, however, for houses to have smoke detectors with dead batteries. It is estimated, in the UK, that over 30% of smoke alarms may have dead or removed batteries. As a result, public information campaigns have been created to remind people to change smoke detector batteries regularly. In Australia, for example, it is advertised that all smoke alarm batteries should be replaced on the first day of April every year. In regions using daylight saving time, these campaigns may suggest that people change their batteries when they change their clocks or on a birthday. Some detectors are also being sold with a lithium battery that can run for about 7 to 10 years, though this might actually make it less likely for people to change batteries, since their replacement is needed so infrequently. By that time, the whole detector may need to be replaced. Though relatively expensive, user-replaceable 9-volt lithium batteries are also available. Common NiMH and NiCd rechargeable batteries have a high self-discharge rate, making them unsuitable for use in smoke detectors. This is true even though they may provide much more power than alkaline batteries if used soon after charging, such as in a portable stereo. Also, a problem with rechargeable batteries is a rapid voltage drop at the end of their useful charge. This is of concern in devices such as smoke detectors, since the battery may transition from "charged" to "dead" so quickly that the low-battery warning period from the detector is either so brief as to go unnoticed, or may not occur at all. The NFPA, recommends that home-owners replace smoke detector batteries with a new battery at least once per year, when it starts chirping (a signal that its charge is low), or when it fails a test, which the NFPA recommends to be carried out at least once per month by pressing the "test" button on the alarm.[14] Reliability In 2004, NIST issued a comprehensive report[2] that concludes, among other things, that "smoke alarms of either the ionization type or the photoelectric type consistently provided time for occupants to escape from most residential fires", and "consistent with prior findings, ionization type alarms provided somewhat better response to flaming fires than photoelectric alarms, and photoelectric alarms provided (often) considerably faster response to smoldering fires than ionization type alarms".The NFPA strongly recommends the replacement of home smoke alarms every 10 years. Smoke alarms become less reliable with time, primarily due to aging of their electronic components, making them susceptible to nuisance false alarms. In ionization type alarms, decay of the 241Am radioactive source is a negligible factor, as its half-life is far greater than the expected useful life of the alarm unit. 60 | P a g e

Regular cleaning can prevent false alarms caused by the build up of dust or other objects such as flies, particularly on optical type alarms as they are more susceptible to these factors. A vacuum cleaner can be used to clean ionization and optical detectors externally and internally. However, on commercial ionisation detectors it is not recommended for a lay person to clean internally. To reduce false alarms caused by cooking fumes, use an optical or 'toast proof' alarm near the kitchen. [15] A jury in the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York decided in 2006 that First Alert and its parent company, BRK Brands, was liable for millions of dollars in damages because the ionization technology in the smoke alarm in the Hackert's house was defective, failing to detect the slow-burning fire and choking smoke that filled the home as the family slept.[16] Heat detector Mechanical heat detector, both rate of rise and fixed temperature operation. A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element. The thermal mass and conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element. All heat detectors have this thermal lag. Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation, "rate-ofrise" and "fixed temperature." Fixed temperature heat detectors This is the most common type of heat detector. Fixed temperature detectors operate when the heat sensitive element reaches a set operating temperature. Thermal lag delays the accumulation of heat at the sensitive element so that a fixed-temperature device will reach its operating temperature sometime after the surrounding air temperature exceeds that temperature. The most common fixed temperature point for electrically connected heat detectors is 136.4F (58C). Technological developments have enabled the perfection of detectors that activate at a temperature of 117F (47C), increasing the available reaction time and margin of safety. This type of technology has been available for decades without the use of batteries or electricity as shown in the picture. Rate-of-rise heat detectors Rate-of-Rise (ROR) heat detectors operate on a rapid rise in element temperature of 12 to 15F (6.7 to 8.3C) increase per minute, irrespective of the starting temperature. This type of heat detector can operate at a lower temperature fire condition than would be possible if the threshold were fixed. Rate of rise detectors may not respond to low energy release rates of slowly developing fires. To detect slowly developing fires combination detectors add a fixed temperature element that will ultimately respond when the fixed temperature element reaches the design threshold. Heat detector selection Heat detectors commonly have a label on them that says "Not a life safety device". That is because heat detectors are not meant to replace smoke detectors in the bedrooms or in the hallway outside of the bedrooms. A heat detector will nonetheless notify of a fire in a kitchen or utility area (i.e., laundry room, garage, or attic), where smoke detectors should not be installed. This will allow extra time to evacuate the building or to put out the fire if possible. 61 | P a g e

Mechanical heat detectors are independent fire warning stations that - unlike smoke detectors - can be installed in any area of a home. Portability, ease of installation, and excellent performance and reliability make this a good choice for residential fire protection when combined with the required smoke detectors. Because the detectors are not interconnected, heat activation identifies the location of the fire, facilitating evacuation from the home. Each type of heat detector has its advantages, and it cannot be said that one type of heat detector should always be used instead of another. If you were to place a rate-of-rise heat detector above a large, closed oven, then every time the door is opened a nuisance alarm could be generated due to the sudden heat transient. In this circumstance the fixed threshold detector would probably be best. If a room filled with highly combustible materials is protected with a fixed heat detector then a fast-flaming fire could exceed the alarm threshold due to thermal lag. In that case the rate-of-rise heat detector may be preferred. Manual fire alarm activation

A dual-action manual pull station

A manual call point in the UK.

Manual fire alarm activation is done by using a pull station or call point. Fire alarm pull station A fire alarm pull station is an active fire protection device, usually wall-mounted, that, when activated, initiates an alarm on a fire alarm system. In its simplest form, the user activates the alarm by pulling the handle down, which completes a circuit and locks the handle in the activated position, sending an alarm to the fire alarm control panel. After operation, fire alarm pull stations must be restored to the ready position using a special tool or key in order to deactivate the alarm sequence and return the system to normal. Primitive manual stations requiring only a single action or hand motion to activate, can be subject to unwanted activation by jarring or accidental contact. Early strategies to cope with this problem included requiring the operator to break a pane of glass to release an internal spring operated mechanism. Manual pull stations that require two hand motions such as; lift up and pull down or push in and pull down have since replaced the break glass and single action models in many modern installations. Coded pull stations 62 | P a g e

In the past, pull stations controlled the entire system. These coded pull stations were much bigger than modern pulls and had a code wheel in them. This was a gear mechanism that was wound up when the station was pulled (and, unlike modern pull stations, the handle did not stay down). The gears would turn a small wheel with a specific number of teeth, which determined the coding. The teeth would push up on a contact, which would open and close a circuit, pulsing the code to the bells or horns. This code was used by building security to determine where the alarm was originating from. Example: a pull station in the fourth floor elevator lobby of an office building has a code of 5-3-1. When the station is pulled, the security officers in the building look up 5-3-1 in a master list of codes. After finding the location of the pull, they check to see if there is a real fire. If there is, they evacuate the building and call the fire department. Antique Holtzer-Cabot coded pull station. System tests could be conducted in one of two ways: In a coded pull station, there is either a test hole on the front (which is usually activated with an allen wrench) or a test switch on the inside. Turning the switch one way causes the notification appliances to sound continuously (or in the case of single-stroke bells, ding once). Turning it the other way and then activating the pull allows a silent test to be done in which the station's mechanical parts are checked to ensure proper function. Once pulled, the station would do at least four rounds of code before resetting itself. Coded pulls were typically used in new fire alarm systems until roughly the 1950s, and then occasionally up until the 1970s. Up until the late 1980s and early 1990s, some panels were made with an extra zone to accommodate any existing coded pull stations. Nowadays, coded pull stations are very rare and almost never seen in working fire alarm systems. Modern pull stations Many modern fire alarm pull stations are single action and only require the user to pull down the handle. Other fire alarm pull stations are dual-action, and as such require the user to perform a second task before pulling down, such as lifting up or pushing in a panel on the station or shattering a glass panel with an attached hammer. Perhaps the most recognizable pull station is the T-bar style pull. The style is so named because the handle is shaped like the letter "T". This style is manufactured by many companies. Resetting a fire alarm pull station after it has been operated normally requires building personnel or emergency responders to open the station using a key, which often is either a hex key or a more traditional key. Opening the station normally causes the handle to go back to its original position, allowing the alarm to be reset from the fire alarm control panel after the station has been closed.

Activated Fire-Lite BG-12 pull station underneath a Stopper cover In areas where false calls are a problem, pull stations may be covered with a clear plastic cover that sounds a loud tamper alarm when removed, creating focus on the fire alarm. If this is not a sufficient 63 | P a g e

deterrent, the pull handle may be treated with ink, powder, or gel dye which can be used to help identify who pulled the alarm. Manual call points An activated Nohmi manual call point in Japan. Telephone jacks are visible beneath the open cover. In Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Asia, pull stations are generally not used; instead a manual call point is used, which is usually referred to as an MCP within the fire protection industry, as a "transmitter" in Japan, or as a "break glass" by the UK public. They are used to allow building occupants to signal that a fire or other emergency exists within the building. They are usually connected to a central fire alarm panel which is in turn connected to an alarm system in the building, and often to a local fire brigade dispatcher as well. The first modern MCP arrived in Europe in 1972 and was developed by KAC.[1] MCPs would historically be printed with FIRE as a title above a glass element, where the element would be glass which would be covered with plastic. This element design would be the old British Standard. The new European Standard, EN 54, says that the title should be the House Flame symbol, and the glass would appear differently. The glass will still be covered with plastic on the printed side. Previously, the old British standard did not allow hinged covers and plastic resettable elements. Plastic elements must have the same printing as the EN54 glass. Fire safety Fire safety refers to precautions that are taken to prevent or reduce the likelihood of a fire that may result in death, injury, or property damage, alert those in a structure to the presence of a fire in the event one occurs, better enable those threatened by a fire to survive, or to reduce the damage caused by a fire. Fire safety measures include those that are planned during the construction of a building or implemented in structures that are already standing, and those that are taught to occupants of the building. Threats to fire safety are referred to as fire hazards. A fire hazard may include a situation that increases the likelihood a fire may start or may impede escape in the event a fire occurs. Fire safety is often a component of building safety. Those who inspect buildings for violations of the Fire Code and go into schools to educate children on Fire Safety topics are fire department members known as fire prevention officers. The Chief Fire Prevention Officer or Chief of Fire Prevention will normally train newcomers to the Fire Prevention Division and may also conduct inspections or make presentations. A fire safety station at a high school. Fire hoses built into a structure can sometimes be used by occupants to mitigate fires while the fire department is responding.

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Router A Cisco ASM/2-32EM router deployed at CERN in 1987.

Juniper SRX210 service gateway router

A router distributes Digital computer information that is contained within a data packet. Each data packet contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network type to another. This transfer to another type of network is achieved by encapsulating the data with Network specific Protocol header information. When multiple routers are used in a large collection of interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about target system addresses, so that each router can build up a table showing the preferred paths between any two systems on the interconnected networks. Application When multiple routers are used in a large collection of interconnected networks, the routers exchange information, so that each router can build up a reference table showing the preferred paths between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router can have many interface connections, for different physical types of network (such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission). It may contain firmware for different networking protocol standards. Each network interface device is specialized to convert computer signals from one protocol standard to another.

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There are five main areas which contains: 1. Basics - Explains the protocols and how they work together 2. Media - Describes the cabling and various media used to send data between multiple points of a network. 3. Architecture - Describes some popular network architectures. 4. Other Transport Protocols - Describes IPX/SPX, NetBEUI, and more. 5. Functions - Explains some of the functionality of networking such as routing, firewalls and DNS. 6. Further Details - Gives information about some protocols not covered in the "Basics" section. 7. More Complex functions - Documents multicasting, dynamic routing, and network management 8. Applications - Documents how some of the applications work such as ping and traceroute. In the future, it will cover telnet, Rlogin, and FTP. 9. Other Concerns - Includes installing drivers, network operating systems, applications, wide area networks, backing up the network and troubleshooting the network. 10. References - Includes a reference list of terms, RFCs and recommended reading. This explains the data encapsulation techniques in preparation for transport along with some of the network protocols such as IP, TCP, UDP, ICMP, and IGMP. It explains how ARP and RARP support networking. A network consists of multiple computers connected using some type of interface, each having one or more interface devices such as a Network Interface Card (NIC) and/or a serial device for 66 | P a g e

PPP networking. Each computer is supported by network software that provides the server or client functionality. The hardware used to transmit data across the network is called the media. It may include copper cable, fiber optic, or wireless transmission. The standard cabling used for the purposes of this document is 10Base-T category 5 ethernet cable. This is twisted copper cabling which appears at the surface to look similar to TV coaxial cable. It is terminated on each end by a connector that looks much like a phone connector. Its maximum segment length is 100 meters. Network Categories There are two main types of network categories which are: l Server based l Peer-to-peer In a server based network, there are computers set up to be primary providers of services such as file service or mail service. The computers providing the service are are called servers and the computers that request and use the service are called client computers. In a peer-to-peer network, various computers on the network can act both as clients and servers. A Network Operating System (NOS) includes Windows NT, Novell Netware, Linux, Unix and others. Three Network Topologies The network topology describes the method used to do the physical wiring of the network. The main ones are bus, star, and ring. Two small computer networks connected with HUBS, these are not ROUTERS, but simply connectors between computers. SWITCHES may be used to connect HUBS together to help transfer signals more efficently between groups of users. Routers can be used to connect two or more logical subnets, each having a different network address. The subnets addresses in the router do not necessarily map directly to the physical interfaces of the router.[1] The term "layer 3 switching" is often used interchangeably with the term "routing". The term switching is generally used to refer to data forwarding between two network devices with the same network address. This is also called layer 2 switching or LAN switching. Conceptually, a router operates in two operational planes (or sub-systems):[2] How a switch makes a direct signal exchange connection between only the two required computers. Control plane: where a router builds an address table (called routing table) that records where a packet should be forwarded, and through which physical interface.It does this by using either statically configured statements (called static routes), or alternatively, by exchanging information with other routers in the network through a dynamical routing protocol. Forwarding plane: The router actually forwards traffic, (called data packets in Internet Protocol language) from incoming interfaces to outgoing interfaces destination addresses that the packet header contains. It performs this function by following rules derived from the routing table that has been recorded in the control plane.

A typical home router showing the ADSL telephone line and ETHERNET network cable connections. 67 | P a g e

Routers may provide connectivity inside enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, and inside internet service providers (ISPs). The largest routers (for example the Cisco CRS-1 or Juniper T1600) interconnect ISPs, are used inside ISPs, or may be used in very large enterprise networks. The smallest routers provide connectivity for small and home offices. Routers for Internet connectivity and internal use Routers intended for ISP and major enterprise connectivity almost invariably exchange routing information using the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). RFC 4098[3] defines several types of BGPspeaking routers according to the routers' functions:

Edge router (ER): An ER is placed at the edge of an ISP network. The router speaks external BGP (EBGP) to a BGP speaker in another provider or large enterprise Autonomous System(AS). This type of router is also called PE (Provider Edge) routers. Subscriber edge router (SER): An SER is located at the edge of the subscriber's network, it speaks EBGP to its provider's AS(s). It belongs to an end user (enterprise) organization. This type of router is also called CE (Customer Edge) routers. Inter-provider border router: Interconnecting ISPs, this is a BGP-speaking router that maintains BGP sessions with other BGP speaking routers in other providers' ASes. Core router: A core router is one that resides within an AS as back bone to carry traffic between edge routers. Within an ISP: Internal to the provider's AS, such a router speaks internal BGP (IBGP) to that provider's edge routers, other intra-provider core routers, or the provider's inter-provider border routers. "Internet backbone:" The Internet does not have a clearly identifiable backbone, as did its predecessors. See default-free zone (DFZ). Nevertheless, the major ISPs' routers make up what many would consider the core. These ISPs operate all four types of the BGP-speaking routers described here. In ISP usage, a "core" router is internal to an ISP, and used to interconnect its edge and border routers. Core routers may also have specialized functions in virtual private networks based on a combination of BGP and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS).[4] Routers are also used for port forwarding for private servers. Domains An ISP is provided with a unique URLaccess address. This address is a unique number. The number for each ISP is stored within a DNS server. The DNS servers interpret the ISP URL Domain name and provide the appropriate IP address. The Domain is under the control of a specialised computer, called a PDC, (primary domain controller). This computer holds records of all the user accounts within the domain, their rights to access information, and lists of approved System Operatives. This PDC is backed up by a SDC, (a secondary domain controller), this computer synchronises itself with the PDC and takes over the role in the event of a PDC failure. Multiple replication servers connect to these control computers and they are routed to the Internet backbone to provide the requested data to and from the domain. Leonard Kleinrock and the first IMP.

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Avaya ERS 8600 (2010) The very first device that had fundamentally the same functionality as a router does today, i.e a packet switch, was the Interface Message Processor (IMP); IMPs were the devices that made up the ARPANET, the first packet switching network. The idea for a router (although they were called "gateways" at the time) initially came about through an international group of computer networking researchers called the International Network Working Group (INWG). Set up in 1972 as an informal group to consider the technical issues involved in connecting different networks, later that year it became a subcommittee of the International Federation for Information Processing.[5] These devices were different from most previous packet switches in two ways. First, they connected dissimilar kinds of networks, such as serial lines and local area networks. Second, they were connectionless devices, which had no role in assuring that traffic was delivered reliably, leaving that entirely to the hosts (although this particular idea had been previously pioneered in the CYCLADES network). The idea was explored in more detail, with the intention to produce a real prototype system, as part of two contemporaneous programs. One was the initial DARPA-initiated program, which created the TCP/IP architecture of today.[6] The other was a program at Xerox PARC to explore new networking technologies, which produced the PARC Universal Packet system, although due to corporate intellectual property concerns it received little attention outside Xerox until years later.[7] The earliest Xerox routers came into operation sometime after early 1974. The first true IP router was developed by Virginia Strazisar at BBN, as part of that DARPA-initiated effort, during 1975-1976. By the end of 1976, three PDP-11-based routers were in service in the experimental prototype Internet.[8] The first multiprotocol routers were independently created by staff researchers at MIT and Stanford in 1981; the Stanford router was done by William Yeager, and the MIT one by Noel Chiappa; both were also based on PDP-11. As virtually all networking now uses IP at the network layer, multiprotocol routers are largely obsolete, although they were important in the early stages of the growth of computer networking, when several protocols other than TCP/IP were in widespread use. Routers that handle both IPv4 and IPv6 arguably are multiprotocol, but in a far less variable sense than a router that processed AppleTalk, DECnet, IP, and Xerox protocols. In the original era of routing (from the mid-1970s through the 1980s), general-purpose mini-computers served as routers. Although general-purpose computers can perform routing, modern high-speed routers are highly specialized computers, generally with extra hardware added to accelerate both common routing functions, such as packet forwarding and specialised functions such as IPsec encryption. 69 | P a g e

Still, there is substantial use of Linux and Unix machines, running open source routing code, for routing research and other applications. While Cisco's operating system was independently designed, other major router operating systems, such as those from Juniper Networks and Extreme Networks, are extensively modified but still have Unix ancestry. Enterprise routers All sizes of routers may be found inside enterprises. The most powerful routers tend to be found in ISPs and academic & research facilities. Large businesses may also need powerful router. A three-layer model is in common use, not all of which need be present in smaller networks.[13] Access

Linksys by Cisco WRT54GL SoHo Router A screenshot of the LuCI web interface used by OpenWrt. Here it is being used to configure Dynamic DNS. Access routers, including 'small office/home office' (SOHO) models, are located at customer sites such as branch offices that do not need hierarchical routing of their own. Typically, they are optimized for low cost. Some SOHO routers are capable of running alternative free Linux-based firmwares like OpenWrt. Distribution Distribution routers aggregate traffic from multiple access routers, either at the same site, or to collect the data streams from multiple sites to a major enterprise location. Distribution routers often are responsible for enforcing quality of service across a WAN, so they may have considerable memory, multiple WAN interfaces, and substantial processing intelligence. They may also provide connectivity to groups of servers or to external networks. In the latter application, the router's functionality must be carefully considered as part of the overall security architecture. Separate from the router may be a firewall or VPN concentrator, or the router may include these and other security functions. Core In enterprises, a core router may provide a "collapsed backbone" interconnecting the distribution tier routers from multiple buildings of a campus, or large enterprise locations. They tend to be optimized for high bandwidth. Forwarding plane (a.k.a. data plane) For pure Internet Protocol (IP) forwarding function, a router is designed to minimize the state information on individual packets. The main purpose of a router is to connect multiple networks and forward packets destined either for its own networks or other networks. A router is considered a Layer 3 device because its primary forwarding decision is based on the information in the Layer 3 IP packet, 70 | P a g e

specifically the destination IP address. This process is known as routing. When each router receives a packet, it searches its routing table to find the best match between the destination IP address of the packet and one of the network addresses in the routing table. Once a match is found, the packet is encapsulated in the layer 2 data link frame for that outgoing interface. A router does not look into the actual data contents that the packet carries, but only at the layer 3 addresses to make a forwarding decision, plus optionally other information in the header for hint on, for example, QoS. Once a packet is forwarded, the router does not retain any historical information about the packet, but the forwarding action can be collected into the statistical data, if so configured. Forwarding decisions can involve decisions at layers other than the IP internetwork layer or OSI layer 3. A function that forwards based on data link layer, or OSI layer 2, information, is properly called a bridge or switch. This function is referred to as layer 2 switching, as the addresses it uses to forward the traffic are layer 2 addresses in the OSI layer model. Besides making decision as which interface a packet is forwarded to, which is handled primarily via the routing table, a router also has to manage congestion, when packets arrive at a rate higher than the router can process. Three policies commonly used in the Internet are tail drop, random early detection, and weighted random early detection. Tail drop is the simplest and most easily implemented; the router simply drops packets once the length of the queue exceeds the size of the buffers in the router. Random early detection (RED) probabilistically drops datagrams early when the queue is exceeds a pre-configured size of the queue until a preconfigured max when it becomes tail drop. Weighted random early detection requires a weight on the average queue size to act upon when the traffic is about to exceed the pre-configured size, so that short bursts will not trigger random drops. Another function a router performs is to decide which packet should be processed first when multiple queues exist. This is managed through Quality of service (QoS), which is critical when VoIP (Voice over IP) is deployed, so that delays between packets do not exceed 150ms to maintain the quality of voice conversations. Yet another function a router performs is called "policy based routing" where special rules are constructed to override the rules derived from the routing table when a packet forwarding decision is made. These functions may be performed through the same internal paths that the packets travel inside the router. Some of the functions may be performed through an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) to avoid overhead caused by multiple CPU cycles, and others may have to be performed through the CPU as these packets need special attention that cannot be handled by an ASIC. Building automation protocols

BACnet - for building automation, designed by committee ASHRAE. LonTalk - protocol for LonWorks technology by Echelon Corporation Modbus RTU or ASCII Modbus/TCP BACnet BACnet is a communications protocol for building automation and control networks. It is an ASHRAE, ANSI, and ISO standard protocol. BACnet was designed to allow communication of building automation and control systems for applications such as heating, ventilating, and airconditioning control, lighting control, access control, and fire detection systems and their associated 71 | P a g e

equipment. The BACnet protocol provides mechanisms for computerized building automation devices to exchange information, regardless of the particular building service they perform. History The development of the BACnet protocol began in June, 1987, in Nashville, Tennessee[1], at the inaugural meeting of the Standard Project Committee (SPC). The committee worked at reaching consensus using working groups to divide up the task of creating a standard. The working groups focused on specific areas and provided information and recommendations to the main committee. The first three working groups were the Data Type and Attribute Working Group, Primitive Data Format Working Group, and the Application Services Working Group. BACnet became ASHRAE/ANSI Standard 135 in 1995, and ISO 16484-5 in 2003. The Method of Test for Conformance to BACnet was published in 2003 as BSR/ASHRAE Standard 135.1. BACnet is under continuous maintenance by the ASHRAE Standing Standard Project Committee 135. BACnet had an almost immediate impact on the HVAC controls industry. In 1996 Alerton announced a complete BACnet product line for HVAC controls, from the operator's workstation down to small VAV controllers. Automated Logic Corporation and Delta Controls soon followed suit. As of October 22, 2010, 476 Vendor IDs have been issued and are distributed internationally. Those vendor identifiers can be viewed at the BACnet website. H. Michael (Mike) Newman, Manager of the Computer Section of the Utilities and Energy Management Department at Cornell University, served as the BACnet committee chairman until June, 2000, when he was succeeded by his vice-chair of 13 years, Steven (Steve) Bushby from NIST. During Steve Bushby's four-year term as committee chair the BACnet standard was republished twice, in 2001 and 2004, each time with new capabilities added to the standard. The 2001 version featured, among other things, extensions to support fire / life-safety systems. In June, 2004, 17 years after the first BACnet meeting and back in Nashville, William (Bill) Swan (a.k.a. "BACnet Bill") from Alerton began his four-year stint as committee chair. During his term the number of committee working groups grew to 11, pursuing areas such as support for lighting, access control, energy utility/building integration and wireless communications. In June 2008, in Salt Lake City, Dave Robin from Automated Logic Corporation took over the reins as the new committee chair after serving 4 years as vice chair. In January 2006 the BACnet Manufacturers Association and the BACnet Interest Group of North America combined their operation in a new organization called BACnet International. Protocol Overview The BACnet protocol defines a number of services that are used to communicate between building devices. The protocol services include Who-Is, I-Am, Who-Has, I-Have, which are used for Device and Object discovery. Services such as Read-Property and Write-Property are used for data sharing. The BACnet protocol defines a number of Objects that are acted upon by the services. The objects include Analog Input, Analog Output, Analog Value, Binary Input, Binary Output, Binary Value, Multi-State Input, Multi-State Output, Calendar, Event-Enrollment, File, Notification-Class, Group, Loop, Program, Schedule, Command, and Device. The BACnet protocol defines a number of data link / physical layers, including ARCNET, Ethernet, BACnet/IP, Point-To-Point over RS-232, Master-Slave/Token-Passing over RS-485, and LonTalk. BACnet Objects The standard specifies 49 types of objects 72 | P a g e

Access Credential Access Zone Averaging Calendar Date Time Pattern Value File Life Safety Point Multi-state Output Positive Integer Value Time Pattern Value

Access Door Accumulator Binary Input Command Date Time Value Global Group Life Safety Zone Multi-state Value Program Time Value

Access Point Analog Input Binary Output Character String Value Device Group Load Control Network Security Pulse Converter Trend Log

Access Rights Analog Output Binary Value Date Pattern Value Event Enrollment Integer Value Loop Notification Class Schedule Trend Log Multiple

Access User Analog Value Bit String Value Date Value Event Log Large Analog Value Multi-state Input Octet String Value Structured-View

Analog Input - Sensor input Analog Output - Control output Analog Value - Setpoint or other analog control system parameter Binary Input - Switch input Binary Output - Relay output Binary Value - control system parameter Calendar - a list of dates, such as holidays or special events, for scheduling. Command - Writes multiple values to multiple objects in multiple devices to accomplish a specific purpose, such as day-mode to night-mode, or emergency mode. Device - Properties tell what objects and services the device supports, and other device-specific information such as vendor, firmware revision, etc. Event Enrollment - Describes an event that might be an error condition (e.g., "Input out of range") or an alarm that other devices to know about. It can directly tell one device or use a Notification Class object to tell multiple devices. File - Allows read and write access to data files supported by the device. Group - Provides access to multiple properties of multiple objects in a read single operation. Multi-state Input - Represents the status of a multiple-state process, such as a refrigerator's On, Off, and Defrost cycles. Multi-state Output - Represents the desired state of a multiple-state process (such as It's Time to Cool, It's Cold Enough and it's Time to Defrost). Notification Class - Contains a list of devices to be informed if an Event Enrollment object determines that a warning or alarm message needs to be sent. 73 | P a g e

Loop - Provides standardized access to a "PID control loop". Program - Allows a program running in the device to be started, stopped, loaded and unloaded, and reports the present status of the program. Schedule - Defines a weekly schedule of operations (performed by writing to specified list of objects with exceptions such as holidays. Can use a Calendar object for the exceptions. BACnet Testing BACnet Testing Laboratories was established by BACnet International to test products as per BACnet standard and support compliance testing and interoperability testing activities and consists of BTL Manager and the BTL-WG. The general activities of the BTL are:

Publish the BTL Implementation Guidelines document Certifying the products as per BACnet guidelines Support the activities of the BTL-WG, Maintaining the BTL test packages for technical support for use of pre-testing Approves Testing Laboratories for BTL Testing The BTL also provides testing services through its managed BACnet laboratory. BACnet International and BTL have reached an agreement with SoftDEL Systems to establish and maintain a test lab for BACnet products[2]. SoftDEL is headquartered in Pune, India where the test facility operates BTL. The BTL Manager and BTL working group of BACnet International will administer the test lab. This BACnet lab is ISO 17025 accredited [3] LonWorks LonWorks is a networking platform specifically created to address the needs of control applications. The platform is built on a protocol created by Echelon Corporation for networking devices over media such as twisted pair, powerlines, fiber optics, and RF. It is used for the automation of various functions within buildings such as lighting and HVAC; see Intelligent building. Origins and uptake The technology has its origins with chip designs, power line and twisted pair, signaling technology, routers, network management software, and other products from Echelon Corporation. In 1999 the communications protocol (then known as LonTalk) was submitted to ANSI and accepted as a standard for control networking (ANSI/CEA-709.1-B). Echelon's power line and twisted pair signaling technology was also submitted to ANSI for standardization and accepted. Since then, ANSI/CEA709.1 has been accepted as the basis for IEEE 1473-L (in-train controls), AAR electro-pneumatic braking systems for freight trains, IFSF (European petrol station control), SEMI (semiconductor equipment manufacturing), and in 2005 as EN 14908 (European building automation standard). The protocol is also one of several data link/physical layers of the BACnet ASHRAE/ANSI standard for building automation. China ratified the technology as a national controls standard, GB/Z 20177.1-2006 and as a building and intelligent community standard, GB/T 20299.4-2006; and in 2007 CECED, the European Committee of Domestic Equipment Manufacturers, adopted the protocol as part of its Household Appliances Control and Monitoring Application Interworking Specification (AIS) standards. During 2008 ISO and IEC 74 | P a g e

have granted the communications protocol, twisted pair signaling technology, power line signaling technology, and Internet Protocol (IP) compatibility standard numbers ISO/IEC 14908-1, -2, -3, and -4. Usage By 2010 approximately 90 million devices were installed with LonWorks technology. Manufacturers in a variety of industries including building, home, street lighting, transportation, utility, and industrial automation have adopted the platform as the basis for their product and service offerings. Statistics as to the number of locations using the LonWorks technology are scarce, but it is known that products and applications built on top of the platform include such diverse functions as embedded machine control, municipal and highway/tunnel/street lighting, heating and air conditioning systems, intelligent electricity metering, subway train control, stadium lighting and speaker control, security systems, fire detection and suppression, and newborn location monitoring and alarming. Technical details Two physical-layer signaling technologies, twisted pair "free topology" and power line carrier, are typically included in each of the standards created around the LonWorks technology. The two-wire layer operates at 78 kbit/s using differential Manchester encoding, while the power line achieves either 5.4 or 3.6 kbit/s, depending on frequency.[1] Additionally, the LonWorks platform uses an affiliated IP tunneling standardISO/IEC 14908-4[2] (ANSI/CEA-852[3]) -- in use by a number of manufacturers[4] to connect the devices on previously deployed and new LonWorks platform-based networks to IP-aware applications or remote networkmanagement tools. Many LonWorks platform-based control applications are being implemented with some sort of IP integration, either at the UI/application level or in the controls infrastructure. This is accomplished with web services or IP-routing products available on the market. An Echelon Corporation-designed IC consisting of several 8-bit processors, the "Neuron chip" was initially the only way to implement a LonTalk protocol node and is used in the large majority of LonWorks platform-based hardware. Since 1999, the protocol has been available for general-purpose processors[5]: a port of the ANSI/CEA-709.1 standard to IP-based or 32-bit chips. Applications using LonWorks

Semiconductor manufacturing Lighting control systems Energy management systems Heating/ventilation/air-conditioning systems Security systems Home automation Consumer appliance controls Public street lighting, monitoring, and control Petrol station control Rail Electronically Controlled Pneumatic Braking 75 | P a g e

SNVTs (Standard Network Variable Types) One of the keys to the interoperability of the system is the standardisation of the variables used to describe physical things to LonWorks, this standards list is maintained by LonMark International and each standard is known as Standard Network Variable Types (SNVTs, pronounced "sniv-its") so for example a thermostat using the temperature SNVT is expected to produce a number between zero and 65535 that equates to a temperature between -274 and 6279.5 degrees Celsius. Modbus Modbus is a serial communications protocol published by Modicon in 1979 for use with its programmable logic controllers (PLCs). It has become a de facto standard communications protocol in industry, and is now the most commonly available means of connecting industrial electronic devices.[1] The main reasons for the extensive use of Modbus over other communications protocols are: 1. 2. 3. It is openly published and royalty-free Relatively easy industrial network to deploy It moves raw bits or words without placing many restrictions on vendors Modbus allows for communication between many devices connected to the same network, for example a system that measures temperature and humidity and communicates the results to a computer. Modbus is often used to connect a supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU) in supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. Suppliers large and small, system integrators, end users, open source developers, educators and other interested parties can become Modbus organization members. Some of the prominent members are SoftDEL Systems, Precision Digital Corporation, Motor Protection Electronics, FieldServer Technologies and many more

Protocol versions Versions of the Modbus protocol exist for serial port and for Ethernet and other networks that support the Internet protocol suite. Most Modbus devices communicate over a serial EIA-485 physical layer [1]. There are many variants of Modbus protocols

Modbus RTU This is used in serial communication & makes use of a compact, binary representation of the data for protocol communication. The RTU format follows the commands/data with a cyclic redundancy check checksum as an error check mechanism to ensure the reliability of data. Modbus RTU is the most common implementation available for Modbus. A Modbus RTU message must be transmitted continuously without inter-character hesitations. Modbus messages are framed (separated) by idle (silent) periods. Modbus ASCII This is used in serial communication & makes use of ASCII characters for protocol communication. The ASCII format uses a longitudinal redundancy check checksum. Modbus ASCII messages are framed by leading colon (':') and trailing newline (CR/LF). Modbus TCP/IP or Modbus TCP This is a modbus variant used for communications over TCP/IP networks. It does not require a checksum calculation as lower layer takes care of the same. 76 | P a g e

Modbus over TCP/IP or Modbus over TCP This is a modbus variant that differs from Modbus TCP in that a checksum is included in the payload as with Modbus RTU. Modbus Plus (Modbus+, MB+ or MBP) An extended version, Modbus Plus (Modbus+ or MB+), also exists, but remains proprietary to SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC. It requires a dedicated coprocessor to handle fast HDLC-like token rotation. It uses twisted pair at 1 Mbit/s and includes transformer isolation at each node, which makes it transition/edge triggered instead of voltage/level triggered. Special interfaces are required to connect Modbus Plus to a computer, typically a card made for the ISA (SA85), PCI or PCMCIA bus. Data model and function calls are identical for the first 4 variants of protocols; only the encapsulation is different. However the variants are not interoperable as the frame formats are different. Communication and devices Each device intended to communicate using Modbus is given a unique address. In serial and MB+ networks only the node assigned as the Master may initiate a command, but on Ethernet, any device can send out a Modbus command, although usually only one master device does so. A Modbus command contains the Modbus address of the device it is intended for. Only the intended device will act on the command, even though other devices might receive it (an exception is specific broadcastable commands sent to node 0 which are acted on but not acknowledged). All Modbus commands contain checking information, ensuring that a command arrives undamaged. The basic Modbus commands can instruct an RTU to change a value in one of its registers, control or read an I/O port, as well as commanding the device to send back one or more values contained in its registers. There are many modems and gateways that support Modbus, as it is a very simple protocol and often copied. Some of them were specifically designed for this protocol. Different implementations use wireline, wireless communication and even SMS or GPRS. Typical problems the designers have to overcome include high latency and timing problems. Limitations

Since Modbus was designed in the late 1970s to communicate to programmable logic controllers, the number of data types is limited to those understood by PLCs at the time. Large binary objects are not supported. No standard way exists for a node to find the description of a data object, for example, to determine if a register value represents a temperature between 30 and 175 degrees. Since Modbus is a master/slave protocol, there is no way for a field device to "report by exception" (except over Ethernet TCP/IP, called open-mbus)- the master node must routinely poll each field device, and look for changes in the data. This consumes bandwidth and network time in applications where bandwidth may be expensive, such as over a low-bit-rate radio link. Modbus is restricted to addressing 247 devices on one data link, which limits the number of field devices that may be connected to a master station (once again Ethernet TCP/IP proving the exception). Modbus transmissions must be contiguous which limits the types of remote communications devices to those that can buffer data to avoid gaps in the transmission. Modbus protocol provides no security against unauthorized commands or interception of data. 77 | P a g e

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