Giuseppe Mazzini (Italian pronunciation: [duzppe mattsini]; 22 June 1805 10 March 1872), nicknamed The Beating [1] Heart

t of Italy, was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy. His efforts helped bring about the [2] independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers that existed until the 19th century. He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state. Early years Mazzini was born in Genoa, then part of the Ligurian Republic, under the rule of the French Empire. His father, Giacomo Mazzini, originally from Chiavari, was a university professor who had adhered to Jacobin ideology; his mother, Maria Drago, was renowned for her beauty and religious (Jansenist) fervour. Since a very early age, Mazzini showed good learning qualities (as well as a precocious interest towards politics and literature), and was admitted to the University at only 14, graduating in law in 1826, initially practicing as a "poor man's lawyer". He also hoped to become a historical novelist or a dramatist, and in the same year he wrote his first essay, Dell'amor patrio di Dante ("On Dante's Patriotic Love"), which was published in 1837. In 182829 he collaborated with a Genoese newspaper, L'indicatore genovese, which was however soon closed by the Piedmontese authorities. He then became one of the leading authors of L'Indicatore Livornese, published at Livorno by F.D. Guerrazzi, until this paper was closed down by the authorities, too. In 1827 Mazzini travelled to Tuscany, where he became a member of the Carbonari, a secret association with political purposes. On October 31 of that year he was arrested at Genoa and interned at Savona. During his imprisonment he devised the outlines of a new patriotic movement aiming to replace the unsuccessful Carbonari. Although freed in early 1831, he chose exile instead of life confined into the small hamlet which was requested of him by the police, moving to Geneva in Switzerland. Failed insurrections In 1831 he went to Marseille, where he became a popular figure to the other Italian exiles. He lived in the apartment of Giuditta Bellerio Sidoli, a beautiful Modenese widow who would become his lover, and organized a new political society called La giovine Italia (Young Italy). Young Italy was a secret society formed to promote Italian unification. Mazzini believed that a popular uprising would create a unified Italy, and would touch off a European-wide revolutionary [3] [4] movement. The group's motto was God and the People, and its basic principle was the unification of the several states and kingdoms of the peninsula into a single republic as the only true foundation of Italian liberty. The new nation had to be: "One, Independent, Free Republic". The Mazzinian political activism met some success in Tuscany, Abruzzi, Sicily, Piedmont and his native Liguria, especially among several military officers. Young Italy counted ca 60,000 adherents in 1833, with branches in Genoa and other cities. In that year Mazzini launched a first attempt of insurrection, which would spread from Chambry (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), Alessandria, Turin and Genoa. However, the Savoy government discovered the plot before it could begin and many revolutionaries (including Vincenzo Gioberti) were arrested. The repression was ruthless: 12 participants were executed, while Mazzini's best friend and director of the Genoese section of the Giovine Italia, Jacopo Ruffini, killed himself. Mazzini was tried in absence and sentenced to death. Despite this setback (whose victims later created numerous doubts and psychological strife in Mazzini), he organized another uprising for the following year. A group of Italian exiles were to enter Piedmont from Switzerland and spread the revolution there, while Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had recently joined the Giovine Italia, was to do the same from Genoa. However, the Piedmontese troops easily crushed the new attempt. In the Spring of 1834, while at Bern, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of Young Europe. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty; and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. [...] His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. [...] Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations [5] would be an indispensable preliminary. On May 28, 1834 Mazzini was arrested at Solothurn, and exiled from Switzerland. He moved to Paris, where he was again imprisoned on July 5. He was released only after promising he would move to England. Mazzini, together with a few Italian friends, moved in January 1837 to live in London in very poor economic conditions. He resided at a property on North Gower Street near Euston Square, which is now marked with an English Heritage blue plaque. Exile in London On April 30, 1840 Mazzini reformed the Giovine Italia in London, and on November 10 of the same year he began issuing the Apostolato popolare ("Apostleship of the People"). A succession of failed attempts at promoting further uprising in Sicily, Abruzzi, Tuscany and Lombardy-Venetia discouraged Mazzini for a long period, which dragged on until 1840. He was also abandoned by Sidoli, who had returned

to Italy to rejoin her children. The help of his mother pushed Mazzini to found several organizations aimed at the [7] unification or liberation of other nations, in the wake of Giovine Italia: Young Germany, Young Poland, Young Switzerland, which were under the aegis of Young Europe (Giovine Europa). He also created an Italian school for poor [8] people active from November 10, 1841 at 5, Greville Street, London. From London he also wrote an endless series of letters to his agents in Europe and South America, and made friends with Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. The "Young Europe" movement also inspired a group of young Turkish army cadets and students who, later in history, named themselves the "Young Turks". In 1843 he organized another riot in Bologna, which attracted the attention of two young officers of the Austrian Navy, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera. With Mazzini's support, they landed near Cosenza (Kingdom of Naples), but were arrested and executed. Mazzini accused the British government of having passed information about the expeditions to the [9] Neapolitans, and question was raised in the British Parliament. When it was admitted that his private letters had indeed [10] [11] been opened, and its contents revealed by the Foreign Office to the Austrian and Neapolitan governments, Mazzini gained popularity and support among the British liberals, who were outraged by such a blatant intrusion of the government [8] into his private correspondence. In 1847 he moved again to London, where he wrote a long "open letter" to Pope Pius IX, whose apparently liberal reforms had gained him a momentary status as possible paladin of the unification of Italy. The Pope, however, did not reply. He also founded the People's International League. By March 8, 1848 Mazzini was in Paris, where he launched a new political association, the Associazione Nazionale Italiana. The 184849 revolts On April 7, 1848 Mazzini reached Milan, whose population had rebelled against the Austrian garrison and established a provisional government. The First Italian War of Independence, started by the Piedmontese king Charles Albert to exploit the favourable circumstances in Milan, turned into a total failure. Mazzini, who had never been popular in the city because he wanted Lombardy to become a republic instead of joining Piedmont, abandoned Milan. He joined Garibaldi's irregular force at Bergamo, moving to Switzerland with him. On February 9, 1849 a republic was declared in Rome, with Pius IX already having been forced to flee to Gaeta the preceding November. On the same day the Republic was declared, Mazzini reached the city. He was appointed, together with Carlo Armellini and Aurelio Saffi, as a member of the "triumvirate" of the new republic on March 29, becoming soon the true leader of the government and showing good administrative capabilities in social reforms. However, when the French troops called by the Pope made clear that the resistance of the Republican troops, led by Garibaldi, was in vain, on July 12, 1849, Mazzini set out for Marseille, from where he moved again to Switzerland. Late activities Mazzini spent all of 1850 hiding from the Swiss police. In July he founded the association Amici di Italia (Friends of Italy) in London, to attract consensus towards the Italian liberation cause. Two failed riots in Mantua (1852) and Milan (1853) were a crippling blow for the Mazzinian organization, whose prestige never recovered. He later opposed the alliance signed by Savoy with Austria for the Crimean War. Also vain was the expeditions of Felice Orsini in Carrara of 185354. In 1856 he returned to Genoa to organize a series of uprisings: the only serious attempt was that of Carlo Pisacane in Calabria, which again met a dismaying end. Mazzini managed to escape the police, but was condemned to death by default. From this moment on, Mazzini was more of a spectator than a protagonist of the Italian Risorgimento, whose reins were now strongly in the hands of the Savoyard monarch Victor Emmanuel II and his skilled prime minister, Camillo Benso, Conte di Cavour. The latter defined him as "Chief of the assassins". In 1858 he founded another journal in London, Pensiero e azione ("Thought and Action"). Also there, on February 21, 1859, together with 151 republicans he signed a manifesto against the alliance between Piedmont and the King of France which resulted in the Second War of Italian Independence and the conquest of Lombardy. On May 2, 1860 he tried to [12] reach Garibaldi, who was going to launch his famous Expedition of the Thousand in southern Italy. In the same year he released Doveri dell'uomo ("Duties of Man"), a synthesis of his moral, political and social thoughts. In mid-September he was in Naples, then under Garibaldi's dictatorship, but was invited by the local vice-dictator Giorgio Pallavicino to move away. In 1862 he again joined Garibaldi during his failed attempt to free Rome. In 1866 Venetia was ceded by France, who had obtained it from Austria at the end of the Austro-Prussian War, to the new Kingdom of Italy, which had been created in 1861 under the Savoy monarchy. At this time Mazzini was frequently in polemics with the course followed by the unification of his country, and in 1867 he refused a seat in the Italian Chamber of Deputies. In 1870, during an attempt to free Sicily, he was arrested and imprisoned in Gaeta. He was freed in October due to the amnesty conceded after the successful capture of Rome, and returned to London in mid-December. Giuseppe Mazzini died of pleurisy in Pisa in 1872. His funeral was held in Genoa, with 100,000 people taking part in it. Criticisms Karl Marx, in an interview by R. Landor from 1871, said that Mazzini's ideas represented "nothing better than the old idea of a middle-class republic." Marx believed, especially after the Revolutions of 1848, that Mazzini's point of view had [13] become reactionary, and the proletariat had nothing to do with it. In another interview, Marx described Mazzini as "that [14] everlasting old ass".

Mazzini, in turn, described Marx as "a destructive spirit whose heart was filled with hatred rather than love of mankind" and declared that "Despite the communist egalitarianism which [Marx] preaches he is the absolute ruler of his party, admittedly he does everything himself but he is also the only one to give orders and he tolerates no opposition." Legacy Mazzini was an early advocate of a "United States of Europe" about a century before the European Union began to take shape. For him, European unification was a logical continuation of Italian unification. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was a leader in the Indian independence movement who was influenced by Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini. Carl Schurz, in Volume I of his 'Reminiscences' (New York: McClure's Publ. Co., 1907, see Chapters XIII and XIV), gives a biographical sketch of Mazzini and recalls two meetings he had had with him when they were both in London in 1851. While the book 10,000 Famous Freemasons by William R. Denslow lists Mazzini as a Mason, and even a Past Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy, articles on the Grand Orient of Italy's own website question whether he was ever a [16] Mason and do not list him as a Past Grand Master. Often viewed in the Italy of the time as a god-like figure, Mazzini was nonetheless denounced by many of his compatriots as a traitor. Contemporary historians tended to believe that he ceased to contribute anything productive or useful after 1849, but modern ones take a more favorable opinion of him. The 19731974 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honour. Works Warfare against THE MAN, 1825 On Nationality, 1852 1860 The Duties of Man and Other Essays, J.M. Dent & Sons, London, 1907 ISBN 1596052198 A Cosmopolitanism of Nations: Giuseppe Mazzini's Writings on Democracy, Nation Building, and International Relations, Edited by Stefano Recchia and Nadia Urbinati, 2010

Triumvir of the Roman Republic In office (March 29 July 1, 1849) Preceded by Republic established Succeeded by Aurelio Saliceti Personal details Born 22 June 1805, Genoa, Ligurian Republic, now Italy Died 10 March 1872 (aged 66), Pisa, Kingdom of Italy Profession Politician, journalist, and activist for Italian independence/unification. Mazzini's house in Genoa, now seat of the Museum of Risorgimento and of the Mazzinian Institute. Citizens shot for reading Mazzini Journals Last page of a letter from Mazzini to Carl Schurz when both were in London in 1851. Mausoleum of Mazzini in the Staglieno cemetery of Genoa Giuseppe Mazzini late in his career.

Explanation and Analysis of the Document Nineteenth-century progressive and revolutionary philosophers such as Karl Marx addressed the working classes with the language of social science to blanket with objectivity their explanation of the oppression of the working classes. From the beginning of An Essay on the Duties of Man , it is immediately clear that Mazzinis tone is more influenced by emotion and religion. In what a modern reader may judge as a paternalistic and even condescending first two paragraphs, Mazzini uses such terms and expressions as holiest things, God, speaking and listening in love, heart, fraternally, apostle of truth, and Heaven. This rhetoric is grounded in a faith in the brotherhood of men that cuts through class lines. To the celebration of individual liberty and rights, Mazzini opposes a common bond among humankind. In this respect, Duties of Man enters in a close confrontation with John Stuart Mills On Liberty. Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) was perhaps the single most influential thinker and writer of the Italian Risorgimento during the period of national unification. The Italian patriot and pamphleteer led the cause for democratic government in Italy, and joined the underground revolutionaries (carbonari). In 1831, Mazzini organized the secret revolutionary society, Young Italy, devoted to the unification of Italy under republican government. Upon the outbreak of revolution in 1848, he returned to become a member of the triumvirate in the Republic of Rome (1849), but went into exile when papal control of the city was reestablished. In his most influential work, The Duties of Man (1844-1858), Mazzini spelled out his plan of individual and national improvement through education. Duty to the nation was, for Mazzini, the highest earthly value, second only to duty to God.

Despite its moving images and inspiring ideas, Giuseppe Mazzinis The Duties of Man is little more than a misguided attempt of a nave and idealistic man to promote the idea of nationalism. The work centers around the idea that the first duties of man are to embrace the whole human family in [his] affections and that national unification is the divinely designed means to achieving this end. While Mazzinis goal is certainly a valid and commendable one, his proposed method toward achieving this goal is completely unrealistic and illogical. When Mazzini writes that the rise of the countries of the people, countries born of the nationalistic efforts of their citizens will lead to harmony and fraternity [between all countries], he fails to realize that nationalism also s erves as a powerful exclusionary force. The creation of a nation has never failed to leave certain people feeling displaced and unrepresented the rise of Hungary left Croatian and Serbian minorities feeling excluded, the nationalistic efforts of Russia crushed the Polish people, and German nationalism came at the expense of the Danish. These frustrated minorities would not have felt inspired to begin efforts aimed at benefiting all Humanity after nationalism took its toll; instead, they would likely fee l compelled to express their anger through protests and violence. Nationalism is generally not the precursor to unity and peace, as predicted by Mazzini, but instead to war. The evil governments Mazzini demands be overthrown in place of countries defined by natural boundaries are themselves a source of nationalism for many of their citizens their overthrow would only lead those displaced to demand the restoration of their nation (be it an evil government), sparking a violent and interminable cycle. Wouldnt one be better off working to directly help those most in need in their community, be it local or international, to improve Humanity instead of dividing up Humanity into isolated groups based on exclusion? Nationalism, though a powerful tool for uniting certain peoples and generating support for a government, is not the key to humanitys improvement. Upon reading the excerpt from "The Duties of Man", I can certainly say that Giuseppe Mazzini's ideas would appeal to the working class because the working class of the Italian states made up the majority of the population. Now, this is important because seeing as how Mazzini wrote about humanity coming together to work together to achieve a common goal, the working class has the upper hand. The working class posesses the majority of the population, therefore more people are working together to reach a common goal, therefore they have (very limited) power. Mazzini also proposes "Then may each one of you, fortified by the power and the affection of many millions, all speaking the same language, gifted with the same tendencies, and educated by the same historical tradition, hope, even gy your own single effort, to be able to benefit all Humanity." This is key because Mazzini includes the phrase "all Humanity", not "benefit all The Clergy" or "benefit all The Aristocracy" or "benefit The Monarchy", he states, all of humanity, meaning the working class is included. The working class had struggled throughout all of Europe for the right to universal male suffrage, same taxation, no preferential treatment, etc, so this would obviously appeal to the working class because finally the working class is included in something they would see as good and beneficial to them. Now, this idea of a unified Italy would benefit the working class because they would appreciate the fact that all of the people in what would be a unified Italy would have similar tendancies such as religion, language, and culture. Like I said, the working class has been faced with oppression for hundreds of years, and people who are being oppressed like what? People with whom they have something in common. It's similar to high school, you see a group of kids, and every group of kids obviously gets made fun of (or oppressed) at some point in their high school career, therefore, they form closer ties to the people that are similar to them, thus having cliques (spelling?). These cliques give the people a sense of belonging and security against outsiders or other "cliques" to extend the metaphor. Much like Italians at the time, they would want some sense of unity and belonging in their domains. Also, this would help out merchants when it comes to trading and selling (people with the similar customs and language are easier to trade with). Overall, the working class would like the idea of feeling apart of something, of a unified something, because being apart of a group of people with similar ideas, interests, language, etc. just makes people feel better and more comfortable with who they are. Also, Mazzini indirectly addresses the working class by stating "our country is our common workshop, whence the products of our acitivty are sent forth for the benefit of the whole world...." Addressing this is pretty much saying that the working class benefits everyone, kinda like a pat on the back for the workers. Because Mazzini was a revolutionary nationalist, it would give him reason or POV to write "The Duties of Man" because the essay promotes the unification of Italy. I noticed Mazzini also played the religion card multiple times in his essay, mentioning God and whatnot. This would be somewhat effective because if you tell a religious person that God wants a particular something for his people, and the said person is hindering that, that person is going to examine what it is their doing or not doing more closely and consider change. I'm referring specifically to the ending sentances and him talking about "disobeying the plan of the Almighty". No one really wants to disobey the Almighty that they believe in now do they?They're also probably going to pay closer attention to what it is you're saying, because honestly, the aspect of religion and God grabs people's attention and holds it, whether people want to debate it with you or not, you have their attention. So it was a pretty clever move on Mazzini's part. He may or may not have had that reasoning for mentioning God, but you know, whatever. "The Duties of Man" Author Bio: The author of "Duties," Giuseppe Mazzini, was an Italian author who wrote prolifically promoting the unification of Italy in the 1830s and 1840s. Mazzini was considered a liberal at the time for his nationalist ideas, but they nonetheless became important as Italy began merging into one united country by 1870. His works helped to lay the foundations for the liberal constitutional monarchy that would be established in unified Italy.

Context/Background: During the 1800s, Italy and other European countries such as modern-day Germany were comprised of many small nation-states left over from the middle ages through the Renaissance and Enlightenment. As Europe grew into a more modern age, however, unification became an increasingly prominent idea that was propagated to the masses by advocates such as Mazzini in order to raise nationalism. These hopes for a united Italy finally came to fruition by 1870 through Count Camillo Cavour, whose efforts united the diverse regions and created the independent state of Italy. Summary: While Mazzini first clarifies that a man's absolutely primary duty is to humanity and his family, the next and hardly less important duty is to his country and the brotherhood and unity focused towards the higher goal of a united country. He declares that united, independent countries are the highest order of nation, and what God originally intended before they were corrupted by greedy monarchs. The "Divine design" of unity will, Mazzini writes, transcend class and monarchy to unite all people of the country in harmony. The ideal nation would be one whose people are united by language, economic tendencies and specialties, culture, and history, and only when the people of a country are united together in brotherhood can this heavenly purpose be fulfilled. Important Quote: "O my brother, love your Country! Our country is our Home, the house that God has given us, placing therein a numerous family that loves us, and whom we love... Our country is our common workshop, whence the products of our activity are sent forth for the benefit of the whole world." Overview Mazzini was a nationalist who tied nationalism into all the good things life has to offer (Brown et al., pp. 462-463). Mazzini believes that the national principle does not contradict universal principles, i.e., all nations are able and ought to live in harmony and political freedom is enhanced by the national principle (democracy and nationalism go together) (ibid., p. 463). For Mazzini, duties to humanity take priority over duties to country (ibid.). However, there is at least potential for contradiction here because Mazzini argues for the carving up of Europe on national lines to form states based on Countries of The People (ibid.). Duties to humanity In terms of importance, the first duties of human beings are to humanity. Without knowing what these duties are, other duties cannot be satisfied perfectly (in Brown et al., p. 476). Limiting morality to merely obligations to duties with respect to family or country reflects self-interest (egoism) and will lead you to what is evil for others and for yourselves (ibid). Human nature is characterised by rationality and sociability, which allow human beings, through their association, to progress, and there is an obligation on the part of each person (through the direction of God) to nurture and develop these faculties in order that humanity may continue being superior to animals and not violate the Law of God (the law of life) (in Brown et al., pp. 476-479). Therefore, above all, the highest priority of human beings is to humanity: Ask yourselves whenever you do an action in the sphere of your Country, or your family, If what I am doing were done by all and for all, would it advantage or injure Humanity? and if your conscience answers, It would injure Humanity, desist; desist, even if it seem to you that an immediate advantage for your Country or your family would ensue from your action (ibid., p. 479). Duties to country Mazzinireiterating the duty to humanity as being the highest priority in importance (You are men before you are citizens or fathers)contemplates the question of what each person, having isolated powers, can do for the moral improvement and progress of humanity (in Brown et al., p. 479). He asserts that the rallying cry of the future faith is association, fraternal cooperation towards a common aim (ibid.). However, ac hievement of this common aim through cooperation is hindered by diverse languages, tendencies, habits, and capacities. The individual is too weak, and Humanity too vast (ibid., p. 480). Mazzinis answer to the aforementioned dilemma is that God has provided the means by planting the seeds of nations, i.e., organised each person into a Country (in Brown et al., p. 480). However, Mazzini sees Gods design of nations as having been corrupted, at least in Europe, by bad governments: by conquest, by greed, by jealousy of the just sovereignty of others; disfigured it so much that to-day there is perhaps no nation except England and France whose confines correspond to this design (ibid). He sees that natural divisions (the innate spontaneous tendencies of the peoples) will overturn the arbitrary decisions invoked by bad governments and that the current shape of Europe will revert to its natural design through revolution (ibid.). And these countries (post-redesign) will live together congenially for the goo d of humanity. He sees Italy as the best-defined country in Europe (ibid.). In advocating a united Italy, Mazzini writes, A country is a fellowship of free and equal men bound together in a brotherly concord of labour towards a single end. You must make it and maintain it as such. A country is not an aggregation, it is an association. There is no true Country without a uniform right. There is no true country where the uniformity of that right is violated by the existence of caste, privilege, and inequality where there is no common principle accepted, recognised, and developed by all. In such a state of things there can be no Nation, no People, but only a multitude, a fortuitous agglomeration of men whom circumstances have brought together and different circumstances will separate (in Brown et al., p. 483). All people of a nation, not just a fraction of them, should contribute to the making of the secondary laws, which will advance the progressive application of the supreme (moral) law: The law must exp ress the general aspiration, promote

the good of all, respond to a beat of the nations heart. The whole nation therefore should be, directly or indirectly, the legislator. By yielding the mission to a few men, you put the egoism of one class in the place of the Country, which is the union of all the classes (in Brown et al., pp. 483-484). Despite a seemingly clear advocacy of democracy, it is also possible to interpret Mazzini as espousing anti-democratic principles. This alternative interpretation is enabled through the symbolic mechanism of the country as endorser of authoritarian rule, in that the country is the supreme authority which governs the people. Because in the name of your country you must combat without truce the romantic nationalism in all its idealistic splendour constitutes a supreme authority commanding citizens over and above their democratically elected governance. The equality Mazzini espouses as your Country is one and indivisible a Country as it ought to be, the Country of all and for all effectively oppresses citizens to conform to an equality which would hinder democratic processes. Mazzinis equality within a nation ultimately creates a dictatorship of egalitarianism under the guise of nationalism.