Proceedings of the Fifth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2012)

On

The assessment and management of groundwater resources in hard rock systems with special reference to basaltic terrain
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Editors
C.Mayilswami M.Thangarajan P.S.Kulkarni V.P. Singh

IGWC Groundwater Research Series # 5 (III)

Proceedings of the Fifth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2012)

On

The assessment and management of groundwater resources in hard rock systems with special reference to basaltic terrain

Volume III

Water and environment

Editors
C.Mayilswami M.Thangarajan P.S.Kulkarni V.P. Singh

Published by
Department of Geology, Maulana Azad College, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India 2

Foreword
The demand for water is ever increasing to meet the needs of the domestic, agricultural and industrial for the last three decades. Groundwater resource is playing a major role in meeting the drinking water purpose also. Groundwater in hard rock regions with limited renewable potential have to be managed judiciously to ensure adequate supplies of dependable quantity and quality. In the last three decades, the exploitation of groundwater increased many folds but vagaries of monsoon due to change in climatic condition reduced the rainfall at many places resulting in to reduction in surface run off and replenishment to the depleting groundwater aquifer. Deepening of wells by the farmers in the hard rock aquifer ends without any success resulting to debt trap. Reduction in rainfall due to change in climatic condition not only reduces the recharge to the aquifer to meet the demand for domestic, industrial and agricultural demand but also enhances the pollution level in groundwater. It is therefore imperative for the proper assessment, development and management of groundwater resources to overcome, or at least minimize such problems, a necessity was felt for suitable interaction among researchers, field hydro-geologists, planners and water users. I believe and hope that the International Groundwater conference (IGWC-2012) on The assessment and management of groundwater resources in hard rock systems with special reference to basaltic terrain organized jointly by Maulana Azad College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Aurangabad, International Groundwater Congress (IGWC), India and GEOFORUM (MS) at Aurangabad will throw more light on the assessment and management of groundwater resources in hard rock region of crystalline and basaltic terrain under extreme climatic condition. The pre-conference proceedings will provide information about essential data and new emerging techniques to assess the potential groundwater resources in hard rock regions, augmentation of groundwater resources through artificial recharge, effective remedial measures to contain the migration of pollutants and the community based groundwater resources management. I congratulate all the editors viz., Drs. M.Thangarajan, C.Mayilswami, P.S. Kulkarni and Prof.V.P.Singh for their effort to bring out the beautiful pre-conference proceeding volume.

December , 2012

Dr. S.B. Varade President, (GEOFORUM) Assosiation of Geologists and Hydrogeologists Maharashtra, India.

Preface
Groundwater plays a major role in the life style of mankind. The world wide rapid growth of population and increased Industrial and agricultural activities led to the great demand for water from surface and ground. The exploitation of groundwater increased many folds in the last three decades but the vagaries of monsoon due to change in climatic condition either reduced the rainfall at many places or increased the rainfall resulting in to reduction in surface run off and replenishment to the depleting groundwater aquifer else flooding many places. It is reported that farmers resorted to deepen the bore wells in the hard rock aquifer without any success resulting in to debt trap. Depletion of water level in many wells due to greater demands results in to the enhancement of pollution level It is therefore very important to plan for the proper assessment, development and management of groundwater resources to overcome, or at least minimize such problems, a need was felt for suitable interaction among researchers, field hydro-geologists, planners, NGOs and water users. IGWC-2012 was planned at Aurangabad to discuss all issues
The editorial committee has received more than 420 abstracts from India and abroad and more than 275 full length papers on different themes of the conference. These papers were previewed by an expert committee and selected about 250 papers for the inclusion in the pre conference proceeding volume. These papers have been grouped in to the following six sections: 1. Water Resources Evaluation and Management 2. Application of RS & GIS in Water Resources Assessment 3. Recharge Process and Artificial Recharge Mechanism 4. Groundwater Pollution Assessment and Management 5. Groundwater Modeling 6. Groundwater Management Issues/Options and Policies The above six sections have been classified in to four major groups viz. (i)Water resources evaluation and management (ii) Recharge process & Agriculture stress (iii) Water and environment and (iv) Modeling and management aspects of groundwater Groundwater management needs assessment, which in turn needs a model. A model needs a set of mathematical equations to describe the system. The equations have to be solved through a set of characteristic parameters, initial and boundary conditions of the aquifer system, which in turn have to be obtained through field investigations. Field investigations need a set of procedures, which in turn needs guide lines to carry out field investigations. We hope that the present volume will cater the needs of the planners, field hydrologists, young groundwater scientists as well as users to a large extent in India and elsewhere in their effort towards better development and management of groundwater resources in a more optimal and judicial manner.

Editors C.Mayilswami M.Thangarajan P.S.Kulkarni V.P. Singh Aurangabad

Acknowledgements
We thank all the sponsors and co-sponsors to organize IGWC-2012 at Maulana Azad College of Arts, Science & Commerce at Aurangabad, Maharashtra and to support to bring this volume. It is but for the solid support of the Madam Padmashree Mrs. R. Zakaria (the president of Maulana Azad Educational Trust, Aurangabad) the conference would not have been organized at Aurangabad and we are grateful to her. We thank all authors of invited papers, keynote papers and contributed papers who have responded very well in submitting abstracts and full length paper in time as well participating in the conference. The staffs at the Department of Geology are thanked for their solid support in the arrangement of manuscript

Principal, Dr. Maqdoom Farooqui Chairman Organizing Committee, IGWC-2012, Aurangabad

Contents Water and environment

1. Challenges in investigating and remediating contaminated groundwater sites - Udai P. Singh page no 16-24 2. Improved Human Health Risk Characterization for Regions with ArsenicContaminated Groundwater - Edward A. McBean page no 25-25 3. Climate Change Impact on Groundwater in Cheliff-Zahrez basin (Algeria) - M. Meddi and A. Boucefiane page no 26-38 4. Groundwater pollution due to nitrate leaching in Jaffna peninsula of Sri Lanka - C.S De Silva page no 39-50 5. Cadmium and Nitrate Removal by Novel Nano Biopolymer Alginate Complex - Ali Mahdavi, Anahita Esmaeilian and Hossein Ghaforian page no 51-51 6. Water quality studies of the Kapadak river basin, south-western Bangladesh with special emphasis on environmental degradation - Mrinal Kanti Roy, Pulin Chandra Roy, Nasir Ahmed, Md.Monriruzaman and Md.Shadat Hossain page no 52-89 7. Impacts on Groundwater of Open Pit Coal Mining in Bangladesh Context - A.H.M. Selim Reza and Md. Emdadul Haque page no 90-99 8. Numerical Investigation of Magnetic Effect on Migration of Pollutant in Groundwater - A.A. Dare and M. Sasaki page no 100-107 9. Assessment of Salinity intrusion and its impact on groundwater quality- Case study in downstream of Bentota River Basin- Sri Lanka - Ranjana. U. K. Piyadasa, K.D and Dhineshika Chandrani page no 108-114 10. Sustainability of irrigation with Barapukuria Coal-Mine Drainage, NW Bangladesh: An Environmental Impact Study - Joydeb K. Dutta, Chowdhury S. Jahan, Quamrul H. Mazumder M. Motin and S. Jaman N. Sultana and M. Aminul Ahasan page no 115139

11. The Comparison of Wheat Straw, Sawdust and Sand Filters Impact on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Brackish Water - Ghorbani, B. and Pourvaezi, R. page no 140-151 12. Fluoride and Arsenic in Groundwater: Mobilization and Mitigation - Jacks G., Bhattacharya P. and von Bromssen M. page no 152-179 13. Groundwater quality with special reference to salinity intrusion in cochin area, Kerala - C.P.Priju, S.G.Athira, T.P.Neerajamol, K.Madhavan and N.B.Narasimha Prasad page no 180-197 14. Assessment of soil contamination due to heavy metal accumulation from Thane to Belapur industries zone, Mumbai, India - Ajaykumar K. Kadam, Sanjay S. Kale and K. M. Sawant page no 198-226 15. Pollutant Dispersion in Groundwater: Its Degradation and Rehabilitation - Naveen Kumar and Sanjay K Yadav page no 227-239 16. Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater - Avdhesh Tyagi, Ph.D., P.E., Nicholas Johnson, Logan Dyer, and Taylor Davis page no 240-250 17. Biofilms for textile industry wastewater treatments - Kavitha. B, P. Doraisamy and M. Maheswari page no 251-267 18. Combined anaerobic-aerobic treatment of dye industry effluent - Madhuri Sahasrabudhe and Girish Pathade page no 268-268 19. Compaction and Hydraulic Conductivity Analysis of Fly ash of B.T.P.S. for the construction of a Natural Geoliner - Neha Shreya and Dr. Biswajit Paul page no 269294 20. Hydrochemistry from proximity basalt and granite of dvp margin, India - Sahebrao Sonkamble, Harish Kumar Agre, Ashalata Sahya and N.C. Mondal page no 295-313 21. Developing management strategies to ameliorate the groundwater quality of Parambikulam-Aliyar basin of Tamil Nadu - P.Jothimani, C.Mayilswami, A. Valliammai and S.Chellamuthu page no 314-324 22. Dispersion of fluoride in Huvinhalla watershed, Karnataka - K.N.Kulkarni and S.C.Puranik page no 325-332 23. Dissemination and distribution of fluoride in groundwater, Hirehalla watershed, Karnataka - S.M.Hiremath and S.C.Puranik page no 333-340

24. Distillery spentwash impact on ground water quality - P. Latha and P. Thangavel page no 341-347 25. Effect of municipal waste water of Rahuri tahsil on groundwater quality S. D. Dahiwalkar, S. A. Kadam and S. D. Gorantiwar page no 348-258 26. Seismic Groundwater Hazards: State of the Art - Hugo A. Loiciga page no 358-368 27. Electrochemical Processes for Environmental Applications - Special Emphasize on CECRI technologies - S. Vasudevan page no 368-385 28. Effect of Phosphate and Silicate on Remediation of Arsenic from Drinking Water using Zero Valet Iron Sandeep Kale, Rakesh Thakare and Pravin D. Nemade Page no 385-385 29. Evaluation of Groundwater and its suitability for Agriculture in Periyar Main Canal Command Area : A geospatial approach - V.Kumar, P. Selvan, and Dr.S.Chandran Page no 386-405 30. Evaluation of groundwater quality in mining regions of south-east Hating, India Sanjay Kumar Sharma, A.L. Ramanathan and V. Subramanian Page no406-419 31. Evaluation of groundwater suitability for domestic and irrigational purposes: a case study from Vemula Area, Kadapa District, Andhra Pradesh, India - L. Chandra Sekhar Reddy, S.M. Deshpande, K.V. Ramana Reddy and K.R. Aher Page no 420-429 32. Evaluation of Nitrate Contamination in Water Supply Wells: In a part of Jammu City, J&K, India - Priya Kanwar, G. K. Sharma and K. P. Singh Page no 430-444 33. Evaluation of probabilistic simulation of pathogen removal at two river bank filtration sites in India - Thakur A.K., Ojha C.S.P. and V.P. Singh Page no 445-469 34. Evolution of Hydrochemical Facies and Assessment of Groundwater quality for Irrigation use in the Bewas river basin, Central India - L.P. Chourasia and S.H. Adil Page no 470-490 35. Fluoride Contamination in Groundwater from Bhadravati Tehsil, Chandrapur District, Maharashtra - Y. A Murkute and P.P.Badhan Page no 491-512

36. Fluoride Estimation in Ground Water and Human Health in Selected Villages of Salem District (Tamil Nadu) Dr. D. Janagam, Saravana kumar and M. Jeyamani Page no 513-534 37. Occurrence of fluoride in groundwater in a part of Vaniyar river basin, Tamil Nadu, India - G.Jagadeshan and L.Elango Page no 38. Fluoride pollution in groundwater of Dongergaon, Chhattisgarh - G. R. Banjare K.

S. Patel, B. L. Sahu, R. Dewangan, R. K. Patel and L. Matini 39. Groundwater quality near mining area and development of heavy metal pollution index - Bably Prasad, Puja Kumara, Shamima Bano and Shweta Kumara 40. Geochemical Characterization of Groundwater in Phreatic Aquifer in the Vaniar Watershed, Salem and Dharmapuri Districts, Tamil Nadu, India - S.G.D. Sridhar, P. Nandakumaran and G. Kanagaraj Page no 541-553 41. GIS for precise spatial filtering of non suitable groundwater quality zone in upper Thirumanimuttar sub-basin, Cauvery river, Tamil Nadu, India - M.Suresh, B.Gurugnanam, S.Kumaravel and M.Senthil Kumar Page no 554-560 42. Groundwater quality analysis for irrigational use in Cumbum valley Theni district Tamil Nadu, India - Sankar, S. Venkateswaran, M.Suresh, M. Vijay Prabhu and S.A.Palanisamy Page no 561-576 43. Groundwater quality assessment of Lucknow in Ganga alluvial plain, northern India Nupur Srivastava, Dharmendra Kumar Jigyasu and Munendra Singh Page no 577610 44. Evaluation of Chemical Quality of Groundwater in parts of Sirsa

(Haryana),Mansa,Bhatinda and Muktsar districts, SW Punjab with emphasis on Uranium in relation to human health - N.Kochhar,V.Dadwal,M.Rishi,N.K.Sharma and V.Balaram Page no 611-626

45. Fluoride toxicity zone demarcation using GIS techniques in Pennagaram taluk, Dharmapuri district, South India - S.A.Palanisamy, M.Suresh, M.Vijay Prabhu and P.Karthikeyan Page no 626-638 46. Groundwater quality in Raipur city - N. S. Dahariya, K. S. Patel, R. Dewangan, R. K. Patel and L. Matini Page no 639-643 47. Groundwater Quality Mapping for Using Geospatial Technology in parts of Veeranam Command Area, Tamil Nadu, South India - R.Ayyandurai, M.Suresh, M.Vijay Praphu, S.A.Palanisamy and P.Karthikeyan Page no 644-679 48. Monitoring of groundwater quality in the Parambikulam - Aliyar basin of Tamil Nadu - P. Jothimani, C.Mayilswami, A. Valliammai and S.Chellamuthu Page no 680-690 49. Groundwater regime of Mandu Plateau, Dhar District, Madhya Pradesh, India S.F.R. Khadri Page no 691-713 50. Hydrochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Groundwater Quality in Parts of Kancheepuram District, Tamil Nadu, India - G.Kanagaraj, S.G.D.Sridhar, S.Mahalingam and S. Natchimuthu Page no 714-728 51. Hydrogeochemical Studies in the Granite and Basaltic Terrains, Andhra Pradesh, India - V.Varalakshmi and B.Venkateswara Rao Page no 729-739 52. Hydrogeochemistry of shallow and deep aquifers from Anjani and Jhiri river catchment (tapm006) Jalgaon district, northern Maharashtra, India - R. B. Golekar, S. N. Patil, M.V. Baride and D. R. Yeole Page no 740-757 53. Assessment of Hydro-chemical Parameters of Ground Water Around Distilleries situated at Dharmabad, Dist Nanded - Sayyed Hussaina, Mazahar Farooquib, C, Vidya Pradhanb and Pathan Mohd Arifc Page no 758-758 54. Impact of septic tanks on shallow groundwater quality in Kakinada coastal aquifers Y. Satyaji Rao and A.K. Keshari Page no 759-805

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55. Impact of Treated Paper Mill Effluent Irrigation on Groundwater Qualities Balusamy, A, C. Udayasoorian, R.M. Jayabalakrishnan, S. Paul Sebastian and S. Ponmani 56. Impacts of Urbanization on Groundwater Quality in a Hard Rock Terrain of Belgaum City, Karnataka - B. K. Purandara and N. Varadarajan Page no 806-815 57. Influence of treated paperboard mill effluent irrigation on yield of chillies S.Ponmani, C.Udayasoorian, S.Paul Sebastian, R.M.Jayabalakrishnan and A. Balusamy 816-820 58. Investigation of low cost adsorbent for removal of arsenic from drinking water Gupta and Sunil Kumar Page no 821-836 59. Isotopic and hydrochemical characterization of pollutants of groundwater aquifer at Najafgarh drain basin area, Delhi, India - Shilpi Saxena, J.P.Shrivastava, Bhishm Kumar and M.S.Rao Page no 837-854 60. Physical, chemical and environmental studies on Cauvery river in parts of Tamil Nadu (Mettur and Bhavani) P.Karthikeyan and R.Venkatachalapathy Page no 854-867 61. Physico-chemical characteristics of Masooli reservior Parbhani district, Maharashtra, India - Kadam, S.U. and Md. Babar Page no 868-879 62. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of groundwater resources - Mahejabeen N. Sayyad and.Shazia.K.Mirza Page no 880-885 63. Recycling options for palm oil industry solid wastes - Kavitha.B., G. Rajannan and P. Jothimani Page no 886-895 64. Study of physical environment and its impact on land use pattern of Sangamner area, Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India - K.K. Deshmukh and N.J. Pawar Page no 966-981 65. The Utility of Bayesian Neural Networks in Hydrogeochemical Studies: An xample from West Coast, India - Saumen Maiti, Gautam Gupta and Vinit. C. Erram Page no 982-1001

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66. Thermal-Hydraulic-Geochemical Coupled Processes around Disposed High Level Nuclear Waste in Deep Granite Hosted Geological Repositories: Frontier Areas of Advanced Groundwater Research in India - RK Bajpai Page no 1002-1015 67. Variation of Hardness in Groundwater of Guwahati on GIS Platform - S.R. Kumar and D.S. Rathore Page no 1016-1029 68. Water quality deterioration and its impact on Public Health due to Solid waste dumping in Salem (Tamil Nadu) - Dr. (Mrs) D. Janagam, M. Jeyamani and B. Suresh Page no 1030-1047 69. Water quality impacts of artificial rechargeA case study of Central Gujarat R. S. Kurothe, Gopal Kumar, D. R. Sena and S. P. Tiwari Page no 1048-1064 70. Geochemistry of groundwater from the Upper Vel river basin, part of Pune District, Maharashtra - Gaikwad.S.K, Kouhsari M and Pawar, N.J. Page no 1065-1091 71. Fluoride poisoning in groundwater of Birbhum district, West Bengal - impact on human health and the management by bioremediation - Bidisha Bagh, Amit Roy and Santanu Ray Page no 1092-1101 72. Removal of Iron in Groundwater by using Coconut Shell - Mausumi Raychaudhuri, S. Raychaudhuri, Sucheta Mohanty and Ashwani Kumar Page no 1102-1108 73. Adsorption study for the removal of lead A disposable measure - Syed Ummul Khair Asema, Maqdoom Farooqui and M. A. Malik Page no 1109-1119 74. Hydrochemistry of Surface and Ground Water of Dehradun District Of Uttarakhand, India - Kanchan Deoli Bahukhandi and B Sukesh K Bartarya Page no 1120-1130

75. Comparative Study For Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium By Electrolytic Iron And High Carbon Iron Filings (HCIF) - Rajneesh Kr. Srivastava, Gaurav Kr. Yadav and Alok Sinha Page no 1130-1164 76. Estimation of Fluoride and other Physico-Chemical Parameters of Groundwater in

Gangajalghati Block of Bankura District, West Bengal - S. K. NAG and Shreya Das Page no 1165-1175

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77. Trace Elements in Groundwater of Yamuna Krishni Interfluve Area, Western Uttar Pradesh - Rashid Umar, Fakhre Alam , Izrar Ahmed and Arina Khan Page no 11761187 78. Impact of solid waste on the health of Rag Pickers in Aurangabad District - Yogita L.Padme and Satish L.Padme Page no 1188-1190 79. Estimation of Fluoride Ions From the Ground Water At Dharmabad, District Nanded, Maharashtra - Sayyed Hussain, Syed Yousuf Hussain, Vidya Pradhan and Mazahar Farooqui 1190-1193 80. Study of fluoride concentration in ground water of Parbhani Maharashatra, India D.R.Deshmukh and M. S. Kadam Page no 1194-1198 81. Decontamination of Lead (Pb) Containing Root-zone Water using the wetland plant Carex pendula - Brijesh K. Yadav and Maarten A. Siebel Page no 1199-1217 82. Corrosivity Scenario of Groundwater in Tezpur, Assam - S.R. Kumar, A.K. Singh and S.P. Rai Page no 1218-1229 83. Groundwater Quality Management - Dr. S.B. Ubale, Dr. S. M. Masoom and Dr. M.N. Naik 1230-1239 84. Microbial accumulation of metallic nanoparticles by bioreduction - Aditi Bhattacharya., Smita Tulapurkar Page no 1240-1240 85. Use of GIS for Management and Surveillance of Groundwater Quality - S.R. Kumar, D.S. Rathore and A.K. Singh Page no 1241-1257 86. Groundwater quality assessment of Buldhana district, MS, India - Pradnya P. Jangle, Devyani S. Bendale and Yogita V. Jadhav Page no 1241-1257 87. Groundwater Quality and Pollution Susceptibility Around Nagod Area, Satna District, Madhya Pradesh, India R.N. Tiwari,U.K. Mishra,Ajay Mishra and Amit Mishra Page no 1258-1270

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88. Physico and chemical characteristics of groundwater in and around Marutha Nathi river at Pattiveeranpatti of Dindigul district due to the discharge of sewage and industrial effluent - A.Jesu,L.Prabhu Doss Kumar,K.Kandasamy, J.Ramkumar, A.Pandiarajan and Dr.M.S.Dhennadayalan Page no 1271-1284 89. Assessment of Irrigation Water Quality of Groundwater of Sirmaur area, Rewa District, Madhya Pradesh, India - U.K. Mishra, R.N. Tiwari, A.K.Tripathi, A.K. Mishra and Raghuraj Tiwari Page no 1285-1297 90. Heavy metal analysis of groundwater samples representing Basaltic aquifer rJeerakhun, Veeraj, Nowbuth and Manta Devi Page no 1298-1316 91. Impact of hard rocks on groundwater fluoride level in parts of Pambar river sub-basin, Tamil Nadu - L.Kalpana and L.Elango Page no 1317-1349 92. Identification of seawater intrusion by geochemical signatures in North Chennai Coastal Aquifer and mitigation measures through Managed Aquifer Recharge - Indu S. Nair, S.Parimala Renganayaki and L. Elango Page no 1350-1361 93. Geochemistry and Genesis of Fluoride Contaminated Groundwater From Parts of Warora Area, Chandrapur District, Central India - A. N. Dongre, S. M. Deshpande, M. S. Dubey and G. D. Gaikwad Page no 1362-1380 94. Improved Human Health Risk Characterization for Regions with ArsenicContaminated Groundwater - Edward McBean

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Water and environment

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Fifth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2012) on the assessment and management of groundwater resources in hard rock systems with special reference to basaltic terrain. Editors: C.Mayilswami, M.Thangarajan, P.S.Kulkarni & VP. Singh

GROUNDWATER QUALITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SALINITY INTRUSION IN COCHIN AREA, KERALA
C.P.Priju *, S.G.Athira 1, T.P.Neerajamol, K.Madhavan and N.B.Narasimha Prasad Centre for Water Resources Development and Management Kunnamangalam, Kozhikode 673 571, Kerala E-mail: 1cppriju@gmail.com
1

Department of Marine Geology and Geophysics Cochin University of Science and Technology Lakeside Campus, Cochin 682 016, Kerala

ABSTRACT Hydro-geochemical characteristics of groundwater in phreatic aquifers around Cochin area, Kerala, were studied to understand the groundwater salinity and the role of anthropogenic activities on water quality. The study area covers Cochin City and adjoining townships, receives industrial effluents from FACT, HIL, IRE, TCC, CRL, Zinc and Aluminium smelting industries etc. and domestic sewerage from urban centres. Forty six dug well/filter point water samples were collected and analysed for the physico-chemical parameters viz. pH, temperature, EC, alkalinity, salinity, turbidity, TDS, chloride (Cl-), total hardness, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, SO42 and Fe2+ to understand the distribution and source of contaminants. The hydrochemical parameters were correlated and statistically evaluated from correlation coefficients, bivariate plots, cluster analysis and factor analysis. Hydro-geochemical facies and water type of the samples were identified with the help of geochemical plots such as Hill-Piper diagram, US Salinity Diagram and Pie diagram. Chemical analysis of water samples indicates, the most dominant cations are Na+ and Ca2+ and anions viz. Cl- and SO42-, followed by Mg2+ and K+. Hill-piper plots show the dominant water type is Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 hydrochemical facies followed by Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl and Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl facies. Cross-plots and correlation coefficients reveal good correlation between Cl- content with EC & Na+, and total hardness (TH) with EC, Ca2+ & Mg2+. Total dissolved solids (TDS) also has good correlation with Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl- & SO42.

Conference speaker
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INTRODUCTION The quality of groundwater is the resultant of the processes and reactions that act on the water from the moment it condensed in the atmosphere to the time it is discharged by a well or spring and vary from place to place with the depth of water table. There are many sources that contribute contaminants to the groundwater, e.g., land disposal of solid wastes, sewage disposal on land, agricultural activities, saline intrusion, urban runoff and polluted surface water. Kerala, the southernmost state of India has unique hydrogeological characteristics. Both qualitatively and quantitatively, the coastal zones of Kerala witnessed serious groundwater problems in recent years. Several studies invariably showed water quality in the aquifers situated in the coastal zones of Kerala is deteriorating alarmingly amidst plenty of water all around due to high population pressure, intense human activities, inappropriate resource use and absence of proper management practices (CWRDM, 1984, Basak and Nazimuddin, 1987, Kunhambu, 2003, Laluraj et al., 2005, CPCB, 2007). The present study attempts to illustrate the scenario of groundwater quality in Cochin area. The area is under severe stress due to large scale developmental activities and increasing rate of urbanization, leading to environmental degradation. Owing to high demand of groundwater to cater a large population in the coastal zone of Cochin, mitigation of the quality deterioration of groundwater in coastal aquifers was initiated through groundwater recharge programs. The coastal sedimentary formation serves as an excellent condition for aquifer and the average groundwater potential of this region estimated is more than 0.3 MCM/km2 (CGWB, 1992). During rainy seasons, the sea becomes rough and encroaches towards land and during summer seasons the saline water finds its way through tidal channels and mix up with shallow coastal aquifers. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has carried out hydrogeological studies and exploratory drilling of both sedimentary and hard rock areas along central Kerala. Exploration for groundwater in Ernakulam district was taken up during the years 1965-66, 1974-75, 1983-87, 1989-90, 1998-2001 and 2002. Systematic hydrogeological surveys were carried out in different parts of Ernakulam district by Najeeb and Dhinagaran (1989), Najeeb
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(2006, 2007). Detailed study of the groundwater conditions of the entire district were carried out by SIDA (Swedish International Development Agency) assisted Coastal Kerala Ground Water Project during the period 1983-88 (CGWB, 1992). CGWB studies during April 2006 revealed that the ground water quality of the shallow aquifers of Ernakulam district is generally good. The exploratory drilling data shows groundwater quality in deeper aquifers is generally good in most of the hard rock areas in the district. However, it has also revealed the presence of inland salinity in some areas namely Deshom and Sreemoolanagaram, where the Electrical Conductivity (EC) is very high (> 17,000 S/cm at 25C). Central Pollution Control Board (2007) has reported most of the wells in Cochin area are surrounded by industries and are unfit for drinking. Umadevi et al., (2010) has carried out a study in the coastal zone of Cochin and found that, in some stations the groundwater quality is poor and in rest of the stations it is satisfactory and needs attention on proper sanitation and waste disposal. Most of the studies form Cochin area report changes in quality of groundwater during different seasons (CWRDM, 1984, Laluraj et al., 2005, CPCB, 2007). Salinity is found to be increasing during post monsoon season. Sea water intrusion was also reported from Ernakulam coast (Bhosle and Kumar, 2000).

STUDY AREA The study area extends between 9.83 to 10.90 N latitude and 76.20 to 76.38 E longitude covering Cochin City and surrounding areas (Figure 1). Vembanad Lake cover major part of the study area and it is underlain by recent to sub-recent sediments. Vembanad Lake is connected to Lakshadweep Sea through a major inlet at Cochin. The area receives discharge from Periyar River in the north and Muvattupuzha River from the southern part. Chitrapuzha, a small stream flowing from the eastern part also drain into the Lake. The study area and its vicinities are conspicuous with a number of industries. A large amount of effluents comes from the industries viz., Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Ltd. (FACT), Hindustan Insecticides, Indian Rare Earths, Travancore Cochin Chemicals (TCC), Cochin Refineries Ltd. and Zinc-Alumina ore smelting (Hindustan Zinc and Indian Aluminium Company). About 260 million m3/day of effluents from these industries are liberated into the

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Cochin backwaters. During the SW monsoon season (June-September), the rainfall exceeds > 300 cm and the influx of water and sediment into the lagoon is higher, whereas in the nonmonsoon season, the river influx reduces and tidal influence gains momentum with an increase in salinity longitudinally leading to mixed type of estuarine conditions in Vembanad lake (Rasheed et al., 1995; Priju and Narayana, 2007). The estuarine water gets diluted considerably near Muvattupuzha river mouth in the south and at Periyar river mouth in the northern part during the monsoon. The salinity values range between 10 x 10-3 and 35 x 10-3 during the non-monsoon period and from 0 to 27 x 10-3 during monsoon (Balachandran, 2001). Geomorphologically the study area is characterized by various landforms viz., lagoons, barrier islands, beach ridges, paleo-strandlines, alluvial plains, marshy plains and floodplains. The major part of the study area consists of Vembanad Lake, the largest estuarine-lagoon (backwater) system on the west coast of India. A series of sand dunes oriented parallel to the general direction of the coastline hinders at places the flow of the rivers, thereby trapping sediments and enlarging the alluvial plains. The shoreline is generally straight trending - SSE with minor variations and lies as a narrow and low-lying land. Groundwater occurs in shallow aquifer condition and it dominantly consists of sandy soil with varying silt and clay content.

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Figure 1: Study area with well water sampling locations

The objective of the present study is to assess the status of groundwater quality in Cochin area. The study also focused on identifying the nature of contaminants in different parts of the study area, in view of the rapid urbanization and salinity intrusion. METHODOLOGY Water samples from 42 shallow wells and 4 filter point wells were collected during premonsoon period (Table 1). Table 1: Sampling details and observed lithology of the sample locations
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Sampl e No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Type of Well OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW FP FP OW FP OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW

Depth (mbgl) 5.5 1.5 4.8 1.9 2.6 3.6 11.2 7.4 8.0 6.4 7.9 10.7 3.6 3.2 1.9 2.4 1.9 2.6 5.6 3.8 2.7 2.8 2.2 2.7 1.1 0.8 5.9 2.2 1.6 1.8 2.3 2.0 1.9 1.7 2.2 2.2

Water table 4.4 0.9 4.1 1.1 0.8 1.2 8.5 4.5 5.0 4.4 6.1 3.0 1.8 1.6 0.8 1.4 0.6 1.5 4.2 2.5 1.0 1.8 1.4 1.7 0.7 0.3 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.4 0.7 1.2 1.6

Observed lithology Sandy clay Alluvial plain of river-clayey soil Laterite Black clayey sand Clayey sand Clayey soil Laterite Laterite Top soil (0-1m), 1-3.7m laterite followed by lithomarge clay Laterite Laterite in the top followed by weathered rock Clayey soil and alluvium Clayey soil followed by clay in the bottom. Laterite abutment Clayey sand Clayey sand Sandy soil-grey colored fine sand Grey colored fine sand with clay and iron content Sandy soil with shells (0-1 m) followed by laterite Clayey sand Clayey sand Sandy soil Clayey sand Clayey soil with shells Black sand Clayey sand Clayey soil Sandy clay Clayey sand Clayey sand Clayey sand Clayey soil Clayey soil Black colored clayey soil Riverine alluvium with black colored clayey soil Clayey sand Clayey sand Clayey sand Clayey sand Clayey sand
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40 OW 1.8 41 OW 1.6 42 OW 2.2 43 FP 44 OW 45 OW 1.6 46 OW OW: Open well, FP: Filter point

1.0 0.6 0.9 0.6 -

Clayey soil-fine clayey sand Sandy clay Clayey sand Sandy soil Clayey sand Sandy clay Sandy soil

Water sampling was carried out using stainless steel sampler. Clean pre-rinsed polyethylene plastic bottles of 1-litre capacity were used to store water samples. The bottles were properly sealed, labeled and transported to the laboratory for analysis. The pH, TDS, electrical conductivity etc of the samples was measured immediately in the field using Eutech pH meter and salinity by Salinometer. The concentration of major ions (cations and anions) was analyzed in the laboratory as per the Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water (APHA, 2005). Sodium and potassium in the water samples was analyzed using Flame photometer. Calcium and magnesium was estimated by EDTA titrimetric method, and chloride content was determined by argentometric titration using standard silver nitrate as reagent. Carbonate concentration of the water samples was determined titrimetrically. Sulphate concentration and turbidity determination were carried out following turbidity method using Nephlo Turbidity meter (Table 2). Table 2: Analytical methodology adopted for the determination of water quality (APHA, 2005) Parameter Method pH Digital pH meter Temp. Digital Multi-parameter probe Electrical conductivity Digital Multi-parameter probe Total Alkalinity Titrimetry (using HCl) Salinity Digital Multi-parameter probe Turbidity Digital Nephlo Turbidity Meter Total Dissolved Solids Digital Multi-parameter probe Cl Titration (using Silver Nitrate) Method Total Hardness, Ca2+, Mg2+ EDTA Titrimetric Method Na+, K+ Flame Photometer (SYSTRONICS Model: 1382) SO42Digital Nephlo Turbidity Meter (SYSTRONICS Model: 132)

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Fe2+

Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (M series)

Lithology of well sections and depth to water table were also recorded. It is observed that in most of the places the soil formation is clayey sand to sandy clay. In some places the aquifer is laterite with weathered crystalline basement. River alluvium, sandy soil, clayey soil and fine sand were also found in other locations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The result of physico-chemical analysis of groundwater samples from the study area is presented in Table 3. The ground elevation contours and ground water table contour diagram of the study area is shown in the Figure 2. Hydrogeochemical relationship between various physico-chemical parameters were obtained by employing statistical methods viz., piper plot, correlation coefficient and scatter diagram. Table 3: Physico-chemical parameters (range and average) of groundwater Measured parameter Temperature ( C) pH Electrical conductivity Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) Salinity (ppt) Turbidity (NTU) Alkalinity (mg CaCO3/L) Total Hardness (mg CaCO3/L) Calcium (mg/L) Magnesium (mg/L) Sodium (mg/L) Potassium (mg/L) Chloride (mg/L) Sulphate (mg/L) Iron (mg/L) ND Not Detected Ground Elevation Contours The study area covers mainly the low land coastal plain and part of lateritic mid land. The ground elevation ranges from 0.3-47 m above MSL. The elevation contour diagram of the study area was prepared from toposheet contours and SRTM data (Figure 2). The data shows Minimum 25.0 5.90 67.0 31.0 ND ND 9.0 16.0 3.0 1.0 10.0 1.0 8.0 2.0 ND Maximum 30.70 8.60 28700 2490 2.60 14.80 836 920 208 107 613 106 1465 192 0.30 Average 27.50 7.70 1405 411 0.40 0.920 176 193 53 19 86 14 161 36 0.02

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a smooth gradient in the major part of the study area, except in the eastern side adjoining midlands. In the eastern part, a maximum ground elevation of 47 m above MSL is noticed. Also a dendritic drainage pattern is noted in this part (Figures 1-2). The elevation range in the adjoining coastal plain is 0-8 m. The coastal plain part of the study area consist of various geomorphic units - palaeostrandlines, floodplains, dendritic drainage, beach ridges and swales, barrier islands, spits and bars, lagoon, tidal/mud flats and mangrove swamps etc. (Narayana and Priju, 2006). The lowland area that forms the western part comprises of backwaters, lagoons and artificial channel networks. The midland areas lying east of the low land coastal plain has natural drainages. As a whole the area has a slope downwards from east to west. Periyar River is the major river in the region that enters into the northern part of the area. Chitrapuzha is another small river found in the middle part covering Irumpanam-Kakkanad industrial belt. Few low-medium elevation mounts are observed in the eastern part of the study area. Groundwater Table Contours A water table contour map was prepared based on the standing water level measurements (for the period February-March 2011) to get an overall idea on groundwater accumulation and flow patterns. Water table contours show lower elevations in the western part in the coastal region.

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Figure 2: Contour plot of surface elevation, water table elevation and depth to water table The water table has a very low gradient in the western part and it increases towards the eastern part of the study area. Two water table mounts are found in the area; one in the Edappally-Kakkanad area in the eastern part and another in the northeastern part in Edathala. From the contour map, it can be inferred that the general groundwater movement

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is from east and northeast towards the west and southwest parts of the study area (Figure 2). Field Measured Parameters Temperature The water temperature of the samples ranged from 25-30.7C. Spatially water temperature in the wells near to the coast/coastal inlet is comparatively higher than the wells adjacent to the river mouths. Temperature plays an important factor which influences the chemical, biochemical and biological characteristics of the water body. pH pH of the water samples varied from 5.90-8.60 with average of 7.70. Most of the samples have pH within the drinking quality limit (WHO, BIS and ICMR). The spatial plot of pH shows that most part of the study area is covered with alkaline water. Alkalinity of water samples is higher in the coastal region compared to midland areas. pH is an important ecological factor that provides an important piece of information in many types of geochemical equilibrium or solubility calculations (Figure 3). Electrical Conductivity (EC) The electrical conductivity (EC) of the water samples varied from 66.80-28700 S/cm with average of 1405 S/cm. Higher EC was detected in the water samples collected from the wells near to the lake in the areas viz., Vypin, Kadamakkudi, Mulavukad, Elangunnapuzha in the northern part and Kumbalam, Marad, Trippunitura in the southern part. Electrical conductivity is a measure of the capacity of water to conduct electric current and it signifies the amount of total dissolved salts (Figure 3). Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) The TDS content in the water samples varied from 31-2490 mg/L with average of 412 mg/L. In most part of the study area the water is fresh (TDS <1000 mg/L) which is suitable for human and animal consumption. Higher TDS content was detected in the water samples from Kadamakkudi, Vallarpadam, Kumbalam and Trippunithura areas. TDS content shows an increasing trend in the wells towards the coastal plain compared to the eastern part
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adjoining midlands. TDS content is generally affected by topography, lithology, burial conditions, groundwater recharge, runoff and discharge conditions as well as human activities. According to the level of TDS, groundwater can be divided into fresh groundwater (TDS < 1000 mg/L), moderately salty water (1000 < TDS < 3000 mg/L) and salty water (TDS > 3000 mg/L). Water containing more than 500 mg/L of TDS is not desirable for drinking water supplies, but in unavoidable cases 1500 mg/L is also allowed (Figure 3). Overall in the water samples (46 nos.), the range in TDS are 12 samples (0-100 mg/L), 13 samples (100-250 mg/L), 10 samples (250-500 mg/L), 7 samples (500-1500 mg/L) and 4 samples (>1500 mg/L).

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Figure 3: Field measured water quality parameters (pH, EC, TDS and Salinity) Salinity The salinity of the water samples ranged from 0-2.60 ppt with average of 0.40 ppt. Salinity of the well water samples is found to be increasing towards the western and southern parts of the study area. Higher salinity (>1.0 ppt) was observed in Kadamakkudi, Vallarpadam, Kumbalam, Marad and Trippunithura areas compared to the eastern parts. The groundwater salinity is of two types - coastal salinity due to sea water ingress and inland salinity due to processes other than the sea water ingress. The presence of high salt content may render water unsuitable for domestic, agricultural or industrial use (Figure 3). Laboratory analysis of water samples The result of chemical analysis of groundwater samples is presented in the Table 3. The parameters analyzed are major ions - cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+) and anions (HCO3-, CO32-, SO42- and Cl-), Total Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Fe2+ and Turbidity. Major Ions

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The concentration of the major ions in the water samples is shown in the Table 3. The ion balance calculated is found within 10.0%. The results show that Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 type hydrochemical facies is dominant with the major ions as Na+, Ca2+ and Cl-. All the wells are tapping groundwater from the shallow aquifers and there is more heterogeneity in the major ion composition in the water samples. Thirty different hydrochemical facies are identified among the water samples (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Hill-Piper plot of groundwater samples Total Alkalinity (TA) The total alkalinity of water samples range from 8.80-836 mg/L. Higher alkalinity (TA) is noted in the southern (Trippunithura and Maradu) and northern (Varapuzha and Kadamakkudi) part of the study area (Figure 5).

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Figure 5: Contour plot of major ions (TA,TH,Ca2+,Mg2+,Na+ and K+) in the water samples The cause of alkalinity is the minerals which dissolve in water from soil and the alkalinity values in water provide an idea of natural salts present. Alkalinity of water is its capacity to neutralize a strong acid and it is normally due to the presence of bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide compound of calcium, sodium and potassium. Total Hardness (TH) The hardness (TH) of the well water samples ranged from 16-920 mg CaCO3/L with an average of 193 mg CaCO3/L. The results show that in most parts of the study area, groundwater is fresh with TDS <1000 mg/L (Figure 5). Hardness is the property of water which prevents the lather formation with soap and increases the boiling point of water. Hardness of water mainly depends upon the amount of calcium or magnesium salts or both. According to the grading standards of TH (as CaCO3), groundwater can be divided into soft water (TH<150 mg/L), moderately hard water (150<TH<300 mg/L), hard water (300<TH<450 mg/L) and extremely hard water (TH>450 mg/L). Cations Calcium (Ca2+) and Magnesium (Mg2+) Calcium content in the water samples ranged between 3.20-208 mg/L (average 52.70 mg/L) and is within the permissible limit in most of the samples (WHO, 1995). Magnesium content in the water samples ranged between 0.97-106.9 mg/L (average 18.60 mg/L). Calcium content is higher in Kadamakkudi, Kumbalam areas and magnesium content is higher in Kadamakkudi, Vypin, Vallarpadam and Fort Cochin areas (Figure 5). The Mg2+ content in water is generally affected by low levels of dissolved oxygen. In anaerobic waters the Mg 2+ content is usually higher in comparison with aerobic waters (Langmuir, 1997). Sodium (Na+) Sodium content in the water samples ranged from 9.50-613 mg/L with average of 85.9 mg/L. High Na+ content were observed in the well water samples from Trippunitura, Marad, Kadamakkudi, Kumbalam, Vallarpadam areas (Figure 5). The permissible limit (WHO) of Na+
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in drinking water is 200.0 mg/L (Goel and Sharma, 1996). Sodium is the most abundant cation in seawater and its concentration generally increases towards the coast. Potassium (K+) Potassium content in the water samples varied from 1.20-106 mg/L with an average of 13.70 mg/L. Potassium content is higher in the water samples from Trippunitura, Marad, Kadamakkudi, Kumbalam compared to other parts in the study area (Figure 5). The major source of potassium in natural fresh water is weathering of rocks but the quantities increase in the polluted water due to disposal of waste water. Anions Chloride (Cl-) The Cl- values in the water samples ranged from 8.10-1465 mg/L with an average of 161 mg/L. The Cl- content in most of the water samples are within the desirable limit as per BIS (< 250.0 mg/L). The Cl- content is less in the region of higher topographic elevation than in the surrounding coastal areas indicating groundwater composition in alluvial aquifers are largely influenced by seawater intrusion, the main source of chloride. Chloride (Cl-) content is higher in water samples collected from Trippunitura, Marad, Kumbalam, Vallarpadam areas (Figure 6). Out of the total number of samples (46 nos.), Cl- is 0-100 mg/L in 31 samples,100-250 mg/L in 10 samples, 250-1000 mg/L in 4 samples and >1000 mg/L in one sample. Higher chloride content in the water samples is mostly indicative of groundwater salinization caused by seawater intrusion. Chloride content in the waters serves as an indicator of sewerage pollution. People accustomed to higher chloride content in drinking water are subjected to laxative effects. Sulphate (SO4 2- ) The SO42- content in the water samples varied from 2.40-192 mg/L, with an average of 36 mg/L. Higher SO42- content was found in the samples from Varapuzha, Vallarpadam, Kumbalam and Marad areas. Generally SO42- content is lesser in the areas with higher elevation (Figure 6). Sulphate occurs naturally in waters as a result of leaching from gypsum

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and other common minerals. Discharge of industrial wastes and domestic sewerage tends to increase the SO42- concentration. Iron sulphides are present in sedimentary rocks from which they can be oxidized to sulphate in humid climates; the latter may then leach into watercourses so that groundwater is often excessively high in sulphate. The utility of water for domestic purposes is severely limited by high sulphate concentrations (> 250 mg/L). Iron (Fe2+) Iron (Fe2+) was detected in few samples (10 out of 46) and is at low concentration. The iron content ranged between 0-0.30 mg/L. Higher Fe2+ content was noted in Kadamakkudi, Varapuzha, Edavanakkad and Marad areas (Figure 6). The concentration of iron in natural water is controlled by both physico-chemical and microbiological factors. Iron is an essential element in both plant and animal metabolism. An additional factor involved in the mobility of iron in ground water is the presence of bacteria. The Fe2+ values obtained for the water samples are within the desirable limit (BIS, 1993).

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Figure 6: Contour plot of major ions (anions), Fe2+ and turbidity in the groundwater samples

Turbidity The turbidity level in the well water samples ranged from 0-14.80 NTU (av. 0.90 NTU). Turbidity levels are higher in Marad, Elamkulam, Trippunitura, Fort Kochi areas in the southern part as well as in Varapuzha, Edavanakkad areas in the northern part (Figure 6). In most of the water samples, higher turbidity levels are due to colloidal and extremely fine dispersions. Hill-Piper plot and Ground water type The Hill-Piper diagram is used to infer hydro-geochemical facies. The concept of hydrochemical facies was developed in order to understand and identify the water composition in different classes. A trilinear diagram was created to classify the groundwater from different parts of the study area and to reveal any groupings, similarities or trends of the samples. The HCO3-Cl-SO4 anion triangle plotted show groundwater samples have bicarbonate and chloride type end members and sulphate is not present in significant proportion. The Ca-Mg-Na cation triangle show that the major cations present in the sample are Ca and Na. Ten water samples are Ca dominant, 18 of them are Na dominant, 3 are Mg dominant and 15 samples are of mixed type. The two triangles projected onto the main

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diamond field account for a number of hydrochemical groupings (Figure 4). It shows that alkaline earths (Ca+Mg) exceed alkalies (Na+K) and weak acids (SO4+Cl) exceed strong acids (HCO3+CO3). Different water types obtained is shown in the Table 4. Overall 30 groundwater types are seen from the study area. The dominant hydrochemical facies (7 samples out of 46 samples) is Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 followed by Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl and Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl. Spatially NaCa-Cl-HCO3 facies is distributed in the western part of the study area adjoining Vembanad Lake and sea. Bicarbonates dominate in the eastern part of the study area. Table 4: Hydrochemical facies of groundwater samples collected from Cochin area Sample No. Water Type Sample No. Water Type 1 Ca-Mg-Na-Cl 24 Mg-Ca-Cl-HCO3 2 Mg-Ca-Na-HCO3 25 Ca-Cl-HCO3 3 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 26 Ca-Mg-HCO3 4 Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3 27 Ca-Na-HCO3 5 Mg-Na-Cl-HCO3 28 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 6 Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl 29 Ca-Cl 7 Na-Ca-Mg-Cl-HCO3 30 Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl 8 Mg-Na-Cl 31 Na-Ca-HCO3 9 Na-HCO3-Cl 32 Ca-SO4-HCO3 10 Na-Cl 33 Ca-Na-SO4-Cl-HCO3 11 Na-Ca-HCO3-Cl-SO4 34 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl 12 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 35 Ca-Mg-Na-Cl 13 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 36 Na-Cl-HCO3 14 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 37 Na 15 Na-Ca-Cl 38 Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3-Cl 16 Ca-HCO3-Cl 39 Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4 17 Ca-HCO3-Cl 40 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 18 Ca-HCO3 41 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 19 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl-SO4 42 Na-Cl 20 Ca-Na-HCO3 43 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 21 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl 44 Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl 22 Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 45 Na-Ca-CO3-Cl 23 Mg-HCO3-Cl 46 Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3

Hydro-geochemical relationships

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Correlation coefficient The correlation between various hydrogeochemical parameters are obtained from the correlation coefficients (Table 5). The results show a very good correlation (0.619-0.916) between TDS and TA, TH, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl-, SO42-. Good correlation (0.410-0.749) is seen between TA and TH, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl- as well as TH and calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulphate and iron (0.402-0.852). Ca2+ also shows good correlation (0.523-0.745) with sodium, potassium, chloride and sulphate. Mg2+ show good correlation (0.403-0.461) between sodium, chloride and iron. Na + and K+, Cl-, SO42- also shows a very good correlation (0.471-0.854). Good correlation is also noted between K+ & Cl(0.611) and Cl- & SO42- (0.435). Correlation coefficients reveal various interrelationships among cations, anions, alkalinity and total hardness in the groundwater samples. Bivariate plots Scatter plot of the water table elevation vs. chloride concentration shows an inverse correlation (r2=-0.38). i.e., as the water table elevation decreases, the chloride concentration increases (Figure 7). A positive correlation is seen between hardness (TH) vs. Calcium (r2=0.77), Magnesium (r2=0.69) and Electrical Conductivity (r2=0.64). Positive correlation is also seen between Conductivity (EC) vs. Chloride (r2=0.68) and Sodium vs. Chloride (r2=0.63). The ratio of Sodium and Chloride (Na+/Cl-) plotted against log EC shows an inverse correlation (r2=-0.23). US Salinity Diagram The US Salinity diagram (specific conductance vs. sodium-adsorption ratio) shows that majority of the water samples have medium-high salinity hazard (Figure 8). Among forty four samples, 13 samples is of low salinity hazard, 19 samples show medium salinity hazard, 8 samples are of high salinity hazard and four samples are in the category of very high salinity hazard. Three of the samples come under the category medium sodium (alkali) hazard. Pie Diagram

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Pie diagram was plotted with the cations in the upper half and anions are in the lower half of the circle, each taken as 100%. The circular plots (pie diagram) show that Ca2+ is the dominant cation and HCO3- is the dominant anion among the water samples collected. Among the 46 samples analysed Ca2+ is dominant cation in 24 samples, Na+ dominant in 18 samples and Mg2+ dominant in 4 samples. Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is the dominant anion in 26 samples, Cl- dominant in 18 samples and SO4- dominant in two samples.

Table 5: Correlation coefficient between different hydro-geochemical parameters (N=46) 2 4 Elev pH Tem EC TDS Tur Sal TA TH Ca2+ Mg Na+ K+ Cl- SO + 2p b. Elev 1.0 pH - 1.0 Tem 0.1 0.0 1.00 EC 0.0 0.1 0.04 1.0 TDS - 0.1 - 0.2 1.0 Tur - 0.0 - 0.0 1.0 Sal - 0.0 - 0.0 0.2 0.6 1.0 TA - 0.1 0.16 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 1.0 TH - 0.2 0.04 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.7 1.0 Ca2+ - 0.1 0.09 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.2 0.7 0.8 1.0 2 Mg - 0.2 - 0.1 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.3 1.0 + + Na - 0.00 0.2 0.9 - 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 1.0 + K - 0.0 0.09 0.2 0.7 - 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.8 1.0 Cl - 0.0 - 0.1 0.8 - 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.6 1.0 SO4 0.0 0.0 - 0.1 0.5 - 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 1.0 2- 2+ Fe 0.0 0.0 - 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1

Fe2
+

1.0

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Figure 7: Bivariate plot showing interrelationship among various hydrochemical parameters

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Figure 8: US Salinity diagram of the water samples CONCLUSION The study is an attempt to find groundwater quality of Cochin area during pre-monsoon season (2011). The study also aimed at assessing drinking water quality status of well samples in different parts of the study area in view of rapid urbanization around Cochin. The study area cover major part of Ernakulam district in central Kerala coast, extending from Kalamassery in the north to Trippunitura-Maradu areas in the south (9.83-10.90 N latitude and 76.20-76.38 E longitude). Cochin area has high population density and recent trend in urban growth has increased the demand for freshwater manifold. Geomorphologically, the area is covered with extensive backwaters/lagoon system and dynamic barrier-island

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complexes with ridge-swale topography. This forms an ideal condition for the study of coastal aquifer system with respect to saline intrusion. The area is influenced by diurnal and seasonal ebb-flood tidal flow, receives run-off from major rivers like Periyar and Muvattupuzha in different seasons is found vulnerable to saline water ingress. The surface elevation model shows a smooth gradient in the majority of the study area, except in the eastern part adjoining the midlands. An elevation of 47 m above MSL is noted in the eastern part and it ranges from 0-8 m above MSL in the coastal plain areas. A water table contour map was prepared based on standing water level measurements (FebruaryMarch 2011) gives an overall idea on groundwater flow pattern. Water table is at a lower elevation in the western part of the coastal plain. The water table has a lower gradient in the western part and it generally increases towards eastern part of the study area. The temperature of well water samples ranged from 25-30.7C. The pH of the samples varied from 5.90-8.60 (av. 7.70). Most of the samples were found within the permissible limit (WHO, BIS and ICMR). The electrical conductivity of the samples varies between 66.80-28700 S/cm (av.1405 S/cm). The TDS level in the water samples ranged from 31-2490 mg/L (av. 412 mg/L). The salinity of the water samples ranged from 0-2.60 ppt (av. 0.4 ppt). TDS levels indicate that majority of the samples (25 samples) are within safe limit (250 mg/L) and rest within 500 mg/L (10 samples) and > 500 mg/L (11 samples).

Different water types were obtained from Hill-Piper plots of hydrochemical data. The major ions concentration in the study area shows Na-Ca-Cl-HCO3 type is dominated and the major ions are Na+, Ca2+ and Cl-. All the wells are tapping groundwater from shallow aquifers, thus there is more heterogeneity in the major ion concentration of water samples. From hydrochemical facies diagram, 30 different water types were identified from the area (out of 46 samples).

Total alkalinity (TA) in the water samples ranged from 8.8-836 mg/L is found within permissible limit. Total hardness (TH) of the water samples ranged from 16-920 mg CaCO3/L (av.193 mg CaCO3/L). Turbidity and iron content (Fe2+) is reported only in few samples. The

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turbidity level of the water samples ranged from 0-14.8 NTU (av. 0.9 NTU). The chloride (Cl-) content in majority of the water samples (31 samples) are within 100 mg/L, 10 samples in 100-250 mg/L and 5 samples above 250 mg/L. The hydro-geochemical relationship of the samples was obtained from correlation coefficients and bivariate plots. Bivariate plots show good positive correlation between chloride vs. electrical conductivity, sodium vs. chloride, EC vs. total hardness, total hardness vs. calcium & magnesium. Chloride content vs. water level elevation is inversely correlated. Correlation coefficients among various hydro-geochemical parameters show

interrelationships between TDS, TA, TH and major ions. The US Salinity diagram indicates that majority of the water samples is under medium-high salinity hazard. The circular plots (pie diagram) show that Ca2+ is the dominant cation and HCO3- is the dominant anion species in the water samples. ACKNOWLEDEMENTS Authors thank Executive Director, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) for the permission and extending support for publishing this work. This paper form part of the Plan N-40 project of CWRDM sanctioned under Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) funding. Authors thank Dr. P.S.Harikumar, Head, Water Quality Division, CWRDM for extending the facility in analyzing the water samples. One of the authors (CPP) thanks Department of Science and Technology, Government of India for the funding under a research project (No.SR/FTP/ES-43/2007), some of the samples collected in the program was used in this work. REFERENCES APHA (2005). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 21st Edition, American Public Health Association, Washington DC. Balachandran, K.K (2001). Chemical oceanographic studies of the coastal waters of Cochin. Ph.D thesis, CUSAT, Cochin.148p. Basak, P., and Nazimuddin, M. (1987). Seawater Intrusion in coastal unconfined aquifers of the southwestern peninsula-A case study. Jal Vegan Sameeksha, 2 (1), 72-80. Bhosle, D.D., and Kumar, C.P. (2000). Simulation of Seawater Intrusion of Cochin Coast (Ernakulam District). M.Tech. Dissertation, Centre for Environmental Studies, Department

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