(1) Beam Bending -Review

--Plane sections remain plane. y

x : radius of curvature; k = 1/ :curvature;

M: moment

Compatibility : xx= - y/

Independent of material behavior

compression neutral axis tension

xx

Equilibrium: M = -xx y dA
A

Independent of material behavior

M
y xx

(2)

Elastic beam bending

elastic material behavior : xx =E xx

E 1
compression neutral axis tension

xx =E xx = -E (y/)

xx=-M y/I

xx

linear stress distribution

M = -xx y dA = E /
A A I : second moment of area

y dA

M=EI / EI 1 1/
linear moment-curvature relationship B

I = y dA
A

for rectangular beams

for

I = BH /12

I-b

ea

ms

B h I = (BH -bh )/12

3 3

b/2

b/2

(3)

Elastic -plastic beam bending

elastic-perfectly plastic material behavior y E 1
nonlinear Moment-curvature relationship

Mp Me EI
M<Me : elastic regime: || <y at all points

M ->Mp :fully plastic regime:

||=y at all fibers of beam
y
y xx

y xx

M>Me : elastic-plastic regime: ||=y at outer fibers of beam

y
xx

1/

In the elastic regime xx=-M y /I -> | max | =M ymax /I Yielding initiates at the outer fibers of the beam when | max |= y. This corresponds to a bending moment Me :

Me = (y I )/ymax
for rectangular beams : Me = (y BH )/6
2

Elastic -plastic beam bending

y
elastic-perfectly plastic material behavior

(4)

y = y/E
For M>Me the beam is in the elastic-plastic regime: the core of the beam (between y=- c and y=c) is in the elastic regime, while the outer fibers are in the plastic regime (=y).

y
c

for -c<y<c =/E

y
c

y
-c

y xx = -y/

y
-c

y xx

For |y| = c , =-y/E --> -y/ = c/=-y/E--> the extension of the elastic region is given by:

c= (y/E)
The moment-curvature relationship is then given by:
c 2 -c ymax For a rectangular beam :

M = -xx y dA = E /
A -c

y dA +

-y y dA +
-ymax c

-y y dA M = y (3H2 -4c2 ) B/12

For very large curvatures c-->0 and the moment approaches the limit moment Mp, where the entire section is in the plastic regime

y xx

M p = -y y dA
A

2 for rectangular beams : Mp = (y BH ) / 4 = 1.5 Me

Elastic -plastic beam bending . Unloading /springback

(5)

material behavior: elastic unloading = E

1

E 1

The beam unloads elastically

y
y xx

M M loaded

(1/)=M / EI =-M loaded /EI

M EI 1 1 (1/)unloaded (1/)
Stress distribution upon unloading
y
y xx

EI

(1/)unloaded =(1/)loaded-M loaded /EI

(1/)loaded

1/

y
xx

y
xx

stress distribution in the loaded configuration loaded

Change in stress upon unloading =(Mloaded y)/I

Residual stress distribution residual

M =0


Viscoelastici ityisthepropertyofmaterialsthatexhib bitbothvis scousande elasticcharacteristics whenunder rgoingdefo ormation. Ela asticmate erialsstrain ninstantan neouslywh henstretch hedandjus stasquicklyreturntotheir or riginalstateoncethe estressisremoved. r Viscoelasticmaterialshaveelem mentsofbo othofthese epropertie esand,assuch,exhibittime de ependentstrain. s W Whereasela asticityisusually u theresultofbond b stretc chingalong gcrystallog graphicpla anesinan or rderedsolid,viscosity yistheres sultofthediffusiono ofatomsormolecule esinside an namorpho ousmateria al. Viscoelastici itycalculat tionsdependheavily yonthevis scosityvari iable,.Th heinverseofisalso o kn nownasflu uidity,.The T valueof o eitherca anbederiv vedasafunctionoft temperatureorasa giv venvalue(i.e.foradashpot). d D Dependingonthecha angeofstrainrateve ersusstress sinsideam materialth heviscosity ycanbe ca ategorizedashavingalinear,no onlinear,orplasticr response. W Whenamat terialexhib bitsalinearresponse eitiscateg gorizedasaNewtoni ianmateria al.Inthis ate.Ifthemateriale ca asethestre essislinearlyproportionaltoth hestrainra exhibitsan nonlinear re esponsetothestrainrate,itiscategorize c dasNonN Newtonian nfluid.

Different ttypesofresponses r ( )toach hangeinst trainrate(d /dt) W Whenthest tressisindependentofthisstra ainrate,th hematerialexhibitsp plastic de eformation n.Manyvis scoelasticmaterials m exhibit e rub bberlikebe ehaviorexplainedby ythe th hermodyna amictheoryofpolym merelasticit ty.

 Viscoelasticmaterialsarethoseforwhichtherelationshipbetweenstressandstraindepends ontime.Anelasticsolidsrepresentasubsetofviscoelasticmaterials:theyhaveaunique equilibriumconfigurationandultimatelyrecoverfullyafterremovalofatransientload. Somephenomenainviscoelasticmaterialsare: ifthestressisheldconstant,thestrainincreaseswithtime(creep); ifthestrainisheldconstant,thestressdecreaseswithtime(relaxation); theeffectivestiffnessdependsontherateofapplicationoftheload; ifcyclicloadingisapplied,hysteresis(aphaselag)occurs,leadingtoadissipationof mechanicalenergy; o acousticwavesexperienceattenuation; o reboundofanobjectfollowinganimpactislessthan100%; o Duringrolling,frictionalresistanceoccurs. o o o o Allmaterialsexhibitsomeviscoelasticresponse. Incommonmetalssuchassteeloraluminum,aswellasinquartz,atroomtemperatureandat smallstrain,thebehaviordoesnotdeviatemuchfromlinearelasticity. Syntheticpolymers,wood,andhumantissueaswellasmetalsathightemperaturedisplay significantviscoelasticeffects. Someexamplesofviscoelasticmaterialsincludeamorphouspolymers,semicrystalline polymers,biopolymers,metalsatveryhightemperatures,andbitumenmaterials. Crackingoccurswhenthestrainisappliedquicklyandoutsideoftheelasticlimit. Aviscoelasticmaterialhasthefollowingproperties:

o Hysteresisisseeninthestressstraincurve. o stressrelaxationoccurs:stepconstantstraincausesdecreasingstress o creepoccurs:stepconstantstresscausesincreasingstrain

Elas sticbeha aviorver rsusvisc coelastic cbehavio or

StressStrainCu urvesforapurelyela asticmater rial(a)andaviscoela asticmater rial(b).The eredareais ahysteresisloo opandshowstheam mountofen nergylost( (asheat)in naloading gandunloa adingcycle e. Itise equalto Un nlikepurel lyelasticsu ubstances, ,aviscoela asticsubsta ancehasa anelasticcomponent tanda vis scouscomponent. Th heviscosity yofavisco oelasticsub bstancegiv vesthesub bstanceas strainratedependen ntontime. . Pu urelyelasti icmaterialsdonotdissipateen nergy(heat t)whenaloadisapp plied,thenremoved. Ho owever,aviscoelasti icsubstanc celosesen nergywhen naloadisapplied,th henremov ved. Hy ysteresisis sobservedinthestre essstraincurve, c with htheareaoftheloopbeingeq qualtothe en nergylostduring d theloadingcy ycle. Sin nceviscosi ityisthere esistanceto t thermallyactivate dplasticd deformatio on,aviscou usmaterial willloseene ergythroug ghaloadin ngcycle. Plasticdefor rmationre esultsinlos stenergy,which w isun ncharacter risticofap purelyelas sticmateria al's re eactiontoaloadingcycle. c Sp pecifically,viscoelasticityisamolecular m re earrangem ment.When nastressi isappliedt toa vis scoelasticmaterialsu uchasapo olymer,pa artsofthelongpolym merchainc changepos sition.This s movementor o rearrang gementiscalled c Cree ep.Polyme ersremain nasolidma aterialeve enwhen th hesepartsof o theirchainsarere earranginginorderto oaccompa anythestr ress,andas sthisoccurs, itcreatesaback b stress sinthema aterial.Wh henthebac ckstressis sthesamemagnitudeasthe ap ppliedstress,thematerialnolo ongercreeps.When theorigina alstressistakenawa ay,the ac ccumulated dbackstre esseswillcause c thepolymer p to oreturntoitsoriginalform.The ematerial overs,whichgivesth creeps,whic chgivestheprefixvis sco,andthemateria alfullyreco hesuffix elasticity. ,wher re isstre essand is sstrain.[1]

Type esofvis scoelasti icity

Linea arviscoelas sticityiswh henthefunctionisse eparablein nbothcreepresponseandload.Alllinea ar viscoelasticmodelscanberepresen ntedbyaVolterra V eq quationcon nnectingst tressands strain:

r or

where isstrain, a and areins tistime, isstress, stantaneouselastic moduliforcreepandrelaxation,K(t)is sthecreep pfunction,F(t)isthe erelaxation nfunction Lin nearviscoe elasticityis susuallyapplicableonly o forsm malldeform mations. No onlinearviscoelastici ityiswhen nthefunctionisnots separable.Itusuallyhappensw when th hedeforma ationsarelarge l orifthe t materi ialchanges sitsprope ertiesunde erdeformations. An nanelastic cmaterialisaspecialcaseofaviscoelasti v icmaterial l:ananelas sticmateri ialwillfully y re ecovertoit tsoriginalstate s onth heremovalofload.

Dynamicmo odulus
lysis,apply Visco oelasticityisstudiedusing u dyna amicmecha anicalanal yingasmalloscillatorystressand meas suringtheresultingstrain. o Pu urelyelasti icmaterialshavestre essandstr raininpha se,sothat ttherespo onseofone ecausedby th heotherisimmediate e. o Inpurelyviscousmate erials,strainlagsstressbya90 degreeph haselag. o Viscoelasticmaterialsexhibitbehaviorsom mewherein nthemidd dleofthese etwotype esof material,exhibitingso omelaginstrain. s Comp plexDynam micmodulu usGcanbeusedtorepresent r t therelatio onsbetwee entheosci illatingstre ess ands strain: Wher re ;

ist thestorag gemodulus sand

is sthelossmodulus m :

wher re and aretheamplitudes a sofstressandstrain and isth hephaseshiftbetwe eenthem.

Constitutive emodels soflinearviscoelasticit ty

Visco oelasticma aterials,suc chasamor rphouspol lymers,sem micrystallinepolyme ers,andbi iopolymers s, canb bemodeled dinorderto t determinetheirst tressorstr raininteractionsasw wellastheirtempora al dependencies.Thesemod dels,which hincludetheMaxwe ellmodel,t theKelvinVoigtmod del,and theStandardLinearSolidModel,ar reusedtopredict p a m material'sr responseu underdiffe erentloading conditions.Visc coelasticbehavior b ha aselasticand a viscou uscompon nentsmode eledaslinear comb binationsof o springsand a dashp pots,respe ectively.Ea achmodeldiffersint thearrangementof these eelements s,andallof fthesevisc coelasticmodels m can nbeequiva alentlymodeledaselectrical circui its. Inanequivalen ntelectrica alcircuit,stress s isrep presented dbyvoltag geandthederivative eofstrain (velocity)bycu urrent.The eelasticmodulusofaspringis sanalogou ustoacircu uit'scapac citance(it store esenergy)andtheviscosityofadashpot ttoacircu uit'sresista ance(itdis ssipatesen nergy). Thee elasticcom mponents,as a previouslymentio oned,canb bemodeledasspring gsofelasticconstant tE, given ntheformu ula: wher reisthestress, s Eistheelastic cmodulusofthemat terial,andisthestrainthato occursunder thegivenstress s,similarto oHooke'sLaw. Thev viscouscom mponentscanbemo odeledasdashpots d su uchthatth hestressst trainrater relationshi ip canb begivenas,

wher reisthestress, s istheviscos sityofthematerial, m a andd/dti isthetime ederivative eofstrain. Ther relationship pbetween nstressand dstraincanbesimpl lifiedforsp pecificstre essrates.F Forhigh stress sstates/sh horttimeperiods, p the etimederivativecom mponentsofthestre essstrainr relationship dominate.Adashpotresistschange esinlength h,andinahighstress sstateitcanbeappr roximatedas

arigid drod.Sinc cearigidro odcannotbestretchedpastits soriginalle ength,nos strainisad ddedtothe e . system Conversely,forlowstress sstates/lon ngertimeperiods,th hetimederivativeco omponents sare neglig gibleandthe t dashpo otcanbeeffectively e removedf fromthesy ysteman"open"circuit.Asa result t,onlythespringcon nnectedin parallelto othedashp potwillcontributeto othetotalstraininthe . system

Max xwellmo odel

TheM Maxwellmodelcanbe b represen ntedbyapurely p visc cousdamperandapurelyelast ticspring conne ectedinse eries,assh howninthe ediagram.Themode elcanbere epresentedbythefo ollowing equat tion:

Unde erthismod del,ifthematerial m isputunderaconstantstrain,th hestresses sgradually relax,When amat terialispu utunderaconstant c st tress,thestrain s hast twocomponents.Fir rst,anelas stic comp ponentocc cursinstantaneously, ,correspon ndingtoth hespring,a andrelaxesimmedia atelyupon releaseofthestress. s Thesecondisaviscouscomponen c ntthatgrow wswithtim measlongasthestre ess isapp plied.TheMaxwellmodel m pred dictsthatst tressdecay ysexponentiallywith htime,wh hichis accur rateformo ostpolyme ers.Onelim mitationof fthismode elisthatit tdoesnotpredictcre eep accur rately.TheMaxwellmodel m forcreeporco onstantstressconditionspostulatesthat tstrainwill increaselinearlywithtime.Howeve er,polymersforthem mostpartshowthes strainratetobe decre easingwith htime. Appli icationtosoft s solids:thermopl lasticpolym mersinthe evicinityo oftheirme eltingtemp perature, freshconcrete(neglecting gitsaging) ),numerou usmetalsa atatempe eratureclosetotheir rmelting point t.

Kelv vinVoig gtmodel l

TheK KelvinVoig gtmodel,also a known nastheVo oigtmodel,consists ofaN Newtonian ndamperand a Hookea anelasticspring s connectedin parallel,asshow wninthepicture. p Itis i usedtoexplain e the ecreep behav viorofpolymers. Thec constitutive erelationisexpresse edasaline earfirstorder

differ rentialequ uation:

Thism modelrepr resentsasolid s under rgoingreve ersible,vis scoelastics strain.Upo onapplicat tionofa const tantstress,themate erialdeform msatadec creasingra ate,asymptoticallyap pproaching gthestead dy statestrain.Wh henthestr ressisreleased,thematerial m gr raduallyre elaxestoitsundeform medstate. At const tantstress(creep),th heModelis i quiterea alisticasitpredictsst traintotendto/Ea astime mitations. continuestoinf finity.Simi ilartotheMaxwellmodel, m theKelvinVo oigtmodelalsohaslim Them modelisex xtremelygo oodwithmodeling m creep c inma aterials,bu utwithreg gardstorelaxationth he mode elismuchlessaccura ate. Appli ications:organicpoly ymers,rub bber,wood dwhenthe eloadisno ottoohigh h.

Mea asuringviscoela v sticity

Thoughtherearemanyin nstruments sthattestthemecha anicalandviscoelast ticrespons seof mate erials,broadbandvisc coelasticsp pectroscop py(BVS)an ndresonan ntultrasou undspectro oscopy(RU US) arem morecomm monlyused dtotestvis scoelasticbehavior b b becausetheycanbeusedabov veandbelo ow viscoelasti ambienttempe eraturesan ndaremor respecificto t testingv icity.These etwoinstr ruments employadamp pingmecha anismatva ariousfreq quenciesan ndtimerangeswithnoappealtotime temp peraturesu uperpositio on.UsingBVS B andRU UStostudy ythemech hanicalpro opertiesofmaterialsis importanttoun nderstandi inghowamaterialex xhibitingv viscoelastic citywillperform.