Project Report On

DETAILED STUDY AND EXECUTION WORK IN POST TENSION SLABS

A project report submitted in the partial fulfilment of Requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology In Civil Engineering (2011-12) By DIVYA KAMATH KASIREDDY VANDANA REDDY (08241A0113) (08241A0155)

Under the esteemed guidance of Mr. K. Suresh Reddy Managing Director Crux Prestressing Systems Pvt.Ltd. (External Guide) Mr. B.H. Mahesh Chandrakanth Assistant professor Department of Civil Engineering

Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology (Affiliated to JNTU), Bachupally, Nizampet Road,Hyderabad-90.

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY HYDERABAD

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the dissertation entitled DETAILED STUDY AND EXECUTION WORK IN POST TENSIONED SLABS is a bonafide project work done under the guidance of Mr. K. SURESH REDDY (MANAGING DIRECTOR, CRUX PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS PVT.LTD.) and Mr. B.H.MAHESH CHANDRAKANTH (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, GRIET.) GRIET, Hyderabad. Project by DIVYA KAMATH (08241A0113)

K.VANDANA REDDY (08241A0155)

Prof. Dr. G. Venkata Ramana HOD, Civil Engineering

Dr. J.N. Murthy Principal, GRIET

B.H. Mahesh Chandrakanth Internal guide, Civil Engineering

STUDENT DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled "Detailed Study and Execution work in Post Tensioned Slabs" is the work done by us during the academic year 2011-2012 with Crux Prestressing Systems Pvt. Ltd. The site is situated at Kothaguda Village nearby hi-Tech city. The building proposed is on a site with an area of 70,500 sq ft. and is a 2 basement + G + 5. This was taken up by Crux Prestressing Systems Pvt. Ltd. for Ektha builders. The name of the building is Ektha Pearl and it is a Commercial Complex. This project report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) in CIVIL ENGINEERING from Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology, affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad.

DIVYA KAMATH (08241A0113) K.VANDANA REDDY (08241A0155)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Salutations to our beloved and highly esteemed institute "Gokaraju Rangaraju Institution of Engineering and Technology" for having well qualified staff and labs furnished with necessary equipment and computers. First of all we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude towards Our Principal, Dr. Jandhyala.N.Murthy and Head of the Department, Civil Engineering Dr. G. Venkata Ramana, for giving us the opportunity to do an industry oriented project work. We would also like to thank Mr. K. Suresh reddy, Managing Director, CRUX Prestressing Pvt. Ltd. who has given us the opportunity to work in his company. We are very grateful to Mr. T. Anil Kumar, Senior Consultant Engineer at CRUX Prestressing Pvt.ltd. who has guided and explained every detail concerned with the execution work at the project site. Finally, we would like to thank our project guide, Mr.B.H.Mahesh Chandrakanth, Asst.Professor, Department of Civil Engineering at Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute Of Engineerinng And Technology for always being available when we required his guidance as well as for motivating us throughout the project work. Special thanks all our friends for their help and constructive criticism during our project period for always being available and guiding us throughout the project.

DIVYA KAMATH (08241A0113) K. VANDANA REDDY (08241A0155)

Abstract
Post-Tensioning is a method of reinforcing concrete, masonry and other structural elements. Post-Tensioning is a method of pre-stressing. Pre-stressed concrete or masonry has internal stresses (forces) induced into it during the construction phase for the purpose of counteracting the anticipated external loads that it will encounter during its lifecycle. Post-Tensioned reinforcing consists of very high strength steel strands or bars. Typically, strands are used in horizontal applications like foundations, slabs, beams, and bridges; and bars are used in vertical applications like walls and columns. A typical steel strand used for post-tensioning has a tensile strength of 1860 N/mm2. In comparison, a typical non-pre-stressed piece of reinforcing bar (rebar) normally has a tensile strength of about 600 N/mm2. In this project, we have seen and studied thoroughly some works on the site related to post tensioned slabs. The various sizes of tendons available, which are the materials imparting prestress to the structure were studied thoroughly. We have also understood and performed building column line staking on site. We have visited the site and taken part in the execution work under the structural engineer in-charge. The unbonded tendons are typically prefabricated at a plant and delivered to the construction site, ready to install. The tendons are laid out in the forms in accordance with installation drawings that indicate how they are to be spaced, what their profile (height above the form) should be and where they are to be stressed. After the concrete is placed( from the RMC trucks) and has reached its required strength, usually about 75% of its final strength, then the prestressing process begins. The concrete grade that was used was M35 and hence, after 7 days when it achieved the strength of 25 N/mm2, prestressing was achieved through Prestressing powerpack using a mono strand stressing jack. The principle is that when the tendons are stretched, want to return to their original length but are prevented from doing so by the anchorages. The fact that the tendons are kept in a permanently stressed (elongated) state causes a compressive force to act on the concrete. The compression that results from the post tensioning counteracts the tensile forces created by the prestress applied. This significantly increases the load-carrying capacity of the concrete.

Since post-tensioned concrete is cast in place at the job site, there is almost no limit to the shapes that can be formed. Curved facades, arches and complicated slab edge layouts are often a trademark of post-tensioned concrete structures. Post tensioning is only advancing more and more with increasing innovation of creative and environment friendly materials. An important aspect to be kept in mind is the sustainability. Post tensioned concrete has a large number of advantages when compared to conventional RCC construction, one of the most important being the reduction in self weight and overall reduction in the requirement of materials. It is of course mandatory to use high quality materials which should be able to withstand the prestress. However, one thing is for certain. Post tensioned concrete is going to serve the building community for many more years to come given the numerous advantages it bears.

NOTATIONS fcr = flexural tensile strength of the concrete. fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2 fc = compressive stress c = compressive strain o = strain corresponding to fck cu = ultimate compressive strain Ec = elastic modulus cr,ult = ultimate creep strain = creep coefficient l = elastic strain sh = ultimate shrinkage strain s = distance between points of inflection a = drape of tendon measured at centre of profile between points of inflection. Pav = average prestressing force in tendon Zt = the top section modulus Zb = the bottom section modulus M = the total out of balance moment ft = Top fibre stress fb = Bottom fibre stress E = eccentricity of tendons, taken as positive below the neutral axis

Ma = applied moment due to dead and live loads Ms = moment from prestress secondary effects Vc = shear resistance b = width of the section d = effective depth of tension reinforcement or tendons bv = breadth of member for T I L beams the breadth of the rib As = area of shear reinforcement Aps = area of prestressing tendons Mo = moment necessary to produce zero stress in the concrete at the extreme tension fibre P = the total prestress force over the panel width after all losses Ac = concrete section area across the full panel width Zt = section modulus for the top fibre over the width of the side of the critical perimeter P = the total prestress force for all tendons passing through the side of the critical perimeter e = eccentricity of the prestress force

S.No 1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11

Contents Introduction History Types of prestress Important terminology Applications Materials used in Prestressing Post Tensioning Systems Devices Structural Behaviour Structural form Losses in prestress Construction of prestressed Concrete Structures

Page No.

1.12

Maintenance and rehabilitation of Prestressed Structures

2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

Site Inspection Initial Assessment Soil Testing Acquiring of raw materials Modes of Transport

3 3.1 3.2 3.3 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

Preliminary Works at Site Material procuring Site cleaning Building column line staking The Design Process Introduction Basic analysis Structural Layout Loading Equivalent Frame Analysis Tendon Profile and Balance load Flexural section design Execution Materials Machinery used Anchorage markings Laying of tendons Concrete pouring Prestressing Grouting

6 7

CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY

DETAILED STUDY AND EXECUTION WORK IN POST TENSIONED SLABS

1.INTRODUCTION

The present report is based on the project work on Detailed study and Execution work in post Tensioned Slabs. The site was a commercial complex at Kothaguda Village nearby Hi-Tech city. The building proposed is on a site with an area of 70,500 sq ft. and is a 2 basement + G + 5 building. This was taken up by the pioneer company Crux Prestressing Systems Pvt. Ltd. for Ektha builders. The name of the building is Ektha Pearl. Prestressed concrete is basically concrete in which internal stresses of a suitable magnitude and distribution are introduced so that the stresses resulting from external loads are counteracted to a desired degree. In Reinforced Concrete members, the prestress is commonly introduced by tensioning the steel reinforcement. The earliest examples of wooden barrel construction by force fitting of metal bands and shrink fitting of metal tyres on wooden wheels indicate that the art of prestressing has been practiced from ancient times. The tensile strength of plain concrete is only a fraction of its compressive strength and the problem of it being deficient in tensile strength appears to have been the driving factor in the development of the composite material known as Reinforced Concrete. The development of early cracks in reinforced concrete due to incompatibility in the strains of steel and concrete was perhaps the starting point in the development of a new material like prestressed concrete. The application of permanent compressive stress to a material like concrete, which is strong in compression but weak in tension, increases the apparent tensile strength of that material, because the subsequent application of tensile stress must first nullify the compressive prestress. 1.1 History In 1904, Freyssinet attempted to introduce permanently acting forces in concrete to resist the elastic forces developed under loads and this idea was later developed under the name of prestressing. In 1886, Jackson of San Fransisco applies for a patent for construction of artificial stone and concrete pavements, in which prestress was introduced by tensioning the reinforcing rods set in sleeves. Dohring of Germany manufactured slabs and small beams using embedded tensioned wires in concrete to avoid cracks. However, the idea of prestressing to

counteract the stresses due to loads was first put forward by Mandl in 1896. Later on, the importance of losses in prestressing due to Shrinkage of concrete was recognized. The use of unbounded tendons was first demonstrated by Dischinger in 1928, in the construction of a major bridge of the deep girder type, in which prestressing wires were placed inside the girder without any bond. Losses of prestress were compensated by the subsequent re-tensioning of the wires. Other advancements like development of vibration techniques for the production of high strength concrete and the invention of the double-acting jack for stressing high tensile steel wires are considered to be the most significant contributions. 1.2 Types of prestressing 1) Pre tensioning: A method of prestressing concrete in which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. In this method, the prestress is imparted to concrete by bond between steel and concrete. The concrete is cast around already tensioned tendons. This method produces a good bond between the tendon and the concrete, which both protects the tendon from corrosion and allows for direct transfer of tension. The cured concrete adheres and bonds to the bars and when the tension is released, it is transferred to the concrete as compression by static friction. However, it requires stout anchoring points between which the tendon is to be stretched and the tendons are usually in a straight line. Thus, most pretensioned concrete elements are prefabricated in a factory and must be transported to the construction site, which limits their size. Pre-tensioned elements are mostly balcony elements, lintels, floor slabs, beams or foundation piles. An innovative bridge construction method using prestressing is the stressed ribbon bridge design 2) Post tensioning: It is a method of prestressing concrete by tensioning the tendons against hardened concrete. In this method, the prestress is imparted to concrete by bearing. Post tensioned concrete may be either bonded or un-bonded. Bonded post tensioned concrete: The term used for a method of applying compression after pouring concrete and the curing process. The concrete is cast around plastic, steel or aluminum curved duct to

follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the concrete element. A set of tendons are fished through the duct to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the concrete element, and then concrete is poured. Once the concrete is hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react (push) against the concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to the designed specifications, they are wedged in position and maintain tension after the jack is removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the tendons from corrosion. The method is commonly used to create monolithic slabs for house construction in locations where expansive soils (such as adobe clay) create problems for the typical perimeter foundation. All stresses from seasonal expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are taken into the entire tensioned slab, which supports the building without supports the building without significant flexure. Post tensioning is also used in the construction of various bridges, both after concrete is cured, support by false work and by the assembly of prefabricated sections. Advantages Large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements such as tendons cannot distress in accidents. Tendons can be easily woven allowing a more efficient design approach. Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete. No long term issues in maintaining the integrity of the anchor end.

Un Bonded post tensioned concrete: It differs from bonded post tensioning by providing each individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual tendon is coated with grease (generally lithium base) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of the slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post tensioning is the fact that a cable can distress itself and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab).

The advantages are: The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field conditions (For ex: shifting a group of four cables around an opening by placing two to either side.) The procedure of post stress grouting is eliminated. The ability to distress the tendons before attempting repair work.

1.3 Important Terminology 1) Tendon: A stretched element used in a concrete member of structure to impart prestress to the concrete. Generally, high tensile steel wires, bars, cables or strands are used as tendons. 2) Anchorage: A device generally used to enable the tendon to impart and maintain prestress in the concrete. The commonly used anchorages are the Freyssinet (widely used in India), Magnel Blaton, Gifford-Udall. 3) Partial prestressing: The degree of prestress applied to concrete in which tensile stresses to a limited degree are permitted in concrete under working loads. In this case, in addition to tensioned steel, a considerable proportion of untensioned reinforcement is generally used to limit the width of cracks developed under service loads. 4) Transfer: This stage corresponding to the transfer of prestress to concrete. For post tensioned members, it takes place after the completion of the tensioning process. 5) Supplementary or untensioned reinforcement: It is the Reinforcement in prestressed members not tensioned with respect to the surrounding concrete before the application of loads. These are generally used in partially stressed members. 6) Transmission length: It is the length of bond anchorage of the prestressing wire from the end of a pre-tensioned member to the point of full steel stress. 7) Cracking load: The load on the structural element corresponding to the first visible crack. 8) Creep in concrete: Progressive increase in the elastic deformation of concrete under sustained stress component. 9) Shrinkage of concrete: Contraction of concrete on drying. 10) Relaxation in steel: Decrease of stress in steel at constant strain. 11) Proof stress: The tensile stress in steel which produces a residual strain of 0.2 per cent of the original gauge length on unloading.

12) Creep Co-efficient: The ratio of the total creep strain to elastic strain in concrete. 13) Cap cable: A short curved tendon arranged at the interior supports of a continuous beam. The anchors are the compression zone; cable is the curved portion is in the tensile zone.

1.4 Applications The use of prestressed concrete has revolutionized the entire building industry in the erstwhile U.S.S.R., U.S.A, U.K, Japan and the Continent. Prestressed concrete building components comprising hollow cored and ribbed slabs are widely used in the erstwhile Russia. Single and double tee units and channel sections are popular in the U.S.A. for the construction of floors in buildings. Prestressed concrete is ideally suited for long-span bridge construction. A typical twin-box girder bridge under construction, using the segmentally cast cantilever method

Fig1.CN,Toronto,CanadaWorlds tallestPrestressedbuildingwhichis 553mtall

Fig2.GangaBridge,Patna.Lengthof 5575metresandconsistsofspansof 121.65mlongprestressedconcrete Griders

The present trend is to adopt prestressed concrete for long span cable-stayed bridge of 365 m
Tower main span, constructed at Tampa Bay, Florida, U.S.A. The longest precast prestressed

concrete cable-stayed box girder, the chaco-Corrientes bridge was constructed in Argentina, South America. Typical use of prestressed concrete simple-span box girders for the Bay area

rapid-transit system is displayed in bridge in San Fransisco, California. Prestressed concrete has found extensive applications in the construction of long-span folded plate roofs, aircraft hangers, nuclear containment vessels, pavements, rail road sleepers, poles, piles, television towers and masts. Notable examples of prestressed concrete structures in India The Lubha Bridge, the nations longest single-span 172 m long prestressed concrete boxgirder type continuous bridge built across a 30m deep gorge of the Lubha river in Assam. Ball tank, Trombay, Maharashtra, consisting of a prestressed concrete, tank of 4 million litre capacity for the department of atomic energy. Ganga bridge at Patna, the longest prestressed concrete bridge in the world has a length of 5575 m consisting of continuous spans of 121.65 m long prestressed concrete girders of variable depth.

1.5 Materials used in prestressing Materials used in prestressing are 1) High strength concrete 2) High tensile steel Constituents of concrete:Concrete is a composite material composed of gravels or crushed stones (coarse aggregate), sand (fine aggregate) and hydrated cement (binder). Properties of Hardened Concrete: The concrete in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes:1) High strength with low water-to-cement ratio 2) Durability with low permeability, minimum cement content and proper mixing, compaction and curing. 3) Minimum shrinkage and creep by limiting the cement content.

Strength of Concrete:For prestressed concrete applications, high strength concrete is required for the following reasons:1) To sustain the high stresses at anchorage regions. 2) To have higher resistance in compression, tension, shear and bond. 3) To have higher stiffness for reduced deflection. 4) To have reduced shrinkage cracks. Compressive strength: The minimum grades of concrete for prestressed applications are as follows: 35 MPa for post-tensioned members 40 MPa for pre-tensioned members. The maximum grade of concrete is 60 MPa. Tensile strength :The tensile strength of concrete can be expressed as follows:1) Flexural tensile strength: It is measured by testing beams under 2 point loading (also called 4 point loading including the reactions). 2) Splitting tensile strength: It is measured by testing cylinders under diametrical compression. 3) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular specimens under direct tension. fcr = 0.7(fck) where, fcr= flexural tensile strength of the concrete. fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes in N/mm2

1.5.1 High Performance Concrete With the advancement of concrete technology, high performance concrete is getting popular in prestressed applications. The attributes of high performance concrete are as follows:1) High strength 2) Minimum shrinkage and creep 3) High durability 4) Easy to cast 5) Cost effective. Traditionally high performance concrete implied high strength concrete with high cement content and low water-to-cement ratio. But higher cement content leads to autogenous and plastic shrinkage cracking and thermal cracking. At present durability is also given importance along with strength. Some special types of high performance concrete are as follows:1) High strength concrete 2) High workability concrete 3) Self-compacting concrete 4) Reactive powder concrete 5) High volume fly ash concrete 6) Fibre reinforced concrete In a post-tensioned member, the concrete next to the anchorage blocks (referred to as end block) is subjected to high stress concentration. The type of concrete at the end blocks may be different

from that at the rest of the member. Fibre reinforced concrete is used to check the cracking due to the bursting forces. Allowable Compressive Stresses under Direct Compression:For direct compression, except in the parts immediately behind the anchorage, the maximum strain is equal to 0.8 times the maximum compressive stress under flexure. Allowable Tensile Stresses under Flexure:The prestressed members are classified into three different types based on amount of prestressing:

Type -1 : No tensile stress Type - 2 : 3 N/mm2 to 4.5 N/mm2 Type - 3 : hypothetical values

Stress-strain Curves for Concrete:Curve under uniaxial compression The stress versus strain behavior of concrete under uniaxial compression is initially linear (stress is proportional to strain) and elastic (strain is recovered at unloading). With the generation of micro cracks, the behavior becomes nonlinear and inelastic. After the specimen reaches the peak stress, the resisting stress decreases with the increase in strain

Fig3.ConcreteCubeunder straincurve Compressionandstress underflexure

The equation for the design curve under compression due to flexure is as follows:For c o fc = fck(2(c/o) (c/o)2 For c<o cu fc = fck where, fc = compressive stress fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes c = compressive strain o = strain corresponding to fck= 0.002 cu = ultimate compressive strain = 0.0035 For concrete under compression due to axial load, the ultimate strain is restricted to 0.002. From the characteristic curve, the design curve is defined by multiplying the stress with a size factor of 0.67 and dividing the stress by a material safety factor of m = 1.5. In the calculation of deflection at service loads, a linear stress-strain curve is assumed up to the allowable stress. This curve is given by the following equation. Fc = Ecc Note that, the size factor and the material safety factor are not used in the elastic modulus Ec. For high strength concrete (say M100 grade of concrete and above) under uniaxial compression, the ascending and descending branches are steep.

Fig4.StressStraincurveunderCompression

Curve under uniaxial tension: The stress versus strain behavior of concrete under uniaxial tension is linear elastic initially. Close to cracking nonlinear behavior is observed.

Fig5.ConcreteundertensionandStressstraincurveforconcreteundertension

In calculation of deflections of flexural members at service loads, the nonlinearity is neglected and a linear elastic behavior fc = Ecc is assumed. In the analysis of ultimate strength, the tensile strength of concrete is usually neglected. Creep of Concrete : Creep of concrete is defined as the increase in deformation with time under constant load. Due to the creep of concrete, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time.

Hence, the study of creep is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress. The creep occurs due to two causes:1. Rearrangement of hydrated cement paste (especially the layered products) 2. Expulsion of water from voids under load The creep strain depends on several factors. It increases with the increase in the following variables:1) Cement content (cement paste to aggregate ratio) 2) Water-to-cement ratio 3) Air entrainment 4) Ambient temperature. The creep strain decreases with the increase in the following variables :1) Age of concrete at the time of loading. 2) Relative humidity 3) Volume to surface area ratio. The creep strain also depends on the type of aggregate. cr,ult = l where, cr,ult = ultimate creep strain l= elastic strain ; = creep coefficient

Fig 6. Variation of strain with time for concrete under compression Shrinkage of Concrete: Shrinkage of concrete is defined as the contraction due to loss of moisture. The study of shrinkage is also important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress. The shrinkage occurs due to two causes 1. Loss of water from voids 2. Reduction of volume during carbonation The following figure shows the variation of shrinkage strain with time. Here, t0 is the time at commencement of drying. The shrinkage strain increases at a decreasing rate with time. The ultimate shrinkage strain (sh) is estimated to calculate the loss in prestress.

Fig 7. Variation of shrinkage strain with time

Like creep, shrinkage also depends on several factors. The shrinkage strain increases with the increase in the following variables: 1) Ambient temperature 2) Temperature gradient in the members 3) Water-to-cement ratio 4) Cement content. The shrinkage strain decreases with the increase in the following variables:- (spacing corrections) 1) Age of concrete at commencement of drying 2) Relative humidity 3) Volume to surface area ratio. The shrinkage strain also depends on the type of aggregate. IS:1343 - 1980 gives guidelines to estimate the shrinkage strain in Section 5.2.4. It is a simplified estimate of the ultimate shrinkage strain (sh).

For pre-tension sh = 0.0003 For post-tension sh = (0.0002/log10(t+2)) Where, t is the age at transfer in days. Note that for post-tensioning, t is the age at transfer (in days) which approximates the curing time. 1.5.2 Prestressing Steel The development of prestressed concrete was influenced by the invention of high strength steel. It is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and optional materials. The following material describes the types and properties of prestressing steel. Wires A prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The nominal diameters of the wires are 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as follows:1) Plain wire: No indentations on the surface. 2) Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations on the surface. 1.5.3 Strands A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a prestressing strand. The different types of strands are as follows:1) Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand. 2) Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand.

3) Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire. The central wire is larger than the other wires. 1.5.4 Tendons A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a prestressing tendon. The tendons are used in post-tensioned members. The following figure shows the cross section of a typical tendon. The strands are placed in a duct which may be filled with grout after the post-tensioning operation is completed. Cables A group of tendons form a prestressing cable. The cables are used in bridges. Bars A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much largerthan that of a wire. Bars are available in the following sizes: 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm.

Fig. 8 Forms of reinforcing and prestressing steel

Types of Prestressing Steel: The steel is treated to achieve the desired properties. The following are the treatment processes: Cold working (cold drawing): The cold working is done by rolling the bars through a series of dyes. It re-aligns the crystals and increases the strength.

Stress relieving:The stress relieving is done by heating the strand to about 350 C and cooling slowly. This reduces the plastic deformation of the steel after the onset of yielding. Strain tempering for low relaxation:This process is done by heating the strand to about 350 C while it is under tension. This also improves the stress-strain behavior of the steel by reducing the plastic deformation after the onset of yielding. In addition, the relaxation is reduced. Behavioural Properties of Prestressing Steel: The steel in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes 1) High strength 2) Adequate ductility 3) Bending ability, which is required at the harping points and near the anchorage 4) High bond, required for pre-tensioned members 5) Low relaxation to reduce losses 6) Minimum corrosion. Strength of Prestressing Steel : The tensile strength of prestressing steel is given in terms of the characteristic tensile strength (fpk). The characteristic strength is defined as the ultimate tensile strength of the coupon specimens. The ultimate strength of a plain hard drawn steel wire varies with its diameter. The tensile strength decreases with increase in the diameter of wires. For high tensile steel bars (IS: 2090), the minimum tensile strength is 980 N/mm2. The proof stress should not be less than 80% of the specified tensile strength.

Stiffness of Prestressing Steel : The stiffness of prestressing steel is given by the initial modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity depends on the form of prestressing steel (wires or strands or bars). IS:1343 - 1980 provides the following guidelines which can be used in absence of test Type of steel Cold drawn wires High tensile steel bars Strands Modulus of elasticity 210 KN/mm2 200 KN/mm2 195 KN/mm2

Allowable Stress in Prestressing Steel : As per Clause 18.5.1, IS: 1343 1980 the maximum tensile stress during prestressing (fpi) shall not exceed 80% of the characteristic strength. Fpi = 0.8fpk There is no upper limit for the stress at transfer (after short term losses) or for the effective prestress (after long term losses). Stress-Strain Curves for Prestressing Steel: The stress versus strain behaviour of prestressing steel under uniaxial tension is initially linear (stress is proportional to strain) and elastic (strain is recovered at unloading). Beyond about 70% of the ultimate strength the behaviour becomes nonlinear and inelastic. There is no defined yield point. The yield point is defined in terms of the proof stress or a specified yield strain. IS:1343- 1980 recommends the yield point at 0.2% proof stress. corresponds to an inelastic strain of 0.002. 1.5.5Relaxation of steel Relaxation of steel is defined as the decrease in stress with time under constant strain. Due to the relaxation of steel, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time.

This stress

Hence, the study of relaxation is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress. The relaxation depends on the type of steel, initial prestress and the temperature. The following figure shows the effect of relaxation due to different types of loading conditions:-

Fig 9. Effect of relaxation due to different types of loading Fatigue : Under repeated dynamic loads the strength of a member may reduce with the number of cycles of applied load. The reduction in strength is referred to as fatigue. In prestressed applications, the fatigue is negligible in members that do not crack under service loads. If a member cracks, fatigue may be a concern due to high stress in the steel at the location of cracks. Durability : Prestressing steel is susceptible to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement in aggressive environments. Hence, prestressing steel needs to be adequately protected. For bonded tendons, the alkaline environment of the grout provides adequate protection. For unbonded tendons, corrosion protection is provided by one or more of the following methods:1) Epoxy coating 2) Mastic wrap (grease impregnated tape)

3) Galvanized bars 4) Encasing in tubes. 1.6 Post tensioning systems The prestressing systems and devices are described for the two types of prestressing :pre-tensioning post-tensioning Stages of Post-tensioning : In post-tensioning systems, the ducts for the tendons (or strands) are placed along with the reinforcement before the casting of concrete. The tendons are placed in the ducts after the casting of concrete. The duct prevents contact between concrete and the tendons during the tensioning operation. Unlike pre-tensioning, the tendons are pulled with the reaction acting against the hardened concrete. If the ducts are filled with grout, then it is known as bonded post-tensioning. The grout is a neat cement paste or a sand-cement mortar containing suitable admixture. In unbonded post-tensioning, as the name suggests, the ducts are never grouted and the tendon is held in tension solely by the end anchorages. Most of the commercially patented prestressing systems are based on the following principles of anchoring the tendons: 1. Wedge action producing a frictional grip on the wires. 2. Direct bearing from rivet to bolt heads formed at the end of the wires. 3. Looping the wires around the concrete

The various stages of the post-tensioning operation are summarised as follows :1) Casting of concrete. 2) Placement of the tendons. 3) Placement of the anchorage block and jack.

4) Applying tension to the tendons. 5) Seating of the wedges. 6) Cutting of the tendons. The tensioning of tendons and pre-compression of concrete occur simultaneously. A system of self-equilibrating forces develops after the stretching of the tendons

Fig10.Stagesinposttensioning

Advantages of Post-tensioning : The relative advantages of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning are as follows: Post-tensioning is suitable for heavy cast-in-place members. The waiting period in the casting bed is less. The transfer of prestress is independent of transmission length. Disadvantage of Post-tensioning: The relative disadvantage of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning is the requirement of anchorage device and grouting equipment.

1.7 Post Tensioning Devices: 1) Casting bed (1line) 2) Mould/Shuttering (aluminium shuttering, resist impcts, highly corrosive) 3) Ducts 4) Anchoring devices 5) Jacks 6) Couplers (optional) 7) Grouting equipment (optional)

Fig 11 . Casting bed, mould and duct

Anchoring Devices: In post-tensioned members the anchoring devices transfer the prestress to the concrete. The devices are based on the following principles of anchoring the tendons:1) Wedge action 2) Direct bearing 3) Looping the wires

Wedge action: The anchoring device based on wedge action consists of an anchorage block and wedges. The strands are held by frictional grip of the wedges in the anchorage block. Direct bearing: The rivet or bolt heads or button heads formed at the end of the wires directly bear against a block. Looping the wires: The Baur-Leonhardt system, Leoba system and also the Dwidag single-bar anchorage system, work on this principle where the wires are looped around the concrete. The wires are looped to make a bulb. Jacks:

Fig12.Jackingandanchoringwithedges

Couplers: The couplers are used to connect strands or bars. They are located at the junction of the members, for example at or near columns in post-tensioned slabs, on piers in posttensioned bridge decks.

Fig 13. coupler for strands 1.8 Structural Behavior 1) Effects of prestress: The primary effects of prestress are a pre compression of the floor and an upward load within the spam which balances pat of the downward dead and live loads. In a Reinforced concrete floor, tensile cracking of the concrete is a necessary accompaniment to the generation of economic stress levels in the reinforcement. In post tensioned flows with the pre compression and the upward load in the span act to reduce the tensile stresses in the concrete. However, the level of prestress is not usually enough to prevent all tensile cracking under full design live loading at serviceability Limit State. Under reduced live load much of the cracking will not be visible. The act of prestressing causes the floor to bend, shorten, deflect and rotate. If any of these effects are restrained, secondary effects of prestress are set up. As stated above, 2N/mm2. The secondary effects due to the restraint to shortening are usually neglected. However, unless the floor can be considered to be statically determinate, the displacements of the floor set up secondary moments which cannot be neglected. 2) One-way and two-way spanning floors: There are several different types post tensioned floor. An important distinction between types of floors is whether they are one-way or two-way spanning structure.

3. Flexure in flat slabs (two-way spanning): In the context of this report, flat slabs are those floors which can carry loads in two different directions to discrete column supports. One misconception held by some engineers is to consider a reduced load when analyzing the slab in one direction using the equivalent frame method. A flat slab supported on columns, rather than perimeter beams can fail as a one-way mechanism just as a single way slab and it should be reinforced to resist the moment from the full load in each orthogonal direction. Tests and applications have demonstrated that post tensioned flat slabs behave as a flat plate almost regardless of tendon arrangement. The effects of tendons are critical to the behavior as they exert loads in the span as well as provide reinforcement. The tendons exert equivalent vertical load on the slabs known as equivalent loads and these loads may be considered like any other dead or live loads. Since the tendon effect is opposite to the effect of gravity loads, the net load causing bending is reduced. An additional effect of the tendons is the axial pre compression which counteracts flexural tensile stresses. Therefore, at service dead load, the net downward load causing bending in the slab is normally very low and the floor is essentially under uniform axial compression. Examination of the distribution of the moment in reveal that hogging moments across panel are sharply peaked in the immediate vicinity of the column and the moment at the column face is several times the moment midway between the columns. In contrast the sagging moments across the slab in mid span regions are almost uniformly distributed across the panel width. It is helpful to the understanding of post tensioned flat slabs to forget the arbitrary column strip, middle strip and moment percentage tablets which have been long familiar to the designer of reinforced concrete floors. Instead, the mechanics of the action of the tendons will be examined first. The load balancing approach is an even more powerful tool for examining the behavior of twoway spanning systems than it is for one way spanning members. By the balancing load approach, attention is focused on the loads exerted on the floor by the tendons, perpendicular to the plane of the floor. As for one-way floors, this typically means a uniform load exerted upward along the major portion of the central length of a tendon span and statically equivalent downward load exerted over the short length of the reverse curvature. In order to apply an essentially uniform

upward load over the entire floor panel these tendons should be uniformly distributed and the downward loads from the tendons should react against another structural element. The additional element could be a beam or a wall in the case of one way floors or columns in a two-way system.

Fig14.BendingMomentSurfacesfor differentArrangementoftendons

Fig15.Appliedloadbendingmomentsinasolidflatslab

The load balancing approach is an even more powerful tool for examining the behavior of twoway spanning systems than it is for one way spanning members. By the balancing load approach, attention is focused on the loads exerted on the floor by the tendons, perpendicular to the plane of the floor. As for one-way floors, this typically means a uniform load exerted upward along the major portion of the central length of a tendon span and statically equivalent downward load exerted over the short length of the reverse curvature. In order to apply an essentially uniform upward load over the entire floor panel these tendons should be uniformly distributed and the downward loads from the tendons should react against another structural element. The additional element could be a beam or a wall in the case of one way floors or columns in a two-way system. However, a look at a plan view if a flat slab reveals that columns provide an upward reaction for only a very small area. Thus, to maintain statistical rationality, we must provide reinforcement perpendicular to the above tendons, a second set of tendons to provide an upward load to resist the downward load from the first set. Remembering that the downward load of the uniformly distributed tendons occur over a relatively narrow width under the reverse curvatures and that the only available exterior reaction, the column is also relatively narrow, it becomes obvious that the second set of tendons should be in narrow strips or bands passing over the columns. There are two ways of accompanying this two part tendon system to obtain the nearly uniform upward load we desire for ease of analysis. In the first method, tendons are spaced uniformly in

Fig16.Loadbalancingforprestressedtendonsforregularcolumnlayouts

each of the two directions and react against banded tendons along the column grid lines in each direction. This results in some of the tendons in each direction being banded over the columns and some uniformly distributed between these bands. This method works well where the columns are arranged on a rectangular grid. The balanced load provided by the tendons in each direction is equal to the dead load. It gives the most uniform distribution of moments and provides a practical layout of tendons. This arrangement gives 70% of the tendons in the banded zone and the remaining 30% between the bands. It should be noted that, since the width of the banded zone is 0.4 times the width of bay, this arrangement is identical to providing 50% of the tendons evenly distributed over the full width of the bay in addition to 50% concentrated in the band. The detailed distribution is not critical, provided that sufficient tendons pass through the column zone to give adequate protection against punching shear and progressive collapse. Flexural cracking is initiated at column faces and can occur at load levels in the serviceability range. While these and early radial cracks remain small, they are unlikely to affect the performance of the slab. Compression due to prestress delays the formation of cracks, but it

is less efficient in controlling cracking than un-tensioned reinforcement placed in the top of floors, immediately adjacent to and above the column. Flat Slab Criteria: For a prestressed floor to be considered as a flat slab the following criteria apply: 9 Pre compression should be applied in two orthogonal directions. Such a floor with no or moderate, crack formation performs as a homogenous elastic plate with its inherent two-way behavior. 9 The pre compression at the edges of the slab is concentrated behind the anchorages and spreads into the floor with increasing distance from the edge. Floors with banded post-tensioning and floors with wide shallow beams also qualify for two-way action at regions away from the free edges where pre compression is attained in both directions. Aspect ratio of any panel should not be greater than 2. This applies to solid flat slabs, supported on orthogonal rows of columns. The ratio of the stiffness of the slab in two orthogonal directions should not be disproportionate. 1.9 Structural form 1) Column Layout: In general, the ideal situation is, of course to think prestressing from the initial concept of the building and to choose suitably longer spans. However, current experience in many countries indicates a minimum span is of approximately 7m. In choosing column layouts and spans for a prestressed floor, several possibilities may be considered to optimize the design, which include: a) Reduce the length of the end spans or if the architectural considerations permit, insert the columns from the building perimeter to provide small cantilevers. Consequently end span bending moments will be reduced and a more equable bending moment configuration is obtained. b) Reduce, if necessary the stiffness of the columns to minimize the prestress lost in overcoming the restraint offered to floor shortening.

c) Where span lengths vary, adjust the tendon profiles and the no. of tendons to provide the uplift required for each span. Generally this will be a similar percentage of the dead load for each span. Once the column layout has been determined, the next consideration is the type of floor to be used. This again is determined by number of factors such as lengths, magnitude of loading, architectural form and use of the building, special requirements such as services, location of building, and the cost of materials available . 2) Floor thickness and types: The slab thickness must meet two primary functional requirements-structural strength and deflection. Vibration should also be considered where there are only a few panels. There selection of thickness or type (ex : plate without drops, plate with drops, coffered or waffle, ribbed or even beam and slab) is also influenced by concrete strength and loading. There are likely to be several alternative solutions to the same problem and a preliminary costing exercise may be necessary in order to choose the most economical. The info given in fig 14, 15 & 17 will assist the designer to make a preliminary choice of floor section. Fig 15 is appropriate for all types of prestressed floors. Fig 15 & 17 are only appropriate for flat slabs but fig 15 is not appropriate for coffered slabs which do not have a solid section over the columns

Fig17.Preliminaryselectionoffloorthicknessformulti spanfloors

Flat slabs tend to exceed punching shear limits around columns and often need shear reinforcement at these locations. The graphs in fig 18 provide a preliminary assessment as to whether shear reinforcement is needed or not. As the shear capacity of a slab is dependent on the dimensions of the supporting columns or column heads, each graph is based on different column dimensions. The following procedure should be followed while obtaining a flat slab section:Step 1: Knowing the span and imposed loading requirements, Fig 15 can be used to choose a suitable span/ depth ratio Step 2: Check the shear capacity of the section using fig 14. Obtain the imposed load capacity for the chosen section. If this exceeds the imposed load, then shear reinforcement is not needed. If not, reinforcement will be needed. Step 3: Check the shear capacity at the face of the column using Fig 17. If the imposed load capacity is exceeded, increase the slab depth and check again 3). Effect of restraint to floor shortening: Post tensioned floors must be allowed to shorten to enable the prestress to be applied to the floor. Shortening occurs because of :(a) Elastic Shortening due to the prestress force (b) Creep shortening due to the prestress force. (c) Shrinkage of concrete Elastic shortening occurs during stressing of the tendons, but the creep and shrinkage are long term effects. The floor will be supported on columns or a combination of columns and core walls. These supports offer a restraint to the shortening . There are no firm rules which may be used to determine when such restraint is significant. A simple method of ascertaining the restraint offered by the supports is to calculate the elastic creep and shrinkage strains expected in the slab and then to calculate the forces required to deflect the supports. Typical strains for a 300mm internal floor with a prestress of 2 N/mm2

Elastic Strain Creep strain Shrinkage strain Total long term strain

100 x 10-6 250 x 10-6 300 x 10-6 650 x 10-6

The force required to deflect each column may be assumed to be calculated as follows: i = x Ii Hi = 12 Ec Ii i

(Hcol)3

For the purpose of calculating Hi, the value of Ec for the column may be reduced by creep in the column and in some cases cracking. A reduction of at least 50% from the short term elastic properties is normally justifiable. The total tension in the floor due to the restraint to shortening is the sum of all the column forces to one side of the stationary point the tension is H1 + H2 + H3. This tension acts as a reduction in the pre compression of the floor by prestress. 1.10 Losses in prestress: In prestressed concrete applications, the most important variable is the prestressing force. In the early days, it was observed that the prestressing force does not stay constant, but reduces with time. Even during prestressing of the tendons and the transfer of prestress to the concrete member, there is a drop of the prestressing force from the recorded value in the jack gauge. The various reductions of the prestressing force are termed as the losses in prestress. The losses are broadly classified into two groups:1) 2) Immediate Time-dependent.

The immediate losses occur during prestressing of the tendons and the transfer of prestress to the concrete member. The time-dependent losses occur during the service life of the prestressed member. The losses due to elastic shortening of the member, friction at the tendon-concrete interface and slip of the anchorage are the immediate losses. The losses due to the shrinkage and creep of the concrete and relaxation of the steel are the time-dependent losses. 1.11 Construction of prestressed concrete structures Rapid development in construction techniques of prestressed concrete structures over the last decades has resulted in several novel methods of construction. Prestressed concrete being ideally suited for larger spans, its application is much less for sub structures than for super structures. Construction of any structure forms only a small part of the whole gamut of construction management. Construction management functions comprise the following central activities:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Tendering and winning the contract of given work Contract negotiations Developing liaison with clients Mobilizing financial resources for the work Maintaining proper accounts Work planning Work supervision Project progress control and monitoring Maintenance of good labour relations Engineering and completion of work.

Before starting the construction of any prestressed concrete structure, it is essential to consider minimum requirements for material and workmanship which will result in a structure that will perform satisfactorily in various limit states.

The most important consideration of prestressed concrete structure is the design, production, and control of high strength concrete with desirable properties. Most of the long span bridges are built using prestressed concrete and those built by the cantilever method demonstrate the latest refinements of this construction technique. This method eliminates the use of expensive form work and scaffolding especially for bridges in deep valleys and rivers with large depth of water. 1.12 Maintenance and rehabilitation of prestressed concrete structures The fundamental objective of maintenance management of prestressed concrete structures in such a way that it will function satisfactorily at various limit states immediately after construction and also over a period covering the life span of the structure. Good maintenance practice requires periodical surveillance, identification of local damage, deterioration and loss of durability of the structure due to environmental and other load effects. In prestressed concrete structures the primary problem encountered is the damage caused to the anchorages and unbounded tendons due to rusting under the exposure to humid weather conditions. The overall objective of the maintenance of prestressed concrete structures is to identify the need for structural integrity, periodical surveillance, repairs, rehabilitation, and replacement, depending upon the local conditions. Inspection of structures: All types of remedial and preventive maintenance or minor repair work, including replacement of components should be planned at periodical intervals without causing inconvenience to the users of the structure. 1. Routine Inspection: under this category, general inspections are carried out quickly and frequently by highway maintenance engineers. This type inspection is required to identify the obvious deficiencies which could lead to accidents or major future repairs or maintenance problems.

2.

Detailed Inspection: This type of inspection can be further divided as follows :General Inspection Major Inspection Special Inspection

General inspection is normally made annually it should cover all the structural elements and it is mainly a visual inspection supplemented by standard instrumental aids, invariably followed by a written report. Major inspection is generally more intensive involving detailed examination of all structural elements even requiring setting up of special access facilities where required. It is generally done in a span of 2 to 3 years. 3. Special Inspection: These are resorted to under extraordinary situations such as

earthquakes, high intensity or abnormal loadings, floods etc. These inspections should be exhaustive including structural testing (using instruments like ultrasonic pulse velocity apparatus to detect micro cracks and excessive deflections using dial gauges)and computations using structural analysis. The timing of this type of inspection should be such that the most critical evaluation of the performance of the structure is obtained. Inspection instrumentation: Prestressed concrete structures showing visible signs of distress in the form of surface cracks, spanning of concrete should be subjected to special inspection. Modern testing equipment which could be of use to the specialized inspection team is listed below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Rebound hammer for in situ evaluation of compressive strength of grade of concrete. Ultra sonic pulse velocity apparatus for the detection of cracks in the concrete. Snooper crawler and adjustable ladders. Magnetic detector for measuring the thickness of concrete cover and for locating reinforcement bars.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Mechanical extensometer, transparent templates and microscope for reading of crack widths on the surface of the concrete. Hydraulic jacks, pressure transducers or load cells for the measurement of forces etc. Electronic strain gauges for measurement of strains in concrete and steel. Vibration measuring equipment. Electrical resistance meter.

The instruments listed above are very useful to evaluate the strength of in situ concrete and the distress caused due to the development of micro cracks in the concrete.

2.

SITE INSPECTION :

A site investigation report is the basis for all the subsequent decisions regarding cleanup of a contaminated site. This report describes the findings of the desk study and the field work and discuss their implications with respect to the proposed development of the site. An assessment is made in terms of likelihood of the presence of contamination that may affect the feasibility of the site for the intended use. 2.1 Initial assessment: Site characterization: The site is part of an open car park but lies within a mixed software offices and retail commercial area. Site location: The site is located at kothegudam village, near Hi tech city in Hyderabad. It is bounded by commercial complexes to the south east and its fronting the main road. Desk study: The desk study is carried out in accordance with the technical report-43 by concrete society. The report provides the base for an opinion on the condition of site. Hydrological information: The site is classified as being under laid by a major aquifer of high permeability associated with soils of high leaching potential. Other environmental information: The environment check has revealed that there is no registered landfill or waste management facilities within the 1km vicinity of the site. There are no recorded pollution incidents to the controlled waters or other known site processes which could potentially impact the development.

2.2 Soil testing: The field work was carried out under the supervision of a geo tech - environmental engineer and comprised of the following elements: 1. Cable percussive bore holes to 30m depth 2. Window sampler bore holes 3. Dynamic probes up to a maximum depth of 10m. Standard penetration tests were carried out in the cable percussive bore holes at regular intervals to the full depth of boring. Distributed samples were recovered from the various bore holes for subsequent testing in the laboratory and/or for contamination testing. A stand pipe was installed in one of the cable percussive boreholes in order to determine the depth of the ground water table. It is noticed that ground water level is standing at approximately 9.74m below the ground level, one day after installation. Bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety. There are three modes of failure that limit the bearing capacity: general shear failure, local shear failure, and punching shear failure. The safe bearing capacity of soil is 140 N/mm2.

The consistency limits of soil are as follows: Soil type Sand Slits Murrum Liquid limit 20 27 100 Plastic limit 0 20 45

2.3 Acquiring of raw materials : Concrete Typically concrete is of M35 grade manufactured by Aparna cement industry. The ready mix design arrives at the site and begins to prepare the concerned RMC in situ. If any concrete is being transported, then admixtures are added in order to delay the setting time. Prestressing steel (strands & bars) Strand for post-tensioning is made of high tensile strength steel wire. A strand is comprised of 7 individual wires, with six wires helically wound to a long pitch around a center wire. All strand should be Grade 1860 MPa (270 ksi) low relaxation, seven-wire strand conforming to the requirements of ASTMA 416 Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven Wire Strand for Prestressed Concrete. ASTMA 416 provides minimum requirements for mechanical properties (yield, breaking strength, elongation) and maximum allowable dimensional tolerances. Strand from different sources may meet ASTMA 416 but is not necessarily identical in all respects. Strand is mostly available in two nominal sizes, 13mm (0.5in) and 15mm (0.6in) diameter, with nominal cross sectional areas of 99mm2 and 140mm2 (0.153 and 0.217 square inches),respectively. The majority of post-tensioning hardware and stressing equipment is based on these sizes. Strand size tolerances may result in strands being manufactured consistently smaller than or larger than nominal values. Recognizing this, industry (Acceptance Standards for Post-Tensioning Systems, Post-Tensioning Institute, 1998refers to the Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength (MUTS) which is the minimum specified breaking force for a strand. Strand size tolerance may also affect strand-wedge action leading to possible wedge slip if the wedges and strands are at opposite ends of the size tolerance range. Strand conforming to ASTM A 416 is relatively resistant to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement, due to the cold drawing process. However, since susceptibility to corrosion increases with increasing tensile strength, caution is necessary if strand is exposed to corrosive conditions such as marine environments and solutions containing chloride or sulfate, phosphate, nitrate ions or similar. Consequently, ASTMA 416 requires proper protection of

strand throughout manufacture, shipping and handling. Protection during the project, before and after installation, should be specified in project specifications, details, drawings and documents. In recent years, various innovations have been developed in order to provide additional corrosion protection. Some of these measures include: Plastic coated strand for un bonded tendons has been widely used in buildings, but not generally in bridges in the United States. However, greased and sheathed mono-strands are now available for cable-stays or external tendon applications for new structures and the repair of old ones. Epoxy coated strand meeting the same requirements as ASTMA 416 is available and should also conform to ASTMA 882 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven Wire Strand. Epoxy coated strand is available as an outer coating only, or as a coating that also fully fills the interstices between wires. The latter is preferred for post-tensioning or cable stay applications. Special wedges are required that bite through the thickness of the coating and engage the strand; power seating of the wedges is usually required. Strand made from fiber material (such as carbon or aramid fibers) has limited application as post-tensioning to date. These composite materials offer advantages for enhanced corrosion resistance, but lack the benefit of a high modulus of elasticity that is routinely provided by steel and which is crucial to good load-deflection behavior of a prestressed structure without excessive cracking under service loads. Few manufacturers supply galvanized strand. Heating during galvanizing reduces the tensile strength to about 1660MPa (240 ksi). This strand is not used in bridges. Tendons in prestressed concrete structures do not experience stress cycling significant enough to induce fatigue problems. Fatigue is a concern only in certain applications such as cable stays in cable-stayed bridges where traffic loads significantly affect stresses. Bars: Bars should be of Prestressing Concrete, Type II bar. Coarse thread bars are used for most permanent and temporary applications. Fine thread bars are available if necessary for special applications. It is good practice to limit the stress level and number of re-uses for temporary applications, according to

Grade 1035 MPa (150 ksi), high strength, thread bar meeting the

requirements of ASTM A 722, Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for

recommendations of the Manufacturer. In the absence of such information, it is suggested that for new bars, the stress should not exceed 50% MUTS and the number of re-uses be less than ten for applications such as temporary stressing or lifting. Post-tensioning bars are available in various sizes from 16mm (5/8in) to over 50mm (2in) diameter. However, for convenience in handling, installation, and removal and re-use in normal applications for post-tensioned bridges, 32mm (1-1/4in) or 35mm (1-3/8in) diameter bars are typically used. Bars are not as easily damaged by corrosion as strands because of their lower strength, large diameter and smaller ratio of exposed surface to cross section area. Hot rolled bars also acquire a natural surface oxidation from the rolling process that enhances their protection. Nevertheless, bars need to be protected during extended periods of exposure especially in aggressive environments. Hot-dip galvanizing and epoxy coating are available for corrosion protection if necessary. Grout: Grouting can be defined as the filling of duct with a material that provides an anti-corrosive alkaline environment to the prestressing steel and also a strong bond between the tendon and the surrounding grout. The major part of grout comprises of water and cement, with a w/c ratio of about 0.5 together with some water-reducing admixtures, expansion agent and pozzolonas. Cement and other Pozzolans for Grout: The primary constituent of grout is ordinary Portland cement (Type I or II). Other cementitious material may be added to enhance certain qualities of the final product. For example, fly ash improves corrosion resistance in aggressive environments. The addition of dry silica fume (micro-silica) also improves resistance to chloride penetration because the particles help fill the interstices between hydrated cementitious grains thus reducing the permeability. The water-cementitious material ratio should be limited to a maximum of 0.45 to avoidvexcessive water retention and bleed and to optimize the hydration process. Any temptation to add water to improve fluidity on-site must be resisted at all times. Fluidity may be enhanced by adding a high range water-reducer, HRWR, (Type F or G)

Pre-bagged Grouts Grouts made of cementitious materials, water and admixtures batched on site do not always have uniform properties. This arises from variations in materials, day to day mixing differences,crew changes, weather conditions and so forth. Grouts made of only cement and water often exhibit segregation and voids due to excessive bleed water. In an endeavor to eliminate problems related to grout variations and voids, several State DOTs have obtained greater quality control by requiring pre-bagged grouts. In a pre-bagged grout, all the constituent (cementitious) materials have been thoroughly mixed and blended at the factory in the dry condition. This ensures proper blending and requires only that a measured amount of water be added for mixing on site. A manufacturer of a pre-bagged grout may already have had the material pre-qualified by a State DOT or other agency. In this case, it is appropriate to accept it on the basis of a written certification; providing that the manufacturer has on-going quality control tests that can be confirmed by submitting test reports to the Engineer. The certification should show the mixed grout will meet the pre-qualified standard. On site, daily grout production must be monitored by various field tests in order to maintain quality control and performance. Thixotropic vs. Non-Thixotropic Grout: A thixotropic grout is one that begins to gel and stiffen in a relatively short time while at rest after mixing, yet when mechanically agitated, returns to a fluid state with much lower viscosity. Most grouts made with cementitious materials, admixtures and water are nonthixotropic. Thixotropy may be exhibited by some, but not necessarily all, pre-bagged grouts. A critical feature of a grout is that it should remain pump-able for the anticipated time to fully inject the tendon. This may be significant for long tendons or where a group of several tendons is to be injected in one continuous operation. Some thixotropic grouts can have very low viscosity after agitation, becoming easy to pump. Admixtures: Like concrete, admixtures may be used to improve workability and reduce the water required, reduce bleed, improve pumping properties or entrain air. Care must be exercised to use the correct quantities in the proper way according to manufacturers instructions and to remain

within the mix properties established by qualifying laboratory tests. Calcium nitrite may help to improve corrosion resistance in some situations by bonding to the steel to form a passive layer and prevent attack by chloride ions. High range water reducer (HRWR) improves short term fluidity. However, a grout with HRWR may lose fluidity later when being injected through hoses and ducts. Unlike a concrete mix, it is not possible to re-dose a grout especially when it is in the, pump, hoses and ducts. Also, HRWR tends to cause bleed in grouts. On-site grout mixing with HRWR is not recommended. Other admixtures include: Shrinkage compensating agents Anti-bleed admixtures Pumping aids Air-entraining agents The addition of these should be strictly in accordance with manufacturers recommendations. Furthermore, the mix should be qualified by appropriate laboratory testing. On site, daily grout production must be monitored by various field tests in order to maintain quality control and performance. Ducts: The hollow materials made out of HDPE (High Density Poly Ethylene) or Aluminium that holds the tendons within and is responsible for protecting the tendons, which impart prestress to the slab are called Ducts. Ducts for Tendons Corrugated Steel : Ducts are spirally wound to the necessary diameter from strip steel with a minimum wall thickness of 0.45mm (26-gauge) for ducts less than 66mm (2-5/8 in) diameter or 0.6mm (24-gauge) for ducts of greater diameter. The strip steel should be galvanized to ASTM A653 with a coating weight of G90. Ducts should be manufactured with welded or interlocking seams with sufficient rigidity to maintain the correct profile between supports during concrete placement. Ducts should also be able to flex without crimping or flattening. Joints between sections of duct and between ducts and anchor components should be made with positive, metallic connections that provide a smooth interior alignment with no slips or abrupt angle changes. Corrugated plastic duct to be completely embedded in concrete should be

constructed from either polyethylene or polypropylene. The minimum acceptable radius of curvature should be established by the duct supplier according to standard test methods. Polyethylene duct should be fabricated from resins meeting or exceeding the requirements of ASTM D3350 with a cell classification of 344434C. Polypropylene duct should be fabricated from resins meeting or exceeding the requirements of ASTM D4101 with a cell classification range of PP0340B44544 to PP0340B65884. The duct should have a minimum material thickness of 2.0 mm + 0.25 mm (0.079 in + 0.010 in). Ducts should have a white coating on the outside or should be of white material with ultraviolet stabilizers added. Smooth, High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE) for External Tendons: HDPE smooth pipe is available in different diameters, wall thickness, physical and chemical properties. There is significant variability in commonly available materials. It is very important that it has satisfactory properties for handling, storage, installation and durability for the application. Duct Material: High Density Polyethylene or Polypropylene Plastic duct is available in a flat oval section for transverse tendons in deck slabs or similar application Ribs against degradation from ultraviolet light. The wall thickness, diameter and physical strength (Hydrostatic Design Basis) should be sufficient to initially withstand grouting pressures. In the long term it should not deteriorate or split. The requirements should be in accordance with AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications. Plastic Fittings and Connections for Internal Tendons: All duct splices, joints and connections to anchorages should be made with couplings and connectors that produce a smooth interior duct alignment with no slips or kinks. Special duct connectors may be used in match-cast joints between precast segments and similar situations if necessary to create a continuous, air and water-tight seal. Duct tape should not be used to join or repair ducts or make connections. All fittings and connections between lengths of plastic duct and between ducts and steel components (e.g. anchors or steel pipe) should be made of materials compatible with corrugated plastic ducts. Plastic materials should contain antioxidant stabilizers and have an environmental stress cracking of not less than 192 hours

as determined by ASTMD 1693 Standard Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene Plastics, Condition C. External Tendon Duct Connections: Connections between sections of plastic pipe should be made using heat welding techniques or with mechanical couplers on the manufacturers recommendations or as approved by the Engineer. Connections should have a minimum pressure rating of 1 MPa (145 psi) and produce a smooth interior alignment with no slips or kinks. Connections between external HDPE pipe and steel pipe embedded in the concrete should be made using circular sleeve (boot) made of Ethylene Propylene Deine Monomer (EPDM) having a minimum (working) pressure rating of 1 MPa (145 psi). EPDM should have 100% quality retention as defined by ASTM D1171 Standard Test Method for Rubber Deterioration Surface Ozone Cracking Outdoors or Chamber (Triangular Specimens) Ozone Chamber Exposure . Method B: The minimum wall thickness should be 10mm (3/8 inch) reinforced with a minimum of four ply polyester reinforcement. Sleeves should be secured with 10mm (3/8 in) wide power seated, 316 stainless steel band clamps, using one on each end of the sleeve (boot) to seal against leaking grout. The power seating force should be between 356 and 534 N (80 and 120lbf). Alternatively, connections may be made using mechanical couplers with plastic components made of approved plastic resins meeting the same requirements as for external plastic pipes and metal components of grade 316 stainless-steel. Mechanical connections should meet the same pressure rating requirements (above) and have seals to prevent grout leaks. Steel and plastic pipe may be connected directly when the outside diameters do not vary by more than + 2mm (0.08in). A reducer or spacer should be used when outside this tolerance. When installed correctly, a single band clamp around each end of the sleeve should be sufficient. Double banding may be necessary to fix an apparent leak of air, water or grout.

Shrink Sleeves: In some cases, external tendon connections may be enhanced by the use of shrink sleeve wrap overlaying the connection and portions of adjacent plastic and steel pipes. This may be used in tendons. Tendons are transported to the site in bundles or packed loose in special transport frames. Ducts are made of bright or galvanized steel or plastic. The ducts have a corrugated surface to guarantee the adherence between the cable and surrounding concrete. Ducts thickness varies for 0.3mm to 0.6mm. Technical features of duct: No of strands Internal (mm) Grout (l/m) 1.2 1.9 2.3 3.6 2.8 4.5 3.6 5.8 3.8 6.1 requirement Cement(kg/m) dia 4 45 7 62 9 72 12 80 15 85

Main features of cables using 12.7mm diameter strands. No. of strands Nominal c/s area of steel Ap(mm2) Nominal mass of steel(kg/m) Characteristic tensile strength(fpi) MPa Characteristic ultimate resisting force of tendon (fpk)KN

4 600 467 1.860

7 1050 820 1.860

9 1350 1055 1.860

12 1800 1758 1.860

1.116

1.953

2.511

3.348

2.5 Mode of transport Prestressing Steel All prestressing steel should be protected against physical damage and corrosion at all times from manufacture to final installation and grouting. It should be packed in containers for shipping handling and storage. A rust-preventing corrosion inhibitor should be placed in the package or be incorporated in the carrier type packaging material. Corrosion inhibitor should have no deleterious effect on the steel or grout or on the bond strength of steel to grout. Inhibitor carrier type packaging should conform to Federal Specification MIL-P-3420. Damaged packaging should be replaced or restored to its original condition. Shipping containers should be clearly marked with a statement that it contains highstrength prestressing steel, the type of care needed for handling, the type and amount of corrosion inhibitor used and the date it was placed, and any other safety precautions and instructions. Strand should be clearly identified that it is low-relaxation (stabilized) strand per the requirements of ASTMA 416 and the corresponding LOT number for which quality control test samples have been taken. Strands not so designated should be rejected. Reels of strand should be examined by the Contractor and inspected by the CEI when first received on site and periodically while in storage. During use, any reel that is found to contain broken wires or corrosion should be carefully examined. Lengths of strand containing broken wires or corrosion should be removed and discarded. Prestressing steel should also be protected during installation in the structure. Post-tensioning bars for both temporary and permanent applications should be identified in a similar manner and inspected for damage or excessive corrosion. At any time during construction, the inspector (CEI) should have the authority to reject any prestressing steel that has sustained physical or corrosion damage.

Grout: Cement and other materials may be delivered in bags but should be stored in a weather proof building. Storage in the open may be allowed providing that materials are on a raised, dry platform with adequate weatherproof covering. Additives should be stored in a warm environment. Dissolvable packaging materials should not be allowed for any components as

they can break down to pulp and cause equipment or duct blockage. It is essential that the user (Contractor) maintain a record of all delivered materials. A copy of the manufacturers quality control data sheet should accompany each LOT of grout components shipped to the site. A LOT is that parcel of material from the same production run shipped to the site. Each shipment should be clearly identified with the corresponding LOT number so that it can be tracked to the manufacturers quality control records. Copies of shipment records and quality control test reports should be maintained by the Contractor and copies provided to the Inspector (CEI). Prior to use, all materials in storage should be checked to make sure they have not exceeded the manufacturers shelf life or have not absorbed moisture and begun to clump or hydrate. It is recommended that cementitious materials and pre-bagged grouts not be stored on site for more than one month before they are used. Dry silica fume is available in bags. Special care is essential when mixing dry silica fume with cement and additives in order to produce a job-site grout mix, as it can lead to clumping and a poor result. Pre-bagged grouts containing silica fume have been dry blended and do not exhibit this problem. Any material with a total time from manufacture to use in excess of six months should be Re-tested, or recertified by the supplier before use or else be rejected and replaced. Approval of any grout or grout materials by the Inspector (CEI) should not preclude subsequent rejection if material is damaged in transit or later found to be defective for any reason. Duct: Duct made from galvanized strip steel may be prefabricated or fabricated on site as necessary. Plastic duct may be shipped in coils or in bundles of straight lengths. In order to avoid inadvertent introduction of contaminants or debris, it is recommended that the ends of duct coils or bundles be protected and covered during shipping and storage. Special temporary end caps may be used to seal the ends of individual ducts. Plastic ducts should be protected from sunlight, ultraviolet degradation, crushing and excessive bending until installed in the bridge. All ducts and pipes should be stored in a dry location, on a raised platform, protected from weather and contamination.

3. PRELIMINARY WORKS AT SITE

3.1 Material procuring Prestressing Steel To ensure that correct materials are supplied and used, specific quality control procedures for material acceptance should be in place. Procedures may differ from State to State or from Owner to Owner. In some cases, an Owner may require that only post-tensioning systems be used that have been approved and pre-qualified under the Owners qualification program. Prequalification in this manner involves prior submission and approval of test reports and certifications. Samples for testing should be furnished at the job site for each manufacturer of prestressing steel and bar. Each sample furnished for testing should be accompanied by certification stating the manufacturers Guaranteed Ultimate Tensile Strength (GUTS), Minimum Ultimate Tensile Strength (MUTS) or Actual Ultimate Tensile Strength, (AUTS). An example of typical frequencies of sampling and LOT designations are, as follows: For strand: three randomly selected samples, 1.5M (5ft) long, per manufacturer, per size of strand, per shipment, with a minimum of one sample per ten delivered reels. For bar: three randomly selected samples, 1.5 M (5ft) long, per size of bar, per heat of steel with a minimum of one sample per shipment. One of each of the sample(s) furnished to represent a Lot should be tested in accordance with appropriate ASTM standard, and the remaining samples properly identified and tagged should be stored for future testing. In the event of a loss or failure the stored sample(s) should be used to evaluate the strength. For acceptance of the LOT represented, test results must demonstrate 100% of the guaranteed ultimate tensile strength. All bars of each size from each mill heat of steel and all strands from each manufactured reel to be shipped to the site should be assigned an individual lot number and be tagged in a manner that each such LOT can be accurately identified at the site. All unidentified prestressing steel (strand or bar) or loss of positive proof of identification is sufficient reason for rejection. Following initial acceptance, the user of the prestressing steel (Contractor) should maintain good control over storage and identification, maintain records and supply copies of certifications and test results to the inspector (CEI). The latter should regularly and periodically check stored components, records and results.

Approval of any prestressing materials by the Engineer (CEI) should not preclude subsequent rejection if material is damaged in transit or later found to be defective for any reason. Costs of acceptance and quality control tests are typically included in the project bid items for posttensioning work and no separate payment is made. Testing should conform to the applicable ASTM Specifications. The location where the post-tensioning is to be installed is considered the site and may be the project site or a casting yard.

Duct: Key features for acceptance (according to PTI) for internal tendons are: Duct cast into concrete should withstand at least 3.0M (10ft.) of concrete fluid pressure. Duct shall not dent more than 3mm (1/8 inch) under a concentrated force of 0.45KN (100lbf) applied using a 13mm diameter [#4] reinforcing bar. Where prestressing steel is pre-installed in the duct, the duct shall withstand at least 1.5 M (5 ft.) of concrete fluid pressure and resistance to denting is not required. Duct with a diameter greater than 50mm (2 in.) shall not deflect more than 75mm (3 in.) when a 6M (20ft.) length is supported at its ends, although where tight radii are required, more flexible duct may be permitted. Plastic duct should withstand the above at 38C (100F) except that longitudinal stiffness requirements may be reduced by 50% if the installation support spacing is reduced 50% from that for steel duct. The above do not apply to ducts stiffened with bars, mandrels or inflatable tubes. Concrete Concrete shall be prepared on the site by ready mix trucks. The mix design given was M35. Materials used were Ordinary Portland Cement, Stone dust, river sand, robo sand and water, fly ash. Also, for easy pumping of concrete, an admixture, cebex 100 was used. 3.2 Site Cleaning Strip Site of Organics & Trash: The site should be initially stripped of all surface vegetation and other deleteriousmaterial.

Recompact Scarified Surface Material: The exposed subgrade should be scarified and recompacted. Identify Voids & Recompact: Remove trees, including the root system. Proof roll the site to identify any loose soil. Drainage: Grade the lot for positive drainage away from the foundation during and after construction. Compaction tests should be performed on all fill material used during the site development phase. The quality, as well as the compaction, of all fill material should be documented. Fill should exhibit low expansion properties, be free of organics and other deleterious material, and be compatible with the existing soil characteristics. 3.3 Building Column line staking (subtopic) Building column line staking is an integral part of constructing a building. It ensures that the structure that is to be constructed is built in the correct place and that the columns are placed exactly where they were designed to be placed. Any type of construction staking is done specifically by professional land surveyors to make sure that improvements are built in the right area based on the site plan and engineering plans. What happens is that the surveyor uses structural or architectural plans to mark where the columns and other features will be built, ,marks the dimensions and sizes and then allows the construction crew to build the improvements at the location without worry of whether things will be in the right place or not. Surveyors do a lot of different projects on a construction job, but building column line staking is critical since columns are typically a support structure for the property. Being able to mark an entire line that is level and straight for the construction of the columns will allow the builder to ensure that everything is right where it needs to be base on the site plan and for the sake of structural integrity, which is critical in the building and construction process. It is always in the best interest of the Construction Company or builder to rely on a professional land surveyor for the staking process. A qualified professional land surveyor has an advantage because they can interpret the plans and then layout the site with temporary markers to fit the goals of the builder, engineers or architect. The builder will be able to trust that the building column line staking is correct and that everything can continue to be built accurately and reliably because the land surveyor has taken

the time to mark everything for the construction crew. Staking is critical because it requires a boundary and topographic survey to make sure that the site plan matches the actual property built. Building column line staking is not the only type of staking done. While this will ensure that columns are constructed evenly and at the right distances, there are other types of staking in a construction build. For example, mass grading, curb, fences, storm drains, sanitary sewer lines utilities, building offsets, sidewalks, roads and even parking lots require staking to ensure that they are all in the right places and that the construction crew can work around them or perform their job correctly. All land staking is done first and then building staking will begin with a survey that will utilize the dimensions and controls of their property to find the exact locations for staking that aids the building process. Stages and Measurement: Design Stage: Topographical surveying and site maps Construction Stage : Setting out and positioning works involves establishing lines and grades by means of stakes and string lines to guide the contractor. During & After Construction: As built drawings, a record and a check. Measurements Involved: Horizontal & vertical angles, elevations, horizontal distances. Equipment: Most of the cases Laser Instruments are used. The reasons are 1) To create a visible line or plane of known elevation or tilt. 2) Line or plane could be horizontal, vertical or tilted 3) Single beam lasers will project visible string lines or plumb lines. 4) A rotating single beam to create a plane. Ex: A level or a Theodolite. A total station may also be used. The ones designed for construction staking are of lower angular resolution (10 or 20) and shorter range (500m).

Horizontal & Vertical Control: Before construction: New control points around the site must be established with high accuracy. Additional points inside the site are then established. All points must be tied out for repositioning. These should: 1) Meet certain accuracy standards. 2) Be clearly marked, referenced and recorded. 3) Be far enough to be safe during construction. During Construction: Additional control is extended by the contractor as needed around or inside the structure. These additional points should be close enough to the structure so that workers with suitable equipment can use them. Steps for Building staking: 1) First step is to locate the building by boundary surveying. Stakes are placed temporarily at the corners as a check. 2) A set of batter boards and reference stakes are first set. The boards are around the building corners and nailed are a full number of feet above the footing base or at 1st floor elevation. 3) Nails are driven into the batter board tops so that a string connecting them will define an outside wall. 4) The two ends of the offset line, on either side of the building outside the boundary are joined with strings. 5) At the required locations, the plumb bob is dropped on to the ground to mark the position of the column.

Fig18.BuildingStaking

4. THE DESIGN PROCESS

4.1 Introduction: This section considers the various stages of the design process. As in most reinforced and prestressed concrete design work, the customary design process is of an iterative nature following the cycle: 1. Preliminary design 2. Check design by analysis 3. Revise design as required 4. Repeat steps 2 & 3 The analysis is normally based on semi-empirical procedures such as the equivalent frame method. More rigorous analyses based on, for example, finite element methods are rarely adopted. They should only be considered for large projects of unusual form where the high design costs and the inapplicability of the empirical method justify them.

4.2 Basic analysis: The analysis of post-tensioned floor systems differs from a reinforced concrete design approach owing to the positive effect that the tendons have on the structure. In RCC, the reinforcement is initially unstressed; the stress in the reinforcement results from the deformation and cracking of the structure under applied load. On the other hand, the tendons in a post-tensioned floor are actively stressed by the jacks so that they are loaded before the application of other loads. The force in the tendon is chosen by the designer and does not vary much with the application of serviceability Limit state dead and live loads. The analysis of equivalent frames may be undertaken by hand, using moment distribution or flexibility methods or by computer using plane frame analysis programs. There are also available on the market several; computer programs specially written for post tensioned flooring system. These programs not only undertake the analysis of the frame under applied loading and loading from the tendons, but also calculate the flexural stresses

4.3 Structural layout: This has already been discussed. It is the most important decision in the design process. Unless previous experience or over riding factors dictate the exact form & section, several possibilities should be studied although the designer should be able to limit the possible solutions by considering the various constraints and by rough design and costing exercises. 4.4 Loading: The loading for serviceability Limit State should consider the dead load and post-tensioning effects acting with those combinations of live loads which result in maximum stresses. At transfer of prestressing only the dead loads present during stressing, together with the posttensioning effects before losses due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation should be considered in obtaining stresses. Where the applied loads change significantly during construction or phased stressing is employed, the various stages should each be checked for transfer stress limits. 4.5 Equivalent Frame Analysis: It is usual to divide the structure into sub-frame elements in each direction. Each frame usually comprises one line of columns together with beam/slab elements of one bay width. The frames chosen for analysis should cover all the element types of the complete structure. The use of the equivalent frame method does not take account of the two-dimensional elastic load distribution effects automatically. It will give different support reactions from the analyses in the two orthogonal directions unless the width of slab will be full panel width. 4.6 Tendon Profile & balanced Load Ideally the tendon profile is one which will produce a bending moment diagram of similar shape, but opposite sign, to the moments from the applied loads. This is not always possible because of varying loading conditions and geometric limitations. It should be noted that for bonded systems the centroid of the strands will not coincide with centroid of the duct. This is particularly true in the case of circular ducts. In the simplest case, for a uniformly loaded simply-supported beam, the bending moment is parabolic, as is the ideal tendon profile. The total sag in the parabola is referred to as the tendon

drape and is limited by the section depth and minimum cover to the tendon drape & is limited by the section depth and minimum cover to the tendon. At the supports the tendon has no eccentricity and hence there is no bending moment due to the tendon forces.

Fig19.Idealizedtendonprofile

The upward forces applied to the concrete by a parabolic profiled tendon are uniformly distributed along the tendon. At the ends of the tendon downward forces are applied to the concrete by the anchorages. The upward & downward forces are in equilibrium, so that no external forces occur. The set of forces applied to the member by the tendon are known as equivalent or balanced loads in that the upward forces counter-balance a proportion of the downward forces due to dead and live loads. For a parabolic profile the upward uniformly distributed load, w, can be calculated as follows: Ws2
8

= Pav a

Where

s = distance between points of inflection a = drape of tendon measured at centre of profile between points of inflection.

Pav = average prestressing force in tendon 4.7 Flexural section design : The bending moments calculated from the loading conditions given including the tendon effects, provide the serviceability stresses at each section using: Top fibre stress, ft = P +M Ac Bottom Fibre stress fb = zt PM Ac Zt = the top section modulus Zb = the bottom section modulus M = the total OUT-OF-BALANCE MOMENT M = Ma Pc + Ms E = eccentricity of tendons, taken as positive below the N.A Ma = applied moment due to dead and live loads Ms = moment from prestress secondary effects Location Support Span In compression 0.24fcu 0.33 fcu In tension With bonded 0.45fcu 0.45fcu 0.15fcu Transfer condition: Transfer stresses should be checked for all floors. These are likely to be more onerous for floors with high imposed loads. For flat slabs, stresses given in Table 2 for the serviceability limit state also apply to the transfer condition for slabs analyzed using the equivalent frame method, except that fcu be replaced by fci.

zb

Ultimate Limit State: An ultimate limit state check is necessary on all floors in addition to the serviceability Limit State covered above. In this condition, the factored dead and applied loads are considered together with the secondary effects of the prestressing . The primary prestress effects are part of the section strength. Additional un tensioned reinforcement may be required in order to generate an adequate moment capacity. Designed flexural untensioned reinforcement: Additional un tensioned reinforcement shall be designed to cater for the full tension force generated by the assumed flexural tensile stresses in the concrete for the following situations: 1) Support zones in all flat slabs 2) Span zones in flat slabs using unbounded tendons where the tensile stress exceeds 0.15fcu. The reinforcement shall be designed for the stresses at Serviceability Limit State, both after all prestress losses and at transfer conditions. It shall be placed in the tensile zone, as near as practicable to the outer fibre. Under transfer any designed reinforcement is likely to be on the opposite face to that required after all loses.

Shear strength: Step 1: The shear resistance Vc is obtained by adding together the contributions from each of the sides of the critical shear perimeter as given in BS 8110. Vcr = vc bv d + Mo (V/M) Where vc,b & d are values for the relevant side of the critical parameter. The value of vc should be calculated taking into account both As and Aps for bonded tendons. The de compression moment Mo, should be calculated for the width of the side of the critical perimeter under consideration. It should be noted that the axial effects of prestress P/Ac are uniformly distributed over the width of the slab whereas the prestress moment effects (Pc + Ms) are concentrated at the location of the tendons at the critical perimeter. So,

Mo = 0.8 P Zt/ Ac 0.8Pe Where 0.8 = a safety factor on prestress P = the total prestress force over the panel width after all losses Ac = concrete section area across the full panel width Zt = section modulus for the top fibre over the width of the side of the critical perimeter P = the total prestress force for all tendons passing through the side of the critical perimeter e = eccentricity of the prestress force P, at the critical perimeter, measured positive below the centroid.

Fig20.TypicalMomentDiagramduetogravityloads

Fig21.DistributionofMomenttoColumn stripandMiddlestrip

5. EXECUTION 5.1 Materials All the materials should be ready at the site. Everything will be brought on day one of execution except Concrete. Concrete will come in Ready Mix trucks on the day of pouring concrete into the reinforcement. The main materials 1. High grade Concrete 2. Steel Fe 450, Fe 415 (8 ,10 ,12 ,16) 3. Ducts for tendons (Aluminium, HDPE pipe) 4. Tendons (Mono strand, 3 strand, 5 strands). The chairs must be prepared for profiling the tendons and supporting them. . After this, the anchorage markings are made. These are done at every end of a tendon span. The dead end and live ends are chosen for every tendon profile. Any undulations on the formwork base may be hammered and must be cleaned thoroughly to remove any kind of dust particles that may have come upon it during the course of execution in the initial stages.

5.2 Machinery used in post tensioning slabs

Machinery used in post tensioning can be classified into two categories :1. Installation equipments 2. Pumping equipments. Installation equipments are used to induce prestressing force. They are further classified as :1. Mono strand stressing jacks 2. Multi strand stressing jacks Features of mono strand stressing jacks: Types of jacks Capacity (KN) Stroke (mm) Weight (KN) PT 150KN 150 100 16 PT 200KN 200 200 23 PT 250KN 250 200 23 PT 300KN 300 200 28

Tensioning section (cm2) Max tensioning pressure (bar) Max return pressure (bar) Max locking pressure (bar)

3280 550 180 165

4720 450 180 165

4720 550 180 165

5832 550 180 165

Pump equipments:
Pumps used in the post tensioning of slabs are as follows :Stressing pump Grouting pump Vaccum pump Strand pushing machine Extrusion jack Bond end machine

Stressing pump: The PT series jacks require stressing pumps with power ratings ranging between 2.2KN 10KN. All these pumps are equipped with automatic lock off circuit. Grouting pump: It consists of an eccentric screw pump, a mixer and a turbo mixer. All these machines are equipped with a push button control panel. Vaccum pump: The power ratings of vaccum pump range between 4KN 7.5KN. this pump is used to inject grout under a vaccum thus guaranteeing perfect grouting without any air entrance. Strand pushing machine: It is designed to intersect the prestressing strands into the sheaths, consists of a hydraulic pump and a unit that pushes the strand into the sheaths. Extrusion jack: The equipment consists of a high powered portable jack fed by hydraulic pump. This jack extrudes passive anchorages (compression grips) at the ends of the strands.

Bond end machine: The bond end operation is completely automatic, controlled by an electronic device that regulates both time and force. (These machines are manufactured by Tensacciai, Italian company).

Initial sizing of post tensioning members :Span to depth ratio: Flat slab Characteristic imposed load Qk (kN/m2) 2.5 5.0 10.0 40 36 30 Flat slab Flat slab Ribbed with drop with band slabs panel beams 44 40 36 45 40 33 30 27 24 Waffle slab One way slab on deep beam 42 38 34

28 26 23

5.3 Anchorage markings :

The components of the stressing anchorages are the anchorage body of the cast steel with the wedges, a poly ethylene sealing sleeve and the recess former. The fixation of the stressing anchorage is done by the setting out and marking of cable axes on stop end form work, drilling a hole (30 35mm) for passage of the recesses former fastener and fastening the recess former to the dead end with lock out. The prestressing force is transferred to the concrete through the anchorage only. Install stressing anchorages perpendicular to tendon axis. Curvature in tendon profile shall preferably not be closer than 900 mm (3 feet) from stressing anchorage. Pocket formers used to provide a void form at stressing and intermediate stressing anchorages shall positively preclude intrusion of concrete or cement paste into the wedge cavity during concrete placement. Depth of the pocket former from edge of concrete to face of anchorage shall not be less than 50 mm (2 inches).

Fig22.Anchoragemarkings

5.4 Laying of tendons : The handling and installation of the post-tensioning tendons does require special skill and knowledge. Trained workers will install the tendons in the precise locations dictated by the engineer of record, and shown on the post-tension field placement drawings. The high and low points of the draped profile are critical to maintain and the tolerance for the placement in these locations can be as tight as inch. In elevated slab construction, the tendons typically are grouped in bundles in order to increase the spacing between tendons and improve the constructability of the slab

Fig23.Tendon(3strand)

Laying of nominal reinforcement: The reinforcement arrangement begins with laying of the un tensioned reinforcement. Since the panels are flat slabs(two-way), this nominal reinforcement in orthogonal directions. The nominal reinforcement serves as a base for the tendons. When the tendons are placed in orthogonal directions, it looks like a mat which is why this arrangement of nominal reinforcement is referred to as mat. Nominal reinforcement is provided with 8mm and 10mm bars. Heavy reinforcement is provided near the columns with rods of 16mm and 12mm dia.

Fig24.Nominalreinforcement

Tendon laying Tendons are bound together in different numbers. Strand is a bunch of seven rods. They may be singly placed or in a group of three or in a group of five. The 3 strand and 5 strand tendons are placed in Aluminium ducts whereas the mono strand tendons are placed in HDPE pipes. These are placed according to the drawings obtained. Tendon profiling is achieved at the site according to the elevation details given in the drawing. At about 0.7m from the anchorage end, grouting pipe is provided for every tendon. They are supported with chairs on both the ends with the help of chairs made from 8mm dia,

Bursting reinforcement: Reinforcement is usually required to resist the tensile stresses caused by the concentration of the force applied at the anchors. At some distance from the edge of the floor, it can be assumed that the distribution of streeses is classic linear distribution and depends only on the magnitude and position of the resultant of the forces applied to the edge of the floor. 5.5 Concrete pouring : Tests were conducted on M35 to achieve the best possible design mix. Through the IS method of mix design, proportions were got and with the same proportions, cubes were prepared and then tested for the compressive strength at the end of 28 days. Mix Design: Concrete mix design is the science of deciding relative proportions of ingredients of concrete, to achieve the desired properties in the most economical way. It should be borne in mind that mix design when adopted at site should be implemented with proper understanding and with necessary precautions. Advantages of Mix design: Mix design aims to achieve good quality concrete at site economically. I. Quality concrete means 1) Better strength 2) Better imperviousness and durability 3) Dense and homogeneous concrete II. Economy a) Economy in cement consumption It is possible to save up to 15% of cement for M20 grade of concrete with the help of concrete mix design. In fact higher the grade of concrete more are the savings. Lower cement content also results in lower heat of hydration and hence reduces shrinkage cracks. b) Best use of available materials Site conditions often restrict the quality and quantity of ingredient materials. Concrete mix design offers a lot of flexibility on type of aggregates to be used in mix design. Mix design can

give an economical solution based on the available materials if they meet the basic IS requirements. This can lead to saving in transportation costs from longer distances. c) Other properties: Mix design can help us to achieve form finishes, high early strengths for early deshuttering, concrete with better flexural strengths, concrete with pump ability and concrete with lower densities. Mix design of M35 Grade of Concrete : M35 Characteristic Strength (Fck) : 35 Mpa Standard Deviation : 1.91 Mpa* Target Mean Strength : T.M.S.= Fck +1.65 x S.D. (from I.S 456-2000) = 35+ 1.651.91 = 38.15 Mpa Test Data For Material: Aggregate Type : Crushed Specific Gravity Cement : 3.15 Coarse Aggregate : 2.67 Fine Aggregate : 2.62 Water Absorption Coarse Aggregate : 0.5% Fine Aggregate : 1.0 % Mix Design: Take Sand content as percentage of total aggregates = 36% Select Water Cement Ratio = 0.43 for concrete grade M35 Select Water Content = 172 Kg

(From IS: 10262 for 20 mm nominal size of aggregates Maximum Water Content = 186 Kg/m3 ) Hence, Cement Content= 172 / 0.43 = 400 Kg /m3 Formula for Mix Proportion of Fine and Coarse Aggregate: 1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +(Fa / Sp. Gr.* Pf )} 1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +Ca / Sp. Gr.* Pc )} Where Ca = Coarse Aggregate Content Fa = Fine Aggregate Content Pf = Sand Content as percentage of total Aggregates = 0.36 Pc = Coarse Aggregate Content as percentage of total Aggregates. = 0.64 a0 = Percentage air content in concrete (As per IS :10262 for 20 mm nominal size of aggregates air content is 2 %) = 0.02 Hence, 1000(1-0.02) = {(400 /3.15) + 172 +(Fa / 2.62 x 0.36)} Fa = 642 Kg/ Cum As the sand is of Zone II no adjustment is required for sand. Sand Content = 642 Kg/ Cum 1000(1-0.02) = {(400 /3.15) + 172 +(Ca / 2.67 x 0.64)} Hence, Ca = 1165 Kg/ Cum From combined gradation of Coarse aggregates it has been found out that the proportion of 53:47 of 20 mm & 10 mm aggregates produces the best gradation as per IS: 383. Hence, 20 mm Aggregates = 619 Kg

And 10 mm Aggregates = 546 Kg To obtain slump in the range of 150-190 mm water reducing admixture brand SP430 with a dose of 0.3 % by weight of Cement shall be used. Hence the Mix Proportion becomes :

W/C Water Sand 400 1 Units: kg/m3 0.43 172 0.43 635 1.6

20mm 619 1.547

10mm 564 1.36

Admix 1.2 0.003

Cement: Sand: Coarse Aggregates = 1 : 1.6 : 2.907 Test on Concrete Compressive Strength: With the same Mix Design, we have tested the concrete cubes for strength in compression since the strength in compression has a definite relationship with all the other properties of concrete, these properties are improved with the improvement in compressive strength. Hence, this test was given emphasis. Apparatus: 1) 5 cube moulds of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm. 2) Cement 3) Tamping rods of 16 mm diameter and 650 mm in length. 4) Fine sand 5) Coarse aggregate (20mm size gravel) Procedure: Calculate the materials required for preparing the concrete of given proportions (1 : 1.6 : 2.907). In this case, the weights used are Cement = 2 kg

Sand = 3.2 kg

Water = 5.8 kg

Mix them thoroughly in mechanical mixer until uniform colour of concrete is obtained. Pour concrete in oiled moulds with a medium viscosity oil. Fill concrete in cubes in two layers each of approximately 75 mm and ramming each layer with 35 blows evenly distributed over the surface of layer. Strike off concrete flush with the top of the moulds. Immediately, after being made, they are covered with wet mats. After 24 hours, the specimens are freed from the wet mats and cured in water for 28 days. Compression tests of cube are made as soon as practicable after removal from the curing tub. Test specimens during the period of their removal from the curing pit and till testing are kept moist by a wet blanket covering and tested in a moist condition. Place the specimen centrally on the location marks of the compression testing machine and load is applied continuously, uniformly and without shock. Observation: Specimen Load on cubes, kN Trials 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Value 703.65

697.5 670.5 722.25 701.25 726.75

Compressive Strength = 703.65 x 1000 = 33.27 kN/mm2 150x150 In reality, for post tensioned concrete, certain strength enhancing admixtures and mineral additives are added mainly such as Cebex 100 which will enhance the strength to a great extent. However, for conventional purpose, the general M35 design has proportions 1:1:2. The M35 design mix on site contained the following proportions: Cement = 390 kg Fine aggregates(stone dust, crushed rock, fly ash, river sand, robo sand) = 832kg Coarse aggregates (stones) = 620 kg of 20mm + 430 kg of 10mm Water = 165 kg

Admixtures may be suitably added in order to ease the pumping of concrete so that the setting time of the cement may be delayed and the concrete retains its properties on its way to the destination. These ingredients are thoroughly mixed in the ready mix truck for twenty minutes. For making M35 once, approximately 60 rotations may be required. After that, the concrete is pumped from the truck with a long pipe to the concerned floor where concrete is to be placed. Once concrete is placed, a vibrator is used to compact the concrete thoroughly.

Fig25.Concretepouring

5.6 Prestressing Concrete is left to harden for a few days, nearly 7 days so that it achieves its desired strength at 7 days. M35 gains a strength of about 25 N/mm2 at the end of 7 days and it is at this stage, that the prestressing is done. For prestressing, mono strand stressing jack is used and pressure is applied in a controlled way with the help of prestressing power pack. Initially, a gradual pressure of about 5 kg/cm2 is applied. This is done in order to ensure that there is no

anchorage bursting when prestressing is applied and also to check anchorage slip. The perimeter of the rod is then marked with paint and then once the anchorage is known to be stable, the pressure is increasing up to 430 kg/cm2. This arrangement is left for 24 hours and the next day, it is to be checked if any anchorage slip has occurred. If yes, prestress must be applied again. If not, the anchorage portion is locked (with cement paste) and then the extra portion of steel protruding out is cut off.

Fig26.prestressingpowerpack

Fig27.Monostrandstressingjack

Fig28.Processofprestressing

5.7 Grouting : After 2 days of the completed prestressing process, grouting is done for the tendons. The primary and the most important reason for grouting to be done is to retain the prestress. Another important reason is to protect them from corrosion by filling all the spaces in the provided duct. 1. Grouting is done with the help of grout pump. The mixture of cement, water and admixtures must be done under a strict mixing time and velocity control and must not contain lumps nor any air bubbles during injection into the ducts. 2. Grouting machines include the mixing and injecting operation in a single piece of equipment, easily handled, with pressures of up to 25 bar i.e. 5 kg/cm2, without the presence of air bubbles, using any type of cements and admixtures. The grout slurry used in the site contained the following ingredients: Cement = 50 kg Water = 22.5 kg w/c = 0.45 Admixture Cebex 100 may be added proportionately. When cubes of 75mm x 75mm x 75mm were tested in the laboratory, the compressive strength of these cubes was found to be 17kN.

This completes the process of laying of the post tensioned slab. The slab is then subjected to curing for about 5-6 days and then left to harden. At the end of 28 days, its compressive strength may be checked with any suitable equipment (rebound hammer). Other properties may as well be checked.

5. CONCLUSIONS Prestressed concrete offers great technical advantages in comparison with other forms of construction such as reinforced concrete and steel. They possess improved resistance to shearing forces, due to the effect of compressive prestress, which reduces the principles tensile stress. The use of curved cables, particularly in long span members helps to reduce shear forces developed at the support sections. A prestressed concrete flexural member is stiffer under working loads than a RCC member of the same depth. However, after the onset of cracking, the flexure behavior is similar to that of RCC, The use of high strength concrete and steel in prestressed member result in lighter and slender members than is possible with reinforced concrete. These two structural features contribute to the improved durability of the structure under aggressive environmental conditions. Prestressing of concrete helps in improving the ability of the material for energy absorption under impact loads. The economy of prestressed concrete is well established for long span structures. Standardized precast bridge beams between 10m and 30 m long and precast prestressed piles have proved to be more economical than steel and reinforced concrete. Precast prestressed concrete is economical for floors, roofs and bridges of spans up to 30m and for cast in situ work, up to 100m. In the long-span range, prestressed concrete is generally more economical than reinforced concrete and steel. Prestressed concrete has considerable resilience due to its capacity for completely recovering from substantial effects of overloading without undergoing any serious damage. In prestressed concrete elements, cracks which temporarily develop under occasional overloading close up completely when the loads are removed. Since the fatigue strength of prestressed concrete is comparatively better than that of other materials, chiefly sure to the small stress variations in prestressing steel, it is recommended for dynamically loaded structures, such as railway bridges

and machine foundations. Due to utilization of concrete in the tension zone, an extra saving of 15 to 30% in concrete is possible in comparison with reinforced concrete. The savings in steel are even higher, 60 to 80% mainly due to the high permissible stresses allowed in the high tensile wires. Although there is considerable saving on the quantity of materials used in prestressed concrete members in comparison with RCC, it is not much significant due to the additional costs incurred for the high strength concrete, high tensile steel, anchorages and other hardware required for production of prestressed members. However, there is an overall economy in using prestressed concrete, as the decrease in dead weight reduces the design loads and the cost of foundations. Characteristics of the reinforced concrete slabs There will be less spacing between columns They require beams Thickness of slabs increases and there by more load is transferred.(Heavy building) Less economical Less utility of space Characteristics of the post tensioned slabs There will be more span length between columns which gives more comfort and better use of areas. No need of beams, which means an even surface and easier construction Thinner slabs and there by less load is transferred.(Light building) More economical (nearly 30% variation in cost) More utility of space.

BIBILOGRAPHY : 1. N. Krishna raju, Prestressed concrete, Tata Mc. Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited. 2. Working party of concrete society Technical Report No.43- Post Tensioned Concrete Floors Design Handbook, published 1994. 3. N.Rajagopalan, Prestressed concrete 2, Narosa publications. 4. Nptel.iitm.ac.in 5. www.vsl.net/portals/PT_slabs.