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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
It is estimated that the present consumption of concrete in the world is of the order of 10 billion tones to 12 billion tones every year. Humans consume no material except water in such tremendous quantities. The ability of concrete to withstand the action of water without serious deterioration makes it an ideal material for building structures to control, store, and transport any material. The ease with which structural concrete elements can be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes is a positive point of use of concrete. For several years, the problem of durability of concrete structures has been a major problem posed to engineers. To make durable concrete structures, sufficient compaction is required. Compaction for conventional concrete is done by vibrating. Over vibration can easily cause segregation. In conventional concrete it is difficult to ensure uniform material quality and good density in heavily reinforced locations. If steel is not properly surrounded by concrete it leads to durability problems. The answer to the problem may be a type of concrete, which can get compacted into every corner of formwork and gap between steel, purely by means of its own weight and without the need for compaction. The self-Compacting Concrete concept was introduced to overcome these difficulties. This concept can be stated as the concrete that meets special performance and uniformly requirements that cannot always be obtained by using conventional ingredients, normal mixing procedure and curing practices. The Self Compacting Concrete is an engineered material consisting of cement, aggregates, water and admixtures with several new constituents like colloidal silica, pozzolanic materials, Portland fly ash (PFA), ground granulated blast furnace
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slag(GGBS), micro silica, metakaolin, chemical admixtures to take care of specific requirements, such as, high-flow ability, compressive strength, high workability, enhanced resistances to chemical or mechanical stresses, lower permeability, durability, resistance against aggregation, and passing ability under dense reinforcement conditions. The properties such as, fluidity and high resistance to segregation enables the placement of concrete without vibrations and with reduced labor, noise and much less wear and tear of equipment. Use of Self Compacting Concrete overcomes the problem of concrete placement in heavily reinforced sections and it helps to shorten construction period.
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remained very limited. After series of advancements it is now an engineered material with several constituents.
precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power plants and together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the furnace is in this case jointly known as coal ash. Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline) and calcium oxide (CaO), both being endemic ingredients in many coal-bearing rock strata. In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but pollution control equipment mandated in recent decades now require that it be captured prior to release. In the US, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. An about 43% is recycled, often used to supplement Portland cement in concrete production. Some have expressed health concerns about this.
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(i.e. anthracite, bituminous, and lignite). Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the application, this may not be necessary. Ash used as a cement replacement must meet strict construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been established in the United States. 75% of the ash must have a fineness of 45 m or less, and have carbon content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In the U.S., LOI needs to be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash is very often fluctuating constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the boiler performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in an optimal way to replace cement in concrete production, it needs to be processed using beneficiation methods like mechanical air classification.
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TABLE 1.1: Chemical characteristics of fly ash as per IS: 3812 - 2003 Sl.no Chemical composition percent by mass 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Sio2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 Silicon dioxide (Sio2) Reactive silica Magnesium oxide (Mgo) Total sulphur as sulphur trioxide (SO3) Available alkalis as sodium oxide(Na2O) Total chlorides Loss on ignition (LOI) Lime(CaO) Class F fly ash >70% 35% 20% 5% 3% 1.5% 0.05% 5% 3-5% Class C fly ash 50-70% 25% 20% 5% 3% 1.5% 0.05% 5% 5-10%
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1.3.2 Present scenario of Fly ash production in India and need for Fly ash utilization
Thermal Power stations using pulverized coal or lignite as fuel generate large quantities of ash as a by-product. There are about 85 power plants in India, which form the major source of fly ash in the country. With the commissioning of super thermal power plants and with the increasing use of low grade coal of high ash content, the current production of ash is about 112 million tonnes per year. Primarily, the fly ash is disposed off using either dry or wet disposal scheme. In dry disposal, the fly ash is transported by truck, chute or conveyor at the site and disposed off by constructing a dry embankment (dyke). In wet disposal, the fly ash is transported as slurry through pipe and disposed off in impoundment called "ash pond". Most of the power plants in India use wet disposal system. This Fly ash is a great environment threat causing damage to the land and the surrounding areas in which it is disposed off. The particle size of the cement is about 35 microns. There may be formation of void in the concrete mixes, if curing is not done in properly. Thus reduces the strength and quality of the concrete. Fly ash is finer than cement having very small particle size of less than 25 microns, so much so that it fills the interstices in between the cement in the aggregate. That is where the density comes from and it can reduce the amount of cement in the concrete mix. The technical feasibility for utilization of Fly ash as a partial substitute for cement in Self Compacting Concrete is investigated in present studies.
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To determine the effect of Fly ash as partial substitute of cement on the properties of self-compacting concrete in hardened state (compressive strength).
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(Gagne etal 1989). Since then, the term high performance concrete has been used around the world to refer to high durability concrete. In the early 1990s there was only a limited public knowledge about Self Compacting Concrete. Mainly in Japan, the fundamental and practiced know-how was kept secret by the large co-operation to maintain commercial advantage. The Self Compacting Concrete was used under trade names such as the NVC (non-vibrated concrete of Kajima co, SQC (super quality concrete) of maedaco. or the biocrete (taisei co.). Simultaneously with the Japanese development in the Self Compacting Concrete area, R&D continued in mix design and placing of underwater concrete where new admixtures were producing Self Compacting Concrete mixes with performance matching that of the Japanese Self Compacting Concrete(example: university of paisley/Scotland, university of Sherbrook/Canada etc). Modern or present day Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) can be classified as an advanced construction material. The Self Compacting Concrete, as the name suggests, does not require vibration to achieve full compaction. This offers many benefits and advantages over conventional concrete. These include an improved quality of concrete and reduction of onsite repairs, faster construction time, and lower overall cost and also facilitation of introduction of automation into concrete construction. An important improvement of health and safety is also achieved through elimination of handling of vibrators and a substantial reduction of environmental noise loading in and around a site. The composition of Self Compacting Concrete mixes includes substantial proportions of fine grained inorganic materials; this offers possibilities for utilization of dusts which are currently waste products having no practical applications and which are costly to be just disposed off. Current Indian scenario in construction shows increased construction of large and complex structures, which often leads to difficult concreting conditions. Vibrated concreting in congested locations may cause some risk to labor in addition to noise stress. There are always doubts about the strength and durability placed in such
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locations. Hence, if possible, it is worthwhile to eliminate vibration in practice. In countries like Japan, Sweden, UK, Thailand etc, the knowledge of Self Compacting Concrete has moved from domain of research to application. But in India this knowledge is yet to be wide spread.
2.2 Paper Thesis 2.2.1 Development and Properties of Self Compacting Concrete Mixed with Fly Ash ( 2012 ) by Prajapati Krishnapal, Chandak Rajeev and Dubey Sanjay Kumar:
This paper presented the study on establishment of standard mix design procedure and appropriate testing methods which are essential for widespread use of SCC. Most of Indian researchers have followed European guidelines for testing of SCC. Other countries are adopting these guidelines with slight modifications as per their local conditions. Addition of fly ash in SCC increases filling and passing ability of concrete, Increase in fly ash, super plasticizer content in SCC reduced water demand and compressive strength of concrete. In their investigation, increase in fly ash content in place of cement from 48 kg/m3 to 144 kg/m3, reduced the water requirement of mix, thereby decreasing the 28 days the strength of concrete from 52 MPa to 39MPa. Fly ash is industrial waste from thermal power station. Utilization of these waste products as cement replacement will not only help to achieve economical mix, but it is envisaged that it may improve the microstructure and consequently the durability of concrete. This provides solution to disposal problems and other environmental pollution.
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2.2.2 Development of SCC by using high volume of calcareous fly ash ( 2011 ) by I. Papayianni and E. Anastasiou :
They performed their study on following basis. Rheological and mechanical properties as well as long term volume stability seem to be the target characteristics in developing SCC for concrete applications. Calcareous fly ash as a mineral admixture in concrete mixtures often increases water demand for a required consistency. This does not favour the proportioning of SCC with this fly ash since viscous mixtures of low mobility are produced. However, calcareous fly ash exhibits noticeable self cementing capacity and could replace a high volume of Portland cement. In their experimental work, a calcareous fly ash replaced cement in different proportions up to 50% by mass and the effects on rheological properties and mechanical characteristics were measured, as well as, shrinkage deformation. All necessary modifications in proportioning and mixing are also mentioned. Based on the results, the production of SCC of adequate 28 day
strength (50 MPa) with high volume calcareous fly ash was achieved.
2.2.3 Performance of Self Compacting Concrete containing fly ash ( 2008 ) by J.M Khatib :
In this paper, the influence of including fly ash ( FA ) on the properties of selfcompacting concrete is investigated. Portland cement was partially replaced with 0 80% FA. The water to binder ratio was maintained at 0.36 for all mixes. Properties included workability, compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity (V), absorption and shrinkage. The results indicate that high volume FA can be used in SCC to produce high strength and low shrinkage. Replacing 40% of PC with FA resulted in strength of more than 65 N/mm2 at 56 days. High absorption values are obtained with increasing amount of FA, however, all FA concrete exhibits absorption of less than 2%. There is a systematic reduction in shrinkage as the FA content increases and at 80% FA content, the shrinkage at 56 days reduced by two third compared with the
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control. A linear relationship exists between the 56 day shrinkage and FA content. Increasing the admixture content beyond a certain level leads to a reduction in strength and increase in absorption. The correlation between strength and absorption indicates that there is sharp decrease in strength as absorption increases from 1 to 2%. After 2% absorption, the strength reduces at a much slower rate.
2.2.4 Medium strength self-compacting concrete containing fly ash ( 2004 ) by Mohammed Sonebi :
This investigation aims to develop medium strength SCC (MS-SCC). The cost of materials will be decreased by reducing the cement content and by using pulverized fuel ash (PFA) with a minimum amount of superplasticizer (SP). A factorial design was carried out to mathematically model the influence of five key parameters on filling and passing abilities, segregation and compressive strength, which are important for the successful development of medium strength self-compacting concrete incorporating PFA. The parameters considered in the study were the contents of cement and PFA, water-to-powder (cement+PFA) ratio (W/P) and dosage of SP. The responses of the derived statistical models are slump flow, fluidity loss, Orimet time, V-funnel time, L-box, J-Ring combined to the Orimet, J-Ring combined to cone, rheological parameters, segregation and compressive strength at 7, 28 and 90 days. Twenty-one mixes were prepared to derive the statistical models, and five were used for the verification and the accuracy of the developed models. The models are valid for mixes made with 0.38 to 0.72 W/P, 60 to 216 kg/m3 of cement content, 183 to 317 kg/m3of PFA and 0% to 1% of SP, by mass of powder. The influences of W/P, cement and PFA contents, and the dosage of SP were characterised and analysed using polynomial regression, which can identify the primary factors and their interactions on the measured properties. The results show that MS-SCC can be achieved with a 28-day compressive strength of 30 to 35 MPa by using up to 210 kg/m3 of PFA.
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CONCRETE
SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE
FRESH CONCRETE
HARDENED CONCRETE
FILLING ABILITY
PASSING ABILITY
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
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3.2.1 Cement
Cement is a well-known building material and has occupied an indispensible place in the construction works. Cement is finely powdered material which by itself is not a binder, develops binding properties as a result of hydration. Cement is called hydraulic when the hydraulic products are stable in aqueous environment (water resistance). There is a variety of cement available in the market and each type is used under certain conditions due its special properties. Some of them are OPC, PortlandPozzolana cement, Rapid hardening Portland cement, Portland slag cement, and High alumina cement. Super sulphate cement, High strength Portland cement, 53 grade high power cement etc. Generally OPC (43 grade) is used for the investigation and construction works. It confirmed to the requirements of Indian standard Specification IS: 81121989. The tests on cement are carried out as per IS: 4031-1996. The physical
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properties of the cement obtained from the testing are given in Table 3.1. The chemical composition of cement is given in Table 3.2. FIGURE: 3.1 Microstructure of cement
TABLE 3.1: Physical properties of OPC Sl. no 1. 2. 3. 4. Physical properties Fineness (retained on 90m sieve)% Normal consistency (%) Specific gravity of cement Vicat time of setting(minutes) a)Initial setting time b)Final setting time 5. 6. Soundness of cement(mm) Compressive strength at 28 days (MPa) 100 425 1 44.3MPa 30 minimum 600 maximum 10 maximum More than 43 MPa Result obtained 7 30 3.15 Requirement IS:8112-1989 10% maximum 30% 3.0 to 3.15
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by artificial crushing of the rock or gravels. Thus the aggregates derive many of their properties from their parent rocks. These properties are chemical and mineral composition, specific gravity, hardness, strength, pore structure. Some other properties of the aggregate, which is not possessed by the parent rocks, are particle shape and size, texture and absorption. All these properties may have a considerable effect on the quality of concrete in fresh and hardened state. The common coarse aggregates are crushed stone and gravel. The size of the aggregates generally used was 20mm down at 70% and 10mm down at 30%. Crushed granite jelly obtained from machine crusher is used as coarse aggregates. The aggregate may be classified as rounded, partly rounded, flaky, angular, elongated based on its shape and surface texture. Generally angular aggregates are used for construction work. The angular aggregate affects the workability or stability of mix, which depends on the interlocking of the particles. The physical properties of the coarse aggregate are tested as per IS 2386-part III. The results obtained are shown in the Table 3.3. The test results of sieve analysis are as shown in Table 3.4.
TABLE 3.3: Physical properties of Coarse Aggregates Sl. no Physical properties Results obtained 1. 2. 3. Specific gravity of C.A Fineness modulus of C.A Bulk density of C.A a)Dense state(Kg/m3) b)Loose state(Kg/m3) 4. 5. 6. 7. Absorption capacity of C.A (%) Surface moisture of C.A (%) Impact value (%) Crushing strength (%) 1522.78 1354.01 0.45 27.94 24.81 <0.6% Less than 45% Less than 45% 2.76 7.35 Requirement IS:2386(PT3)-1963 2.60 to 2.80 6.0 to 8.0
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TABLE 3.4: Test results of sieve analysis of Coarse Aggregates Sl. no IS sieve size in mm 25 20 16 12.50 10 6.30 4.75 Pan Percentage passing Percentage passing for single sized aggregate of nominal size 20mm as per IS: 383-1970 85-100 Remark
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
0-20 0-5
In the supplied sample of C.A, percentage passing are single sized aggregate of nominal size slightly larger than 20mm as per IS: 383-1970.
TABLE 3.5: Physical properties of Fine Aggregates Sl. no Physical properties Results obtained 1. 2. 3. 4. Specific gravity of F.A Fineness modulus of F.A Bulking of F.A (%) Bulk density of F.A a)Dense state(Kg/m3) b)Loose state (Kg/m3) 5. 6. Absorption capacity of F.A (%) Surface moisture of F.A (%) 1564.97 1396.20 1.43 1.41 <2% <2% 2.67 2.72 36 Requirement IS:2386(PT3)-1963 2.60 t0 2.80 2.20 to 3.20 Less than 40%
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The properties of fine aggregates are determined by conducting tests as per IS: 2386-Part III. The results obtained are as shown in Table 3.5. The test results of sieve analysis are as shown in Table 3.6. TABLE 3.6: Test results of sieve analysis of fine Aggregates Sl. no IS sieve size in mm Percentage passing Percentage passing for Grading-II as per IS: 383-1970 90-100 75-100 55-90 35-59 8-30 0-10 Remark
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
In the supplied sample of F.A, percentage passing aggregates fall under Grading-II as per IS: 383-1970.
3.2.4 Water
Water is very important ingredient in the concrete mass, as it actively participates in a chemical reaction with cement. It has been estimated that on an average of water by weight of cement is required for chemical reaction in cement compounds. Portable water free from injurious salts was used for mixing and curing of concrete.
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Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline) and calcium oxide (CaO), both being endemic ingredients in many coal-bearing rock strata. The figure 3.2 shows the microstructure of the fly ash. The physical properties of the fly ash obtained from the testing are given in Table 3.7. The chemical composition of fly ash is given in Table 1.3. FIGURE: 3.2 Microstructure of fly ash
TABLE 3.7: Physical properties of Fly ash Sl. no 1. 2. 3. Physical properties Fineness (retained on 45 sieve)% Specific gravity of fly ash Bulk density (kg/m3) Result obtained 43% 2.31 950 Requirement IS:3812(PT1)-2000 34% 2.2 to 2.5 -
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8. 9. 10.
For the initial mix design of Self-compacting concrete all three workability parameters are to be assessed to ensure that aspects are fulfilled. A full-scale test should be used to verify the Self-compacting characteristics of the chosen design for a particular application. For site quality to control, two test methods are generally sufficient to monitor production quality. Typical combinations are slump-flow and Vfunnel or Slump-flow and J-ring. With consistent raw material quality, a single test method operated by a trained and experienced technician may be sufficient. Some of the tests have been explained below,
4.4.1 Slump flow test and T50 cm slump flow test a) Equipment
The apparatus is shown in fig, FIGURE 4.1: Slump flow test setup
Mould is the shape of a truncated cone with the internal dimensions 200mm diameter at the base, 100mm diameter at the top and a height of 300mm, conforming to EN 12350-1(EFNARC 2002).
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Base plate of a stiff non-absorbing material, at least 700mm square, marked with a circle marking at the central location for the slump cone, and further concentric circle of 500mm diameter.
b) Test procedure
About 6 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally. Moisten the base plate and inside of slump cone. Place the base plate on level stable ground and the slump cone centrally on the base plate and hold down firmly. Fill the cone with the scoop. Do not tamp, simply strike off the concrete level with the top of the cone with the trowel. Remove any surplus concrete from around the base of the cone. Raise the cone vertically and allow the concrete to flow out freely. Simultaneously, start the stopwatch and record the time taken for the concrete to reach the 500mm spread circle (this is the T50 time). Measure the final diameter of the concrete in two perpendicular directions. Calculate the average of the two measured diameters (this is the slump flow in mm). Note any border of the mortar or cement paste without coarse aggregate at the edge of the pool of concrete.
c) Interpretation of results
The higher slump flow value, the greater its ability to fill formwork under its weight. A value of at least 600mm is required for SCC. There is no generally accepted
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advice on what are reasonable tolerances about a specified value, though 50mm, as with the related flow table test, might be appropriate. The slump flow T50 time is a secondary indication of flow. A lower time indicates greater flow ability. The Brite EuRam research suggested that a time of 3-7 seconds is acceptable for civil engineering applications, and 2-5 seconds for housing applications. In case of severe segregation, most coarse aggregate will remain in the center of the pool of concrete and mortar and cement paste at the periphery. In case of minor segregation a border of mortar without coarse aggregate can occur at the edge of the pool of concrete. If none of these phenomena appear it is not assured that segregation will not occur, since this is a time aspect that can occur after a longer period.
Mould, without foot pieces, in the shape of truncated code with the internal dimensions 200mm diameter at the base, 100mm diameter at the top and a height of 300mm.
Base plate of a stiff non absorbing material, at least 700mmsquare, marked with a circle showing the central location of the slump cone and a further concentric circle of 500mm diameter.
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Trowel. Scoop. Ruler. J-ring, a rectangular section (30mm * 25mm) open steel ring, drilled vertically with holes can be screwed threaded sections of reinforcement bar (length 100mm, diameter 10mm, and spacing 48+/-2mm).
b) Test procedure
About 6 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally. Moisten the base plate and inside of slump cone. Place the base plate on level stable ground. Place the J-ring centrally on the base-plate and the slump-cone centrally inside it and hold down firmly. Fill the cone with the scoop. Do not tamp, simply strike off the concrete level with the top of the cone with the trowel. Remove any surplus concrete from around the base of the cone. Raise the cone vertically and allow the concrete to flow out freely. Measure the final diameter of the concrete in two perpendicular directions. Calculate the average of the two measured diameters (in mm). Measure the difference in height between the concrete just inside the bars and that outside the bars. Calculate the average of the difference in height at four locations (in mm). Note any border of mortar or cement paste without coarse aggregate at the edge of the pool of concrete.
c) Interpretation of result
It should be appreciated that although these combinations of tests measure flow and passing ability, the results are not independent. The measured flow is certainly affected by the degree to which the concrete movement is blocked by the
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reinforcing bars. The extent of blocking is much less affected by the flow characteristics, and we can say that clearly, the greater the difference in height, the less the passing ability of the concrete. Blocking and/or segregation can also be detected visually, often more reliably than by calculation.
b) Test procedure
About 12 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally. Moisten the inside surfaces of the funnel. Keep the trap door open to allow any surplus water to drain. Close the trap door and place a bucket underneath. Fill the apparatus completely with concrete without compacting or tamping; simply strike off the concrete level with the top with the trowel.
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Open 10 seconds after filling the trap door and allow the concrete to flow out under gravity. Start the stopwatch when the trap door is opened, and record the time for the discharge to complete (the flow time). This is taken to be when light is seen from above through the funnel.
c) Interpretation of results
This test measures the ease of flow of the concrete; a shorter flow time indicates the greater flow ability. For self-compacted concrete a flow time 10 seconds is considered appropriate. The inverted cone shape restricts flow, and prolonged flow times may give some indication of the susceptibility of the mix to blocking. After 5 minutes of settling, segregation of concrete will show a less continuous flow with an increase in flow time.
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b) Procedure
About 14 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally. Set the apparatus level on firm ground, ensure that the sliding gate can open freely and then close it. Moisten the inside surfaces of the apparatus, remove any surplus water. Fill the vertical section of the apparatus with the concrete sample. Leave it to stand for 1 minute. Lift the sliding gate and allow the concrete to flow out into the horizontal section. Simultaneously, start the stopwatch and record the times taken for the concrete to reach the 200 and 400 mm marks. When the concrete stops flowing, the distances H1 and H2 are measured. Calculate H2/H1, the blocking ratio. The whole test has to be performed within 5 minutes.
c) Interpretation of result
If the concrete flows as freely as water, at rest it will be horizontal, so H2/H1 = 1. Therefore the nearer this test value, the blocking ratio, is to unity, the better the flow of the concrete. The EU research team suggested a minimum acceptable value of 0.8. T20 and T40 times can give some indication of ease of flow, but no suitable values have been generally agreed. Obvious blocking of coarse aggregate behind the reinforcing bars can be detected visually.
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b) Procedure
About 20litre of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally. Set the apparatus level on firm ground, ensure that the sliding gate can open freely and then close it. Moisten the inside surfaces of the apparatus, remove any surplus water. Fill the one compartment of the apparatus with the concrete to sample. Leave it to stand for 1 minute. Lift the sliding gate and allow the concrete to flow out into the other compartment.
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After the concrete has come to rest, measure the height of the concrete in the compartment that has been filled, in two places and calculate the mean (H1). Measure also the height in the other compartment (H2).
Calculate H1-H2, the filling height. The whole test has to be performed within 5 minutes.
c) Interpretation of result
If the concrete flows as water, at rest it will be horizontal, so H1-H2=0. Therefore the nearer this test value, the filling height, is to zero, the better the flow and passing ability of concrete.
Front view
Side view
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b) Test procedure
About 45 liter of concrete is needed of perform the test, sampled normally. Set the apparatus level on firm ground. Moisten the inside surfaces of the apparatus, remove any surplus water. Fill the apparatus with the concrete. Fill the container by adding each 5 seconds one scoop with 1.5 liter of fresh concrete into the funnel until just covered the first top obstacle. Measure after the concrete has come to rest, the height at the side at which the container is filled on two places and calculate the average (h1). Do this also on the opposite side (h2). Calculate the average filling percentage. Average filling %: F= {(h1+h2)/2*h1}*100%. The whole test has to be performed within 8 minutes.
c) Interpretation of results
If the concrete flows as freely as water, at rest if will be horizontal, so average filling percentage =100%. Therefore the nearer this test value, better the self compacting characteristics of the concrete.
b) Test procedure About 10 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally. Allow the concrete in the bucket to stand for 15 minutes covered with a lid to prevent evaporation.
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Determine the mass of the empty sieve pan. Inspect the surface of the concrete if there is any bleeding water and note it. Pour the top 2 liter or approximately 4,8kg 0,2kg only of the concrete sample within the bucket into a pouring container. Determine the mass of the filled pouring container. Determine the mass of the empty sieve pan. Pour all the concrete from the pouring container onto the sieve from a height of 500mm in one smooth continuous movement. Weigh the empty pouring container. Calculate mass of concrete poured onto sieve, Ma. (i.e. the difference between the weights full and empty). Allow the mortar fraction of the sample to flow through the sieve into the sieve pan for a period of 2 minutes. Remove sieve and determine mass of 'filled' sieve pan. Calculate mass of sample passing sieve, Mb, by subtracting the empty sieve pan mass from the filled sieve pan mass.
Calculate the percentage of the sample passing sieve, the segregation ratio: (Mb/Ma) x 100.
c) Interpretation of result
Empirical observations suggest that if the percentage of mortar which has passed through the sieve, the segregation ratio, is between 5 and 15% of the weight of the sample, the segregation resistance is considered satisfactory. Below 5% the resistance is excessive, and likely to affect the surface finish (Blow holes likely). Above 15%, and particularly above 30%, there is strong likelihood of segregation.
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Orimet device of a stiff non absorbing material bucket ( 10 liter ) trowel scoop stopwatch
b) Test procedure About 8 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally. Set the Orimet on firm ground. Moisten the inside surfaces of the casting pipe and the orifice. Keep the trap door open to allow any surplus water to drain. Close the trap door and place a bucket underneath. Fill the apparatus completely with concrete without compacting or tapping, simply strike off the concrete level with the top with the trowel. Open the trap door within 10 seconds after filling and allow the concrete to flow out under gravity.
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Start the stopwatch when the trap door is opened, and record the time for the discharge to complete (the flow time). This is taken to be when light is seen from above through the orifice section. The whole test has to be performed within 5 minutes.
c) Interpretation of result
This test measures the ease of flow of the concrete; shorter flow times indicate greater flow ability. For SCC a flow time of 5 seconds or less is considered appropriate. The inverted cone shape at the orifice restricts flow, and prolonged flow times may give some indication of the susceptibility of the mix to blocking and segregation.
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4.5.1 Cement
General suitability is established for cement conforming to IS: 8112-1989.
4.5.2 Aggregates
Aggregates shall conform to IS: 383-1970. The maximum size of the aggregates depends on the particular application and is usually limited to 20mm. Particles smaller than 0.125mm contributes to the powder content. The moisture content should be closely monitored and must be taken into account in order to produce Self-compacting concrete of constant quality.
4.5.4 Admixtures
Admixtures used shall comply with IS: 9103-1999, specifications and physical requirements where appropriate. Super plasticizers are an essential component of Self-compacting concrete to provide the necessary workability. Other types may be incorporated as necessary, such as viscosity modifying agent for stability, airentraining admixtures to improve freeze-thaw resistance, retarders for control of setting etc. Due to the special archeological requirements of Self-compacting concrete, both inert and reactive additions are commonly used to improve and maintain the workability, as well as to regulate the cement content and so reduce the heat of hydration. Other types of admixture additions can also significantly improve the long-term performance of the concrete.
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The following indicative typical ranges of proportion and quantities are given by the EFNARC. Water/powder content by volume 0.8 to 1.10. Total powder content 400-600 kg/m3. Coarse aggregate content 28 to 35% by volume. Water content <200 kg/m3. Sand content balances the volume of the other constituents. Adjusting the viscosity modified agent. One control mixture (MF0%) without Fly ash was designed approximately keeping in mind some of the basic concepts. Then we decided the mix proportion based on slump flow test, T50cm slump flow test and J-ring test. Over target strength is 50 N/mm2, to arrive the target strength we arrive at a mix proportion of 1:1.75:1.25 with w/c ratio=0.46, we have used an admixture named Auramix 400 to get better flow ability. From all trials finally we arrived at an admixture dosage of 0.6% by weight of binding material. The other three concrete mixtures were made by replacing cement with 30%, 40% and 50% of Fly ash by mass. Table 5.1 shows the quantities of materials required per cubic meter of concrete for various mix proportions. TABLE 5.1: Quantities of materials Sl. no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Mix identification Raw materials Cement (kg/m3) Fly ash (kg/m3) Fine aggregate(kg/m3) Coarse aggregate(kg/m3) Water/cement ratio Water content (kg/m3) Water/powder content % of C.A content by volume 423.91 0 1140.09 736.0 0.46 195 0.80 32 289.13 123.91 1181.96 705.0 0.46 190 0.85 30 242.55 161.70 1190.75 705.0 0.47 190 0.85 30 193.88 193.88 1207.24 705.0 0.49 190 0.85 30 MF0% MF30% MF40% MF50%
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Verify or adjust performance in laboratory Not ok Verify performance in concrete plant or at a site
5.2.2 Mixing
The required amount of all dry materials such as coarse aggregate (Gelly), fine aggregate (sand), cement and fly ash is weighed and placed in the concrete mixer or in a tray. It is mixed dry for one minute to get a uniform dry mix. Admixture is added in to the water and then stirred with stirrer and allow some time, to have reaction between water and admixture. The mixture of water and admixture is then added to the dry mix and then the materials are mixed properly to obtain a homogeneous concrete mix. The mixing time should not exceed 5 minutes. After proper mixing, the fresh concrete is tested for its workability, which is measured using flow ability test.
5.2.3 Casting
All ingredients were weighing and batched as per mix proportion adopted. Standard steel cube moulds of 150mm*150mm*150mm were used for casting
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purpose. The specimens are not compacted since it is self-compacting concrete, without vibration the concrete is allowed to settle by itself. Here 12 cubes are casted for each mix proportion and hence a total of 48 cubes. The details of test samples are as given in Table 5.2. TABLE 5.2: Details of test samples Sl. Types Sample size No. of sample for compressive strength test 7days 14days 28days 56days Total no.
No of mix 1. 2. 3. 4. MF 0%
of samples
150mm*
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
12 12 12 12
5.2.4 Curing
In case of SCC it is always true that it extends the setting time to unavoidable circumstances of 2 days due to addition of admixture during mixing. Curing helps in protection of concrete for last specified period of time after placement to provide moisture for hydration of the cement, to provide proper temperature and to protect the concrete from damage by loading or mechanical disturbance. The necessity for curing arises from the fact that hydration of cement takes place only in water filled capillaries. For this reason, a loss of water by evaporation from the capillaries must be prevented. The concrete starts attaining its strength, immediately after setting completed and the strength continues to increase along with the time. Addition of Fly ash makes the concrete to gain later stages of strength. Generally curing period for concrete is 28 days. We have tested for 7days, 14days, 28days, and 56days strength. In the first 7days of the 65% of the actual strength is achieved.90-95% of the actual strength is attained in 28days. The strength
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achieved in 28days of curing is called as design strength. The specimens were immersed in water till the date of testing and proper schedule was prepared for their testing at 7, 14, 28 and 56 days.
To study the behavior of SCC with partial replacement of cement by Fly Ash
10.
Orimet
Sec
Here each batch of concrete is tested for filling ability test by slump flow test and T50 time test and passing ability by J-ring test. The results are discussed in section 6.1 and 6.2.
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1:1.75:1.25
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TABLE 6.2: Results of T50 slump flow test W/C ratio 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.49 Fly ash in percentage 0 30 40 50 1:1.75:1.25 Mix proportion Time taken to reach 50cm diameter in sec 3 4 4 5 Remarks For SCC flow time is between 3-5 seconds as per EN requirement.
The Graph 6.1 and 6.2 shows the variation of results of slump flow and T50cm slump flow tests with the percentage replacement of cement by fly ash respectively. GRAPH 6.1: Slump flow v/s percentage of replacement
Percentage of replacement
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Percentage of replacement
0 10 20 30
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The Graph 6.3 shows the variation of results of J-ring test with the percentage replacement of cement by fly ash. GRAPH 6.3: Depth v/s percentage replacement
Depth difference in mm
Percentage of replacement
Discussion: It is observed from both Slump flow v/s percentage of replacement and T50cm slump flow time v/s percentage of replacement graphs that the filling ability of the SCC decreases with the increase in the percentage of replacement of cement by fly ash. In the same way, from the graph of J-ring test, also it is observed that the passing ability of SCC decreases with the increase in the percentage of replacement of cement by fly ash. This may be due to the fly ash used in our project is less finer than cement, the fineness values are given in Table 3.1 and 3.7. But the values obtained are within the limits specified by EFNARC. Hence cement can be successfully replaced by fly ash in SCC up to 50%.
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TABLE 6.4: Density variation of SCC W/C ratio 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.49 Fly ash in percentage 0 30 40 50 1:1.75:1.25 Mix proportion Density in kg/m3 2425 2326 2277 2207 % variation of density 4.08 6.10 8.98
The Graph 6.4 shows the variation of density of SCC with the percentage replacement of cement by fly ash. GRAPH 6.4: Density v/s percentage replacement
Density in kg/m3
Percentage of replacement
Discussion: It is observed from the graph the density of concrete decreases with the increase in the percentage replacement of cement by fly ash. This is because of the lower specific gravity of fly ash i.e., lesser than the specific gravity of cement. The test results for the specific gravity of cement and fly ash are given in Table 3.1 and Table 3.7 respectively.
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6.2 Effect of fly ash on compressive strength of self-compacting concrete (Hardened properties).
The compressive strength was tested for hardened concrete after 7 days, 14 days, 28 days and 56 days of curing in water. And also all these properties are discussed in section 4.5. The variation of compressive strength with respect replacement of Fly ash and the age is shown in table and represented in the graph. TABLE 6.5: Compressive strength test results Sl. no 1. 2. 3. 4. Cement in Kg/m3 423.91 289.13 242.55 193.88 Fly ash In % 0 30 40 50 In Kg/m3 0 123.91 161.70 193.88 W/C ratio 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.49 Compressive strength in N/mm2 7 days 14 days 28 days 56 days 37.06 27.47 16.57 13.95 40.55 30.52 19.79 17.44 49.05 38.41 25.64 23.54 53.69 43.60 30.46 28.74
GRAPH 6.5: Comparison of compressive strength of different percentage of replacement with age
60 50 Compressive strength 40 30 20 10 0 0% 30% 40% Percentage of replacement 50% 7 days 14 days 28 days 56 days
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GRAPH 6.6: Variation of compressive strength with number of days for 0% replacement
60
Compressive strength
50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
GRAPH 6.7: Variation of compressive strength with number of days for 30% replacement
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Compressive strength
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GRAPH 6.8: Variation of compressive strength with number of days for 40% replacement
35
Compressive strength
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
GRAPH 6.9: Variation of compressive strength with number of days for 50% replacement
35
Compressive strength
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
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Discussion: Here it is observed that as the percentage of Fly ash increases, compressive strength of the concrete decreases to a certain extent. From the table it has been seen that the strength at 7 days decreases as the percentage of Fly ash is increased. It is further observed that the 7 day strength obtained is almost 65%-75% of 28 days strength of the concrete mix. From the compressive strength test results it is also observed that, there is a marginal increase in strength of 28 days when percentage of Fly ash added is between 30%-50%. From the above graph it can be seen that the compressive strength for individual replacement is increasing from 7 days to 28 days but the compressive strength is decreasing from 0% replacement to 50% replacement of fly ash.
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concrete was mixed at the batcher plant beside the site, and was then pumped out of the plant. It was transported 200 meters through pipes to the casting site, where the pipes were arranged in rows 3 to 5 meters apart. The concrete was cast from gate valves located at 5 meters interval along the pipes. These valves were automatically controlled so that a surface level of the cast concrete would be maintained. In the final analysis, the use of self-compacting concrete shortened the anchorage construction period by 20%, from 2.5 to 2 years. Self-compacting concrete was used for all the walls of a large LNG tank belonging to the Osaka Gas Company, whose concrete casting was completed in June 1998. The volume of the self-compacting concrete used in the tank amounted to 12,000 m3. The adoption of self-compacting concrete means that (1) The number of lots decreases from 14 to 10, as the height of one lot of concrete casting was increased. (2) The number of concrete workers was reduced from 150 to 50 in the scenario. (3) The construction period of the structure decreased from 22 months to 18 months. Self- compacting concrete is often employed in concrete products to eliminate the noise of vibration. This improves the working environment at plants and makes it possible for concrete product plants to be located in the urban area. The annual production of concrete products using self-compacting concrete exceeded 2, 00,000 tons in 1996. Application in under water construction. 40000 m3 of concrete placed under water by using the Tremie method for the construction of a dry dock. Massive structures such as reinforced foundations for skyscrapers. Vertical walls & columns congested for skyscrapers. SCC pumped into column. SCC used in block fill. RMC application. Precast concrete element plants.
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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS
SCC is made from the ingredients, which are same as that used in producing in conventional concrete. It is seen from the compressive strength test conducted that there is a clear increase in the compressive strength of SCC when 50% replacement is considered with time. Hence it could be adopted as effective replacement percentage.
Self-compacting concrete, as well as conventional slump concrete requires proper mix proportion to become a durable concrete. The use of pozzolanic materials, such as Fly ash, will help self-compacting concrete more durable and prove to be a good replacement material for cement in concrete, otherwise these are waste products with no practical applications and which are costly to dispose off.
There is a considerable improvement in exposed surface (Fair Faced Concrete) and is pollution free with respect to sound pollution. Self-compacting concrete is ideal for concrete parts with complicated shapes and elements with high quality visible concrete. Use of right quality fly ash also results in reduction of water demand for desired slump flow. With the reduction of unit water content bleeding and drying shrinkage will also be reduced.
Fly ash is not highly reactive, the heat of hydration can be reduced through replacement of part of the cement by fly ash. Vibrated concrete in congested locations may cause some risk to labor in addition to noise stress. There are always doubts about the strength and durability placed in such locations. So it is worthwhile to eliminate vibration in practice, if possible.
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REFERENCES
1. Text book on "Concrete technology" by M.S.Shetty, fifth revised edition 2002, published by S. Chand & company ltd. 2. EFNARC, specification and guidelines for self-compacting concrete, Feb 2002. 3. IS 4031:1996, Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cement. 4. IS 8112:1989, 43 grade ordinary Portland cement specification. 5. IS: 3812:1981, Specification for Fly ash for use as pozzolana and Admixture. 6. IS 383:1970, Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete. 7. IS 2386(Part 2):1963, Methods of test for aggregates for concrete: Part 1 Particle size and shape. 8. IS 2386(Part 3):1963, Methods of test for aggregates for concrete: Part 3 Specific gravity, density, voids, absorption and bulking. 9. IS 2386(Part 4):1963, Methods of test for aggregates for concrete: Part 4 Mechanical properties. 10. IS 516:1959, Indian code for method of tests for concrete. 11. Invited papers on "Self-compacting concrete" by Hajime Okamura & Masahiro Ouchi, published in journal on advance concrete technology, volume 1, no 1,5-15, April 2003. 12. Paper on "Development of properties of Self compacting concrete mixed with fly ash" by Prajapati krishnapal, Chandak Rajeev and Dubey Sanjay Kumar, published in Research journal of Engineering sciences, vol.1(3),11-14, Sept 2012. 13. Paper on "Development of Self compacting concrete by using high volume of calcareous fly ash" by I.Papayianni, E.Anastasiou, presented at World od Coal Ash conference, May 9-12, 2011 in Denver, CO, USA. 14. Paper on "Self compacting concrete containing fly ash" by J.M Khatib, published in Construction and Building materials journal, vol. 22, issue 9, September 2009, Pages 1963-1971.
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15. Paper on "Medium strength self compacting concrete containing fly ash" by Mohammed Sonebi, published in journal of Cement and Concrete research, vol. 34, issue 7, July 2004, Pages 1199-1208. 16. Paper on "Guidelines for testing fresh Self compacting concrete" by G.DE Schutter published in European Research Project, September 2005. 17. Research paper on "Incorporating European Standards for Testing SelfCompacting Concrete in India Conditions" published in International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 6, May 2009.
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