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Design of Flexible Pavement

Design Methodology
For flexible pavements, structural design involves determining appropriate layer thickness and type of material or construction in each layer. The main input parameters in design are future traffic load and strength of soil. Two methods of flexible pavement design are common Empirical design, and Mechanistic Empirical design.

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Empirical Design In empirical approach the design is based on the results of experimentation or experience. An empirical analysis of flexible pavement design can be done with or without a soil strength test. A good example of empirical design method where no soil test is required is Group Index Method. Semi-empirical concepts where soil strength is used in design are CBR method, North Dakota Cone method etc. CBR method of design is widely known design method for flexible pavement. In empirical method design charts are developed from experience and new design is based on these charts.

Mechanistic-Empirical Design Empirical-Mechanistic method of design is based on the mechanics of materials that relates input, such as wheel load, strength of materials, to an output or pavement response. In pavement design, the responses are the stresses, strains, and deflections within a pavement structure and the physical causes are the loads and material properties of the pavement structure. The relationship between these phenomena and their physical causes are typically described using some mathematical models. Along with mechanistic approach, empirical elements are used. The relationship between physical phenomena and pavement failure is described by empirically derived equations that compute the number of loading cycles to failure.

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Advantages of the Mechanistic-Empirical design method It can be used for both existing pavement rehabilitation and new pavement construction It can accommodate changing load types It can better characterize materials allowing for better utilization of available materials accommodation of new materials improved definition of existing layer proportion It uses material proportion that relates better with actual pavement performance It provides more reliable performance predictions It defines role of construction in a better way It accommodates environment and aging effect of materials in the pavement

CBR Method

This method involves determination of the CBR value of subgrade, and also sub base as well as base materials for most critical moisture condition. Traffic is expressed in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day and estimated for the design year. A number of charts or curves are developed from the past experience relating CBR and traffic. The values in the chart for the estimated design traffic indicate the total thickness of construction required above any particular layer having material with known CBR. The thickness of any particular layer is thus determined by subtracting the total thicknesses necessary for this layer from that of the layer above. It is a simple and easy to apply method but has many limitations.

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Design of Flexible Pavement by IRC Method

Introduction
The flexible pavement design method in India is provided by IRC in two separate guidelines. IRC: 37 2001 (Guideline for the Design of Flexible Pavements) is basically applicable for Expressways, National Highways, State Highways and Major District Roads. IRC: SP: 72- 2007 (Guideline for the Design of Flexible Pavements for Low Volume Rural Roads) is developed for the rural roads IRC: 37 was first published in 1970, which was revised twice in 1984 and 2001. The current version follows the mechanisticempirical method where CBR tests are conducted to determine the strength of soil.

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Basics of IRC: 37 2001

In IRC: 37 2001 the flexible pavement has been modeled as a three layer structure and stresses and strains at critical locations have been computed using the linear elastic model developed under the MORT&H (Ministry of Road Transport & Highways). Layered elastic approach usually works with relatively simple mathematical models and thus requires following assumptions Pavement layer extends infinitely in the horizontal direction The bottom layer extends infinitely downwards Materials are not stressed beyond their elastic ranges Design curves correlating pavement thickness, traffic intensity [upto 150 msa (million standard axle)] and CBR value of soil are developed.

In this design following three types of pavement distress resulting from repeated application of traffic loads are considered.
Vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade. If

the strain is excessive, the subgrade will deform resulting in permanent deformation at the pavement surface during the design life.
Horizontal

tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous layer. Large tensile strains cause fracture of the bituminous layer during the design life.

Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.

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Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer can be controlled by appropriate mix design as per MORTH specification. The thicknesses of the granular and bituminous layers are selected using analytical design approach so that strains at the critical points are within the allowable limits. For calculating tensile strains at the bottom of the bituminous layer, the stiffness of Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) layer with 60/70 bitumen has been used in the analysis.

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Failure Criteria
Fatigue Cracking Bituminous surfacing of pavements display flexural fatigue cracking if the tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous layer is beyond certain limits. Pavement is considered failed if 20% of the surface has cracked Fatigue Criteria Nf = 2.21 x 10-4 [1/ t]3.89 x [1/E]0.854 Nf = No. of cumulative standard axles to produce 20% cracked surface area t = Tensile strain at the bottom of Bituminous Concrete layer E = Elastic Modulus of Bituminous Surface (MP

Rutting Failure Pavement may fail in rutting if excessive compressive strain develops at the top of subgrade layer Pavement is considered failed if it exhibits a rut depth of 20mm. Rutting Criteria NR = 4.1656 x 10-8 [1/ z]4.5337 NR = No. of cumulative standard axles to produce rutting of 20 mm z = Vertical subgrade strain Relation Between CBR and Elasticity of subgrade, sub-base,base E3 (MPa) = 10 x CBR if CBR<5% and = 176 x(CBR)0.64 for CBR > 5%
E2(MPa) = E3x0.2h0.45 E3 = Elastic Modulus of Subgrade; E3 = Composite Elastic Modulus of Sub-base and Base; h = thickness of Sub-base and Base (mm)

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Traffic Estimation
The method considers traffic in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles (8160 kg) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This requires the following information: i. Initial traffic in terms of CVPD ii. Traffic growth rate during the design life iii. Design life in number of years iv. Vehicle damage factor (VDF) v. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriageway. The commercial vehicles having laden weight 3 tonnes or more are to be considered.

Initial Traffic Initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour classified traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area. Traffic growth rate Traffic growth rates can be estimated by i. studying the past trends of traffic growth, and ii. establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5% may be adopted.

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Initial Traffic Initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-hour classified traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area. Traffic growth rate Traffic growth rates can be estimated by i. studying the past trends of traffic growth, and ii. establishing econometric models. If adequate data is not available, it is recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5% may be adopted.

Design Life For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement is necessary. It is recommended that pavements Expressway and Urban roads for 20 years and National Highways, State Highways should be designed for a life of 15 years Other categories of roads for 10 to 15 years. If full pavement cannot be constructed initially stage construction is recommended.

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Vehicle Damage Factor The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of standard axle-load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain, type of road, and from region to region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to convert different axle load repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. The exact VDF values can be arrived after extensive field surveys.

Distribution of Traffic over Carriageway A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is necessary as it directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the design. Until reliable data is available, the following distribution may be assumed. Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane roads and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on total number of commercial vehicles in both directions. Two-lane single carriageway roads: 75 % of the commercial vehicles in both directions. Four-lane single carriageway roads: 40 % of the total number of commercial vehicles in both directions. Dual carriageway roads: For dual two-lane, dual threelane, and dual four-lane carriageways, 75%, 60% and 45% of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction respectively.

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Computation of Design Traffic

The design traffic is considered in terms of the cumulative number of standard axle to be carried (in the lane carrying maximum traffic) during the design life of the road

Traffic count is done a few years prior to the equation year of completion of construction. The initial traffic in the above may be computed as A =P(1+r)x P = Number of commercial vehicles in the last count x = Number of years between the last count and the year of completion of construction.

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Total Thickness of the Pavement

For design of pavement design curves relating pavement thickness to the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried over the design life for subgrade CBR values are developed. One set of curves is for traffic 1 to 10 msa and the other set of curves for 10 to 150 msa. Each set has nine curves for nine different subgrade CBR from 2% to 10%. IRC 37 - 2001 _Design curves.pdf The total thickness of the pavement can be obtained from these curves for the given traffic and subgrade CBR. The thickness consists of granular sub-base, granular base and bituminous surfacing.

Pavement Layer Composition

The thicknesses and composition of pavement layers are given in the Pavement Design Catalogues. IRC 37- 2001_Design Catalogue_1.pdf Subbase Course Granular materials conforming to clause 401 of MORTH Specification for Road and Bridge Works are recommended as sub-base Materials passing 425 micron sieve should have liquid limit and plasticity index not more than 25 and 6 respectively. Materials should have minimum CBR of 20% for traffic upto 2msa and 30% for traffic exceeding 2 msa. The thickness of sub-base should not be less than 150mm for traffic upto 10msa and 200mm for otherwise. If subgrade is having CBR less than 2% provide a layer of 150mm in addition to the subbase layer.

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Subbase materials comprise of natural sand, moorum, gravel, laterite, kankar, brick metal, crushed stone, crushed slag, crushed concrete or combination thereof meeting the prescribed grading. Other granular construction like, Water Bound Macadam, Wet Mix Macadam may be provided. Base Course The thickness of base should not be less than 225mm for traffic upto 2msa and 250mm for otherwise. Base course is recommended to use Water Bound Macadam, Wet Mix Macadam, or other equivalent granular construction conforming to IRC / MORTH specification. Base course may also be consist of Bituminous Macadam

Surfacing Surface course consists of either a wearing course or a binder course with wearing course at the top. Construction of wearing course may consist of Surface Dressing, Premix Carpet, Semi-dense Bituminous Concrete, Bituminous Concrete etc. Construction of binder course may consist of Bituminous Macadam, Dense Bituminous Macadam etc. Where wearing course is of surface dressing or premix carpet type the thickness of the surfacing should not ne counted within pavement thickness

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Drainage Measure Performance of any pavement is seriously affected if adequate drainage measure to prevent accumulation of moisture in the pavement structure is not prevented. Some important measures for drainage measures are to: Provide required camber in all layers to aid quick run-off. Provide sub-surface drain Keep the pavement as far above the water table as economically possible. Difference between bottom of subgrade and the HFL should not be lass than 0.6m. Install suitable capillary cut-off. Extend the granular sub-base over the entire formation width in low permeable subgrade. Provide high permeability drainage layer over subgrade.

Design Example
Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following data: i) Two lane carriage way; ii) Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 400 CVPD (sum of both directions); iii) Traffic growth rate = 7.5% ; iv) Design life = 15 years; v) Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle per commercial vehicle; vi) Design CBR of subgrade soil = 4%.

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Solution Determination of the design traffic Lane Distribution factor = 0.75 N = [365 (1 + 0.075)15 1) x 400 x 0.75 x 2.5]/0.075 = 7200000 = 7.2 msa Total pavement thickness for CBR 4% and traffic 7.2 msa from IRC:37 2001 chart1 = 660 mm Pavement composition can be obtained by interpolation from Pavement Design Catalogue (IRC:37 2001). Bituminous surfacing = 25 mm Semi-dense Bituminous Concrete + 70 mm Dense Bituminous Macadam Base course = 250 mm Water Bound Macadam Sub-base course = 315 mm granular material of CBR not less than 30 %

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