1. What are the various kinds of sorting techniques? Which is has best case?

Bubble sort, Quick sort, Insertion sort, Selection sort Merge sort, Heap sort among the sorting algorithms quick sort is the best one heap sort is the best sorting technique because its complexity in best case ,worst and avg case is of O(nlogn) in worst case quick sort the complexity in best case and avg case is of O(nlogn) and worst case O(n^2) Quick, insertion, selection, heap, merge, bubble. Bubble is the best one because in this sorting the adjacent numbers are compared and then sorted. Bubble sort, merge sort, quick sort, Heap sort, radix sort, selection sort, and insertion sort, among all sorting quick sort is most efficient, because the time complexity is less comparison to other sorting. 2. What is the difference between ARRAY and STACK? STACK follows LIFO. Thus the item that is first entered would be the last removed. In array the items can be entered or removed in any order. Basically each member access is done using index. No strict order is to be followed here to remove a particular element. Array may be multidimensional or one-dimensional but stack should be one-dimensional, but both are linear data structure. 3. What is linear hashing? In linear hashing, the table is gradually expanded by splitting the buckets in order until the table has doubled its size. 4. Whether Linked List is linear or Non-linear data structure? According to Access strategies Linked list is a linear one. According to Storage Linked List is a Non-linear one. Link list is always linear data structure, because every element (NODE) having unique position and also every element has its unique successor and predecessor. 5. Define Simulation? Simulation is the process of forming an abstract model from a real situation in order to understand the impact of modifications and the effect of introducing various strategies on the situation.

6. In an AVL tree, at what condition the balancing is to be done? If the pivotal value (or the Height factor) is greater than 1 or less than 1.if the balance factor of any node is other than 0 or 1 or -1 then balancing is done. 7. When can you tell that a memory leak will occur? A memory leak occurs when a program loses the ability to free a block of dynamically allocated memory. 8. What is the data structures used to perform recursion? Stack. Because of its LIFO (Last In First Out) property it remembers its caller so knows whom to return when the function has to return. Recursion makes use of system stack for storing the return addresses of the function calls. Every recursive function has its equivalent iterative (nonrecursive) function. Even when such equivalent iterative procedures are written, explicit stack is to be used. 9. What is the heap? The heap is where malloc(), calloc(), and realloc() get memory. Getting memory from the heap is much slower than getting it from the stack. On the other hand, the heap is much more flexible than the stack. Memory can be allocated at any time and de-allocated in any order. Such memory isn't de-allocated automatically; you have to call free(). Recursive data structures are almost always implemented with memory from the heap. Strings often come from there too, especially strings that could be very long at runtime. If you can keep data in a local variable (and allocate it from the stack), your code will run faster than if you put the data on the heap. Sometimes you can use a better algorithm if you use the heap faster, or more robust, or more flexible. Its a tradeoff. If memory is allocated from the heap, its available until the program ends. That's great if you remember to de-allocate it when you're done. If you forget, it's a problem. A memory leak is some allocated memory that's no longer needed but isn't de-allocated. If you have a memory leak inside a loop, you can use up all the memory on the heap and not be able to get any more. (When that happens, the allocation functions return a null pointer.) In some environments, if a program doesn't de-allocate everything it allocated, memory stays unavailable even after the program ends. in the heap sorting root node hold highest element after that lowest element to the root node is place at the left side and highest element placed at the right side and this process are continue until element become end. 10. What is the bucket size, when the overlapping and collision occur at same time? One. If there is only one entry possible in the bucket, when the collision occurs, there is no way to accommodate the colliding value. This results in the overlapping of values.

11. List out few of the Application of tree data-structure? The manipulation of Arithmetic expression, Symbol Table construction, Syntax analysis. 12. How is any Data Structure application is classified among files? A linked list application can be organized into a header file, source file and main application file. The first file is the header file that contains the definition of the NODE structure and the Linked List class definition. The second file is a source code file containing the implementation of member functions of the Linked List class. The last file is the application file that contains code that creates and uses the Linked List class. 13. What method is used to place a value onto the top of a stack? push() method, Push is the direction that data is push() member method places a value onto the top of a stack. 14. Why is the isEmpty() member method called? The isEmpty() member method is called within the dequeue process to determine if there is an item in the queue to be removed i.e. isEmpty() is called to decide whether the queue has at least one element.This method is called by the dequeue() method before returning the front element. 15. if you are using C language to implement the heterogeneous linked list, what pointer type will you use? The heterogeneous linked list contains different data types in its nodes and we need a link, pointer to connect them. It is not possible to use ordinary pointers for this. So we go for void pointer. Void pointer is capable of storing pointer to any type as it is a generic pointer type. 16. What is the stack? The stack is where all the functions? local (auto) variables are created. The stack also contains some<br>information used to call and return from functions. <br><br>A ?stack trace? is a list of which functions have been called, based on this information. When you start using a debugger, one of the first things you should learn is how to get a stack trace.<br><br>The stack is very inflexible about allocating memory; everything must be de-allocated in exactly the reverse order it was allocated in. For implementing function calls, that is all thats needed. Allocating memory off the stack is extremely efficient. One of the reasons C compilers generate such good code is their heavy use of a simple stack.<br><br>There used to be a C function that any programmer could use for allocating memory off the stack. The<br>memory was automatically de-allocated when the calling function returned. This was a dangerous function to call; its not available anymore. A stack is a linear data structure where insertion and deletion of an item can takes place at one end called "TOP" of the stack. And it is a LIFO(Last-in First-out) mechanism. being added to the stack.

17. What is splitting?

Splitting refers to the rehashing of a bucket b and its overflow in order to distribute the keys in them among b and one other primary location. 18. What is the distant relationship between a list structure and a digraph? In particular, a list is a directed graph with one source node corresponding to the entire list and with every node immediately connected to the source code. 19. How many different trees are possible with 10 nodes? 1014 - For example, consider a tree with 3 nodes (n=3), it will have the maximum combination of 5 different (ie, 23 - 3 =? 5) trees. In general: If there are n nodes, there exist 2n-n different trees. 20. What is a node class? A node class is a class that, relies on the base class for services and implementation, provides a wider interface to users than its base class, relies primarily on virtual functions in its public interface depends on all its direct and indirect base class can be understood only in the context of the base class can be used as base for further derivation can be used to create objects. A node class is a class that has added new services or functionality beyond the services inherited from its base class. 21. What is placement new? When you want to call a constructor directly, you use the placement new. Sometimes you have some raw memory thats already been allocated, and you need to construct an object in the memory you have. Operator news special version placement new allows you to do it. class Widget { public : Widget(int widgetsize); ? Widget* Construct_widget_int_buffer(void *buffer,int widgetsize) { return new(buffer) Widget(widgetsize); } }; This function returns a pointer to a Widget object thats constructed within the buffer passed to the function. Such a function might be useful for applications using shared memory or memory-

mapped I/O, because objects in such applications must be placed at specific addresses or in memory allocated by special routines.

22. List out the areas in which data structures are applied extensively? Compiler Design, Operating System, Database Management System, Statistical analysis package, Numerical Analysis, Graphics, Artificial Intelligence, Simulation 23. Tell how to check whether a linked list is circular? Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each as follows: while (pointer1) { pointer1 = pointer1->next; pointer2 = pointer2->next; if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next; if (pointer1 == pointer2) { print (\?circular\n\?); } } 24. What is the difference between NULL AND VOID pointers? NULL can be value for pointer type variables. VOID is a type identifier which has not size. NULL and void are not same. Example: void* ptr = NULL; NULL is a value of any variables or static functions. Void is the return type of the functions. The function those are having the return type as void can return nothing. 25. What is precision? Precision refers the accuracy of the decimal portion of a value. Precision is the number of digits allowed after the decimal point. precision refer the accuracy of the decimal portion of a value

26. What is impact of signed numbers on the memory? Sign of the number is the first bit of the storage allocated for that number. So you get one bit less for storing the number. For example if you are storing an 8-bit number, without sign, the range is 0-255. If you decide to store sign you get 7 bits for the number plus one bit for the sign. So the range is -128 to +127. 27. How memory is reserved using a declaration statement? Memory is reserved using data type in the variable declaration. A programming language implementation has predefined sizes for its data types. For example, in C# the declaration int i; will reserve 32 bits for variable i. A pointer declaration reserves memory for the address or the pointer variable, but not for the data that it will point to. The memory for the data pointed by a pointer has to be allocated at runtime. The memory reserved by the compiler for simple variables and for storing pointer address is allocated on the stack, while the memory allocated for pointer referenced data at runtime is allocated on the heap. 28. How many parts are there in a declaration statement? There are two main parts, variable identifier and data type and the third type is optional which type qualifier like is signed/unsigned. 29. What is Linked List? Linked List is one of the fundamental data structures. It consists of a sequence of? nodes, each containing arbitrary data fields and one or two (?links?) pointing to the next and/or previous nodes. A linked list is a self-referential data type because it contains a pointer or link to another data of the same type. Linked lists permit insertion and removal of nodes at any point in the list in constant time, but do not allow random access. 30. What is a spanning Tree? A spanning tree is a tree associated with a network. All the nodes of the graph appear on the tree once. A minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree organized so that the total edge weight between nodes is minimized. 31. What is the quickest sorting method to use? The answer depends on what you mean by quickest. For most sorting problems, it just doesn't matter how quick the sort is because it is done infrequently or other operations take significantly more time anyway. Even in cases in which sorting speed is of the essence, there is no one answers. It depends on not only the size and nature of the data, but also the likely order. No

algorithm is best in all cases. There are three sorting methods in this author's toolbox that are all very fast and that are useful in different situations. Those methods are quick sort, merge sort, and radix sort. The Quick Sort The quick sort algorithm is of the divide and conquer type. That means it works by reducing a sorting problem into several easier sorting problems and solving each of them. A dividing value is chosen from the input data, and the data is partitioned into three sets: elements that belong before the dividing value, the value itself, and elements that come after the dividing value. The partitioning is performed by exchanging elements that are in the first set but belong in the third with elements that are in the third set but belong in the first Elements that are equal to the dividing element can be put in any of the three sets the algorithm will still work properly. The Merge Sort The merge sort is a divide and conquer sort as well. It works by considering the data to be sorted as a sequence of already-sorted lists (in the worst case, each list is one element long). Adjacent sorted lists are merged into larger sorted lists until there is a single sorted list containing all the elements. The merge sort is good at sorting lists and other data structures that are not in arrays, and it can be used to sort things that don't fit into memory. It also can be implemented as a stable sort. The Radix Sort The radix sort takes a list of integers and puts each element on a smaller list, depending on the value of its least significant byte. Then the small lists are concatenated, and the process is repeated for each more significant byte until the list is sorted. The radix sort is simpler to implement on fixed-length data such as ints. 32. What is significance of * ? The symbol * tells the computer that you are declaring a pointer. Actually it depends on context. In a statement like int *ptr; the ?*? tells that you are declaring a pointer. In a statement like int i = *ptr; it tells that you want to assign value pointed to by ptr to variable i. The symbol ?*? is also called as Indirection Operator/ Dereferencing Operator. 33. Which process places data at the back of the queue? Enqueue is the process that places data at the back of the queue. Enqueue is the process that places data at the back of the queue.

34. Which file contains the definition of member functions? Definitions of member functions for the Linked List class are contained in the LinkedList.cpp file. 35. Name two desirable properties of hashing functions. Some of the desirable properties of a hashing function are speed and the generation of addresses uniformly. 36. Define Index area and its subdivisions? Index area is created automatically by the data-management routines in the operating systems. A number of index levels may be involved in an indexed sequential file. The lowest of index is the track index, which is always written on the first track of the cylinders for the indexed sequential file. The track index contains two entries for each prime track of the cylinder a normal entry and an overflow entry. 37. What is the relationship between a queue and its underlying array? Data stored in a queue is actually stored in an array. Two indexes, front and end will be used to identify the start and end of the queue. When an element is removed front will be incremented by 1. In case it reaches past the last index available it will be reset to 0. Then it will be checked with end. If it is greater than end queue is empty. When an element is added end will be incremented by 1. In case it reaches past the last index available it will be reset to 0. After incrementing it will be checked with front. If they are equal queue is full. 38. What is binary tree? A binary tree is a tree in which every node has exactly two links i.e left and right link A binary tree is a tree in which every node has exactly two links i.e left and right link 39. Run Time Memory Allocation is known as ? Allocating memory at runtime is called a dynamically allocating memory. In this, you dynamically allocate memory by using the new operator when declaring the array, for example : int grades[] = new int[10]; 40. What is a queue? A Queue is a sequential organization of data. A queue is a first in first out type of data structure. An element is inserted at the last position and an element is always taken out from the first position.

41. What are the major data structures used in the following areas : RDBMS, Network data model & Hierarchical data model? 1. RDBMS Array (i.e. Array of structures) 2. Network data model Graph 3. Hierarchical data model Tree 1. RDBMS: B-tree or B+ tree 2. Network model: Linked list 3.Hierarchical data model: Tree 42. What does each entry in the Link List called? Each entry in a linked list is called a node. Think of a node as an entry that has three sub entries. One sub entry contains the data, which may be one attribute or many attributes. Another points to the previous node, and the last points to the next node. When you enter a new item on a linked list, you allocate the new node and then set the pointers to previous and next nodes. 43. How to concatenate two linked lists? By changing the null pointer of the first linked list to point the header of the second linked list. 44. in RDBMS, what is the efficient data structure used in the internal storage representation? B+ tree. Because in B+ tree, all the data is stored only in leaf nodes, that makes searching easier. This corresponds to the records that shall be stored in leaf nodes. By using pointer to structure 45. State the theorem which is used to determine whether a given expression is valid or not. A polish suffix formula is well formed if and only if the rank of the formula is ?one? and the rank of any proper head of a polish formula is greater than or equal to ?one?. 46. How is the front of the queue calculated? The front of the queue is calculated by front = (front+1) % size. Minimal spanning tree assures that the total weight of the tree is kept at its minimum. But it doesn't mean that the distance between any two nodes involved in the minimum-spanning tree is minimum.

47. How do you assign an address to an element of a pointer array? We can assign a memory address to an element of a pointer array by using the address operator, which is the ampersand (&), in an assignment statement such as ptemployee[0] = &projects[2]; 48. What method removes the value from the top of a stack? The pop() member method removes the value from the top of a stack, which is then returned by the pop() member method to the statement that calls the pop() member method. 49. How can I search for data in a linked list? Unfortunately, the only way to search a linked list is with a linear search, because the only way a linked list's members can be accessed is sequentially. Sometimes it is quicker to take the data from a linked list and store it in a different data structure so that searches can be more efficient. 50. How to concatenate the two linked lists? Perform given operation, Last node of first link list--> next = First node of second link list 51. Minimum number of queues needed to implement the priority queue? Two. One queue is used for actual storing of data and another for storing priorities. 52. Is Pointer a variable? Yes, a pointer is a variable and can be used as an element of a structure and as an attribute of a class in some programming languages such as C++, but not Java. However, the contents of a pointer is a memory address of another location of memory, which is usually the memory address of another variable, element of a structure, or attribute of a class. 53. Name the data structure used to maintain file identification? inode, each file has a separate inode and a unique inode number. 54. What is the easiest sorting method to use? The answer is the standard library function qsort(). It's the easiest sort by far for several reasons: It is already written. It is already debugged. It has been optimized as much as possible (usually). Void qsort(void *buf, size_t num, size_t size, int (*comp)(const void *ele1, const void *ele2));

55. State procedure in accordance with function? A procedure is similar to a function but there is no value returned explicitly. A procedure is also invoked differently. Where there are parameters, a procedure returns its results through the parameters 56. What is a priority queue? Waiting queue may not operate on a strictly first in first out basis, but on some complex priority scheme based on such factors as what compiler is being used, the execution time required, number of print lines, etc. The resulting queue is called a priority queue. A priority queue is an abstract data type in computer programming that supports the following three operations: * InsertWithPriority: add an element to the queue with an associated priority * GetNext: remove the element from the queue that has the highest priority, and return it (also known as "PopElement(Off)", or "GetMinimum") * PeekAtNext (optional): look at the element with highest priority without removing it 57. Why do we Use a Multidimensional Array? A multidimensional array can be useful to organize subgroups of data within an array. In addition to organizing data stored in elements of an array, a multidimensional array can store memory addresses of data in a pointer array and an array of pointers. Multidimensional arrays are used to store information in a matrix form. e.g. a railway timetable, schedule cannot be stored as a single dimensional array. One can use a 3-D array for storing height, width and length of each room on each floor of a building. 58. Define addressing and linear addressing functions? There are many data structures which can be represented so as to permit the referencing of any element by knowing its position in the structure. The selection operation associated with such a structure is said to possess an addressing function. An addressing function for a data structure consisting of n elements is a function which maps the ith element of the data structure onto an integer between one and n. In the case of a vector, the addressing function f maps the ith element onto the integer I, which is a linear addressing function. 59. What does isEmpty() member method determines? isEmpty() checks if the stack has at least one element. This method is called by Pop() before retrieving and returning the top element.

60. What is Heap data structure? The binary heap data structures are an array that can be viewed as a complete binary tree. Each node of the binary tree corresponds to an element of the array. The array is completely filled on all levels except possibly lowest. Heap is a binary tree with a property that parent node is largest or smallest of its sub tree. It is balanced and almost complete binary tree. It is mostly implemented using array representation of binary tree. It is used for sorting arrays. It has order of N*logN. It has consistent performance unlike quick short. It is slower than quick short by twice in normal case. 1. It is a complete binary tree; that is, each level of the tree is completely filled, except possibly the bottom level. At this level, it is filled from left to right. 2. It satisfies the heap-order property: The data item stored in each node is greater than or equal to the data items stored in its children. 61. Define an addressing function for a data structure? An addressing function for a data structure consisting of n elements is a function which maps the ith element of the data structure onto an integer between one and n. In the case of a vector, the addressing function f maps 62. Define data structure in terms of relation? The possible ways in which the data items or atoms are logically related define different data structures. 63. Explain the three applications in which stacks are used? The first application majorly deals with the recursion, the second application is a classical and the last one is known as stack machines which chiefly deals with insertion and deletion from the stack. 64. What exactly does this procedure BUBBLE_SORT (K, N) does? Given a vector K of N elements, this procedure sorts the elements into ascending order using the method just described. The variables PASS and LAST denote the pass counter and position of the last unsorted elements respectively. The variable I is used to index the vector elements. The variable EXCHS is used to count the number of exchanges made on any pass. All variables are integer. This procedure takes input as the array K and number of elements in the array N, and sorts the N elements in either ascending or descending order.

65. Which one is faster? A binary search of an ordered set of elements in an array or a sequential search of the elements. Binary search is faster because we traverse the elements by using the policy of Divide and Conquer. we compare the key element with the approximately center element, if it is smaller than it search is applied in the smaller elements only otherwise the search is applied in the larger set of elements. its complexity is as we all know is log n as compared to the sequential one whose complexity is n. Binary search follows Divide and Conquer method where as linear Search doesn't follow. The time complexity of Binary Search in O(log n) but in case of linear search the time complexity is O(n). Thats way Binary search is having better prior than linear search. But it is true when the list of items is large incase of smaller list linear is best(i.e.- it is only when the Best Case concern) 66. What is event, delegate & data structure? Event: Event is the state change of a component. Events provide users to communicate with the computer applications such as mouse events, keyboard events etc. Delegate: Delegate is a new model to provide events with the help of event source and event listener, in the event source generates an event then the registered listener receives those event and implement that event Data structure: Data structure is a logical unit which provides the way to storage and organization of data on the memory of a computer 67. Suppose you have a sorted array of 250 elements. What is the maximum number of elements you have to examine to determine if some value v is in your array if you use an efficient search? a) 7 b) 8 c) 125 d) 250 Use binary search then number of examine will be lg(250)~8 so answer will be 8 By using pointer to structure 68. Does the minimum spanning tree of a graph give the shortest distance between any 2 specified nodes? Minimal spanning tree assures that the total weight of the tree is kept at its minimum. But it doesn't mean that the distance between any two nodes involved in the minimum-spanning tree is minimum.

69. List out few of the Application o What is a spanning Tree?f tree data-structure? The manipulation of Arithmetic expression, Symbol Table construction, Syntax analysis. 70. What is data structure? 1) A data structure is a way of organizing data that considers not only the items stored, but also their relationship to each other. Advance knowledge about the relationship between data items allows designing of efficient algorithms for the manipulation of data. 2) A data structure is a group of data elements grouped together under one name. These data elements, known as members, can have different types and different lengths. Some are used to store the data of same type and some are used to store different types of data. 71. Difference between calloc and malloc? malloc: allocate n bytes calloc: allocate m times n bytes initialized to 0 72. What are the notations used in Evaluation of Arithmetic Expressions using prefix and postfix forms? Polish and Reverse Polish notations. 73. Convert the expression ((A + B* C (D E) ^ (F + G)) to equivalent Prefix and Postfix notations. Prefix Notation: ^ - * +ABC - DE + FG Postfix Notation: AB + C * DE - - FG + ^ 74. Sorting is not possible by using which of the following methods? (a) Insertion (b) Selection (c) Exchange (d) Deletion (d) Deletion. Using insertion we can perform insertion sort, using selection we can perform selection sort, using exchange we can perform the bubble sort (and other similar sorting methods). But no sorting method can be done just using deletion.

75. A binary tree with 20 nodes has null branches? 21 Let us take a tree with 5 nodes (n=5) It will have only 6 (ie,5+1) null branches. In general, A binary tree with n nodes has exactly n+1 null nodes. 76. What are the methods available in storing sequential files? Straight merging, Natural merging, Polyphase sort, Distribution of Initial runs. 77. List out few of the applications that make use of Multilinked Structures? Sparse matrix, Index generation. 78. In tree construction which is the suitable efficient data structure? (a) Array (b) Linked list (c) Stack (d) Queue (e) none (b) Linked list 79. What is the type of the algorithm used in solving the 8 Queens problem? Backtracking 80. Traverse the given tree using Inorder, Preorder and Postorder traversals. Inorder: D H B E A F C I G J Preorder: A B D H E C F G I J Postorder: H D E B F I J G C A 81. There are 8, 15, 13, 14 nodes were there in 4 different trees. Which of them could have formed a full binary tree? 15. In general: There are 2n-1 nodes in a full binary tree. By the method of elimination: Full binary trees contain odd number of nodes. So there cannot be full binary trees with 8 or 14 nodes, so rejected. With 13 nodes you can form a complete binary tree but not a full binary tree. So the correct answer is 15. Note: Full and Complete binary trees are different. All full binary trees are complete binary trees but not vice versa. 82. In the given binary tree, using array you can store the node 4 at which location? At location 6 123--4--5 Root LC1 RC1 LC2 RC2 LC3 RC3 LC4 RC4 where LCn means Left Child of node n and RCn means Right Child of node n

83. Sort the given values using Quick Sort? 65 70 75 80 85 60 55 50 45 Sorting takes place from the pivot value, which is the first value of the given elements, this is marked bold. The values at the left pointer and right pointer are indicated using L and R respectively. 65 70L 75 80 85 60 55 50 45R Since pivot is not yet changed the same process is continued after interchanging the values at L and R positions 65 45 75 L 80 85 60 55 50 R 70 65 45 50 80 L 85 60 55 R 75 70 65 45 50 55 85 L 60 R 80 75 70 65 45 50 55 60 R 85 L 80 75 70 When the L and R pointers cross each other the pivot value is interchanged with the value at right pointer. If the pivot is changed it means that the pivot has occupied its original position in the sorted order (shown in bold italics) and hence two different arrays are formed, one from start of the original array to the pivot position-1 and the other from pivot position+1 to end. 60 L 45 50 55 R 65 85 L 80 75 70 R 55 L 45 50 R 60 65 70 R 80 L 75 85 50 L 45 R 55 60 65 70 80 L 75 R 85 In the next pass we get the sorted form of the array. 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 84. For the given graph, draw the DFS and BFS? BFS: A X G H P E M Y J DFS: A X H P E Y M J G 85. Classify the Hashing Functions based on the various methods by which the key value is found. Direct method, Subtraction method, Modulo-Division method, Digit-Extraction method, MidSquare method, Folding method, Pseudo-random method.

86. What are the types of Collision Resolution Techniques and the methods used in each of the type? Open addressing (closed hashing), The methods used include: Overflow block, Closed addressing (open hashing) the methods used include: Linked list, Binary tree 87. Draw the B-tree of order 3 created by inserting the following data arriving in sequence 92 24 6 7 11 8 22 4 5 16 19 20 78 88. Of the following tree structure, which is, efficient considering space and time complexities? (a) Incomplete Binary Tree (b) Complete Binary Tree (c) Full Binary Tree (b) Complete Binary Tree. By the method of elimination: Full binary tree loses its nature when operations of insertions and deletions are done. For incomplete binary trees, extra storage is required and overhead of NULL node checking takes place. So complete binary tree is the better one since the property of complete binary tree is maintained even after operations like additions and deletions are done on it. 89. Which is the simplest file structure? (a) Sequential (b) Indexed (a) Sequential 90. Draw a binary Tree for the expression: A * B - (C + D) * (P / Q) 91. For the following COBOL code, draw the Binary tree? 01 STUDENT_REC. 02 NAME. 03 FIRST_NAME PIC X(10). 03 LAST_NAME PIC X(10). 02 YEAR_OF_STUDY. 03 FIRST_SEM PIC XX. 03 SECOND_SEM PIC XX. 92. What pointer type will you use? The heterogeneous linked list contains different data types in its nodes and we need a link, pointer to connect them. It is not possible to use ordinary pointers for this. So we go for void pointer. Void pointer is capable of storing pointer to any type as it is a generic pointer type.

(c) Random

93. Does the minimum spanning tree of a graph give the shortest distance between any 2 specified nodes? Minimal spanning tree assures that the total weight of the tree is kept at its minimum. But it doesn't mean that the distance between any two nodes involved in the minimum-spanning tree is minimum.

94. Which process places data at the back of the queue? Enqueue is the process that places data at the back of the queue.

Time Complexity

1.In sorting n objects, merge sort has an average and worst-case performance of O(n log n). 2.If the running time of merge sort for a list of length n is T(n), then the recurrence T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n follows from the definition of the algorithm (apply the algorithm to two lists of half the size of the original list, and add the n steps taken to merge the resulting two lists) 1.Bubble sort has worst-case and average complexity both (n2), where n is the number of items being sorted 1. BUBBLE SORT Sorting algorithm Data structure Array Worst case performance O (n2) Best case performance O(n) Average case performance O(n2) Worst case space complexity O(1) auxiliary ======================== 2. SELECTION SORT Worst case performance (n2) Best case performance (n2)

Average case performance (n2) Worst case space complexity (n) total, O(1) auxiliary 3. Insertion sort Worst case performance (n2) Best case performance O(n) Average case performance (n2) Worst case space complexity (n) total, O(1) auxiliary

4. Merge sort Worst case performance (nlogn) Best case performance (nlogn) typical, (n) natural variant Average case performance (nlogn) Worst case space complexity (n) auxiliary 5. Quick sort Worst case performance O (n2) Best case performance O(nlogn) Average case performance O (nlogn) Worst case space complexity O (n) 6. Heapsort Worst case performance (nlogn) Best case performance (nlogn)

[1]

Average case performance (nlogn)

Worst case space complexity (n) total, (1) auxiliary 7. Radix sort Worst case performance O(kn) Worst case space complexity O (kn) Where n is the number of keys, and k is the average key length Tree traversal:Breadth-first search and Depth-first- search both Complexity

O (|V|+|E|)

Graph traversal 1. Prims algorithm Minimum edge weight data structure Time complexity (total) adjacency matrix, searching O(V2) binary heap (as in pseudo code below) and adjacency list O((V + E) log(V)) = O(E log(V)) Fibonacci heap and adjacency list O(E + V log(V)) 2. Dijkstra's Algorithm Complexity of Dijkstra's Algorithm With adjacency matrix representation, the running time is O (n2) by using an adjacency list representation and a partially ordered tree data structure for organizing the set V - S, the complexity can be shown to be O (elog n) where e is the number of edges and n is the number of vertices in the digraph. the computational complexity of Dijkstra's algorithm using a binary heap is . 3. Kruskal algorithm

Q:-Complexity of Kruskal's algorithm for finding the minimum spanning tree of an undirected graph containing n vertices and m edges if the edges are sorted is

a) O(mn) c) O(m) b) O(m+n) d) O(n) Answer: O(m+n) This is how I understood it. Derived the reasoning from the Answer key (which did not explain properly) and just indicated t hat it grows linearly over the edges so, O(m) can also be correct. Actually the kruskal algorithm for minimum spanning tree with m edges n vertices O (n) + O (m logm). But this is already sorted, so its order so log m comparisons is not required and it is just over the edges. So, O (n) + O(m) = O(m+n) Is my understanding correct or, we can assume that the complexity is just over the edges and so it is O(m).

1. Between merge sort quick sort and bubble sort which is the best?

Ans:-Among those three, you can automatically discard bubble sort as the worst in general cases (it actually performs quite well when the list of numbers are already in order, unlike quick sort). In general, merge sort is O(n log n) and quick sort is O(n log n). The two main differences are that 1) quick sort can have a degradation in performance if the pivot point is chosen poorly (O(n2)), 2) quick sort does not require the extra storage that merge sort does. While I'm not an algorithms expert, I do know that most people tend to err on the side of using quick sort. I have never actually seen anyone implement a merge sort when they had a choice.

2. Can bubble sort perform better than quick sort? No, it cannot. To find out why bubble sort is worse then quick sort we should look at the performance of both methods expressed in Big-O notation (time or special operations count that is needed to finish the job depending on number of items to process). Quick sort: Worst case: O (N2); Average case: O(NLogN); Best case: O(NLogN); Bubble sort: Worst case: O(N2); Average case: O(N2); Best case: O(N2); As you can see they can perform equally in quick sort worst case. But other than that bubble sort is more performance costly and is not suggested to use working with big amounts of data. The worst quick sort scenario is then list is already sorted or nearly sorted. The issues was addressed by many methods how to to choose better middle/splitting value. Quick sort is one of the fastest algorithms and is widely used.