Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 1992, Vol. 18, pp. 117-132 Printed in Great Britain.

0360--1285192 $15.00 1992 Pergamon Press pie

COMBUSTION INSTABILITY RELATED TO VORTEX SHEDDING IN D U M P COMBUSTORS A N D THEIR PASSIVE CONTROL K. C. Scrt~oow and E. GUTMARK
Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA 93555-6002, U.S.A. Received 24 July 1991 Abstract--This review summarizes recent research program related to the driving mechanism of dump combustor instability, Its scope includes experimental research in dump combustors using gaseous fuel. The emphasis here is on vortex shedding as a driving mechanism of combustion instabilities. It is shown that the development of coherent flow structures and their breakdown into fine-scale turbulence can lead to periodic heat release, which, when in phase with the pressure oscillation, can drive the oscillations as stated by the Rayleigh criterion. The physical processes associated with the vortex breakdown are described. This understanding is used to passively control and reduce the pressure oscillations, as demonstrated for dump and bluff body stabilized comnbustion flows.
CONTENTS

1. Introduction 2. Experimental Configurations 3. Large-Scale Structures in Isothermal Shear Layers 4. Large-Scale Structures in Reacting Shear Layers 5. Large-Scale Structure Breakdown--Enhancement of Fine-Scale Mixing 6. Driving Mechanism 7. Passive Control 8. Summary and Conclusions References
l. INTRODUCTION

117 119 120 122 123 127 127 129 131

In dump combustors and combustors with bluffbody flameholders, vortices are formed in the shear layer between the high and low speed streams at the rearward facing step (dump) or at the wake flow downstream of the bluff body (flameholder). The vortex formation is stabilized in the presence of acoustic pressure oscillations. In general, the high speed stream consists of an unburnt mixture of air and fuel, while the low speed stream is composed largely of hot combustion products forming the flameholding recirculation zone behind the dump plane or the bluff body. The vortex structure has a significant influence on the combustion process (Fig. i). In the early phase of the vortex development, with the unburnt mixture on one side of an interface and the hot combustion products on the other side, intense (fine-scale) mixing and burning are limited. When the vortex roll-up process is followed by interaction between vortices, or is obstructed by side walls, a large interface between the air/fuel mixture and the hot products develops, leading to fine-scale turbulence enhancement and sudden heat release. This process is repeated during each cycle of the pressure oscillations resulting in periodic heat release. When a proper phase relationship between the periodic heat release and pressure oscillations exists (Rayleigh

criterion) 1 high amplitude pressure oscillations may be excited. Rayleigh found that acoustic oscillations can be excited and sustained by addition of heat. His criterion states that the instability will be amplified when heat is supplied while the pressure is maximum. Suppression occurs for the inverse condition. Thus, the excitation is maximal when the energy and pressure oscillations are in phase with each other. This criterion was reformulated by Putnam 2 using the Rayleigh integral to define condition of instability amplification: ~

'I

p'q'dt > 0,

where p" and q' are the pressure and heat release oscillation and t is time. This criterion is valid provided that the extent of the flame zone is small relative to the acoustic wavelength. Self excited oscillations cannot occur when the phase relationship is near 180 degrees. Experimental study of the Rayleigh criterion was performed in a dump combustor using radiation oscillation as an indicator of oscillatory heat release. 3 This experiment is discussed in more detail later. Although much of the recent research is directed at understanding this likely mechanism for ramjet combustion instabilities, it cannot be separated completely from other phenomena, such as spray 117

118
REARWARD FACINGSTEP.
/

K.C. SCHAOOW and E. GUTMARK

umUMT MIXTURE OF REACTANTS

\
VORTEXBRAID

FIG. I. Vortex roll-up in dump combustor. combustion. In fact, it has been long known qualitatively from experience gained in engine development that the fuel distribution has a substantial effect on instabilities. Fuel redistribution was successfully used to extend operational regimes with reduced combustion instabilities. However, it can be argued that even with spray combustion the dynamics of the vortex structures remain the dominant feature, whereby distribution of fuel/air ratio in the flow changes the initial condition of the reacting unstable shear layers. In fact, the laboratory tests which will be discussed have for the most part used gaseous fuels. This is a great simplification, done in order to facilitate the research which seems justified, because it appears that, in operating engines, the liquid droplets are largely vaporized before the flow reaches the shear layer. Undoubtedly, more research is needed concerning the coupling between spray combustion and vortex structures. The evolution of the vortices are discussed in the general context of the interactions between shear layer instabilities and acoustic instabilities in the combustor. Recent developments in this area show that the commonly known vortex shedding from rearward facing steps and bluff bodies is a special case of flow instability. In the general flow instability context, the vortices will be referred to as large-scale coherent structures. From the discussions of the recent research results, a detailed understanding of the combustion instability driving mechanism is derived, which can be used to passively and actively control the pressure amplitude. By applying the new understanding of flow instability to the combustion instability problem, the present research is different from earlier research in this area. As pointed out by Culick 4 in a recent review of combustion instabilities in liquid-fueled propulsion systems, the general idea of periodic combustion associated with unstable shear layers was first independently reported by Kaskan and Noreen 5 and Rogers and Marble 6 in the mid-fifties. In particular, the latter work, discussing premixed gaseous fuel and air fowing past a flameholder, proposed that delayed periodic combustion in shed vortices can drive an acoustic field, associated, in their testing rig, with transverse oscillations at high frequency. Pressure oscillations at low frequencies became a growing concern during the development of compact ramjet combustors in the early-eighties. These longitudinal oscillations interfered with the inlet shock system causing loss of performance due to inlet unstart. 7'8 Byrne9.10 suggested vortex shedding as a likely cause of the oscillations, also pointing out a relationship between flow dynamics observed in acoustically excited jets and ramjet pressure oscillations. The present review is related to the low frequency oscillation, and addresses in a broader context shear flow instabilities associated with jets, wakes, and mixing layers and the role of large-scale structures as the source for periodic heat release for different combustion situations of interest to the combustor designer. The research results do not provide combustor design criteria to reduce pressure oscillations. More important, the research provides insight into a dominant driving mechanism, which can guide the designer in the development of passive shear-flow control methods for reduced pressure oscillation. Examples of passive control are presented. Also, increased physical understanding of the problem can provide the basis for improving predictive models for the occurrence of combustion instabilities. In the following sections, recent basic research flow in the interactions of flow and acoustic instabilities is reviewed as related to bluff-body and rearward facing step flame stabilized combustion processes. The evolution, interaction, and breakdown of large-scale structures into small scale turbulence is described as an introduction to the discussion on the combustion instability research results. In order to explore the role of vortex dynamics in the driving of ramjet combustion instabilities, it is necessary to consider the role of organized vortices in

Combustion instability related to vortex shedding

VORTEX M E R G I N G

119

~uo

0.20 + O.S

COLLECTIVE I N E R A C T I O N

FIG. 2. Shear-flow dynamics of forced jets. the shear layer dynamics. This approach was initiated by the discovery of large-scale structures by Brown and Roshko It and has been reviewed by Ho and Huerre. t2 Based on laboratory low-Reynolds number studies of various turbulent flows, it was shown that the shear layer develops instability waves in its initial region. When the amplified waves reach a certain energy level they roll up into vortices (Fig. 2). The initial vortex shedding frequency, fi, which is also called the most amplified frequency, is determined by various characteristics of the exit velocity profile, such as shape, turbulence structure, initial shear layer momentum thickness, 00, and the jet exit velocity U0. The initial most amplified frequency, when scaled with 00, and U0 yields a nondimensional frequency called the Strouhal number, Sti = fOo/Uo that is predicted to be close to Sti = 0.017 by linear instability theory) 3 The initial vortices of the shear layer grow and merge as they are convected downstream. Due to merging and entrainment, the shear layer spreads, and the frequency associated with the dominant large vortices decreases. In the shear layer of a jet, several vortex interactions can occur between the initial separation of the shear layer and the end of the jet's potential core. Therefore, the shear layer is characterized by several instability frequencies associated with different sizes of vortices. The region at the end of the potential core is governed by the jet-column instability) 4 The velocity fluctuations in this region were observed to have a characteristic frequency, called the preferred mode frequency,, which is typically in the second or third subharmonic range of the initial shear layer instability frequency. This frequency scales with the jet exit diameter, D, and U0 to yield the preferred mode Strouhal number of Stj = f j . D / U o . The range of Stj was found in previous investigations to be between 0.25 and 0.5) 5 When acoustic waves interact with the shear layer, vortex size can be stabilized depending on the matching between the acoustic frequency and the shear layer instability frequencies. The size of the vortices will be smallest when the acoustic frequency equals the initial vortex shedding frequency; it will be largest when the acoustic frequency is near the preferred-mode frequency. Significant large-scale mixing enhancement can be obtained at the preferredmode forcing frequency. If the acoustic frequency is much lower than that of the initial shear layer instability, collective interaction occurs (Fig. 2) as the initially shed vortices roll-up into a single large
v o r t e x . 16

Development of large-scale structures is beneficial for the enhancement of large-scale mixing or bulk mixing in the shear layer. However, it hinders finescale mixing or molecular mixing, necessary to initiate combustion. In the presence of large-scale structures transition to fine-scale mixing is initiated at the braids of the vortices, where high strain rates (velocity gradients) between the high and low speed streams exist (Fig. 1). However, the initial fine-scale turboience production is limited to the interface between the two streams. It can be conjectured that the finescale turbulent production is abruptly enhanced, during the roll-up of the vortices and by the merging or vortices. The role of vortex dynamics in driving pressure oscillations was studied by several investigators over a period of about 5 years (1984-1988). Experimental set-ups and methods are summarized in the following.
2. E X P E R I M E N T A L C O N F I G U R A T I O N S

The experimental configurations to study the role of large-scale structures and their breakdown into fine-scale turbulence in dump-stabilized and diskstabilized combustion processes are summarized in

120

K.C. SCHAOOW and E. GUTMARK

AXISYM

(a) (d)

21)

(b) .....~---

/-

-.

(e)

(c) - - ~

__. / - - O

(0

FIG. 3. Experimental facilities. (a) Refs 17, 19; (b) Refs 20-22; (c) Ref. 23; (d) Ref. 24; (e) Refo 25; (f) Ref.

26. In the following, those aspects of the experiments Fig. 3. Nonreacting and combustion experiments will be summarized which provide insight into the were performed. Coaxial dump combustor tests (Fig. 3) were development of large-scale structures in nonreacting described by Schadow et a l ) 7 (experimental methods and reacting flows and their breakdown into fine-scale included hot-wire anemometry, Planar Laser Induced turbulence, which may lead to sudden increases in Fluorescence (PLIF) imaging of in situ OH-radicals, Is reaction rates and ultimately to periodic heat release. ionization probes, thermocouples, and high frequency response pressure transducers) and Sivasegaram and 3. LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURES IN ISOTHERMAL Whitelaw t9 (microphones). Both experiments used SHEAR LAYERS gaseous fuel. Gutmark et aL ~s also used an annular The development of large-scale, coherent structures diffusion flame to study reacting vortex dynamics. Two-dimensional dump combustors (Fig. 3b) were depends on the relationship between acoustic freused by McManus et al. 2 (hot-wire anemometry, quencies and flow instability frequencies. For pressure transducer, CH emission detector, Schlieren example, to generate coherent structures at the end of photography), Yu et al. 21 (hot-wire anemometry, the potential core of an axisymmetric jet, the acoustic pressure transducer, Schlieren photography for high frequency has to match the preferred mode frequency. speed cinematography and spark photographs), This is illustrated in Fig. 4, describing experiments in Smith and Zukoski 22 (spark shadowgraphy, high- which turbulent fluctuations were measured near the speed photography, pressure transducer, hot-wire end of the potential core of a free jet. :7 The preferred anemometry, radiation intensity detector), and Davis mode frequency was identified from the maxima in et al. 23 (laser sheet flow visualization, pressure transthe turbulent velocity fluctuations spectra as shown ducer, high speed photography). The first three exper- for the unforced (UNF) case with U0 = 71 m/sec iments used a premixed flow of gaseous fuel and air, yieldingfj -- 340 Hz with a corresponding nondimenthe latter experiment used gaseous fuel injection sional frequency of Stj = 0.30. In a second test through the side wall downstream of the step (Fig. 3c). with low-amplitude forcing at fF = 190Hz and The flowfield in a simulated side-dump combustor U0 = 50m/see, the turbulence spectra from the (Fig. 3d) was studied by Nosseir and Behar 24 using potential core showed, in addition to thefj-maxima at 270Hz, a distinct second peak at the forcing frehydrogen-bubbles flow visualization. Experiments with flameholders (Fig. 3e and f) were quency (dotted line). For this test condition, a performed by Hegde et al. 2s (shadowgraphy, laser mismatch between fF and j~ existed. When U0 was doppler veiocimeter (LDV), CH radiation detector, further reduced to 35 m/sec,fj was reduced to 190 Hz, pressure transducer) and Poinset et aL 26 (high speed and a match betweenfF andJ~ was obtained, resulting photography, C2 radial emission detector, pressure in one high-energy peak atfF = fj. The high eV peak transducer, microphone). Both experiments used indicates that as a result of matching between the premixed air and gaseous fuel with the combustion natural flow instability frequency near the end of the stabilized on one or two cylindrical flameholders 25 potential core, f j, and the acoustic forcing frequency, and rectangular backward-facing steps. 26 fF, highly coherent, large-scale structures were

Combustion instability related to vortex shedding

121

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. . . . . 60 role (f F - 100 Hz)

2.10-31

. . . .

71 mls (IXIF.)

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tv

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t i (S~ - 0.30)

("

1.10_ 3 x = 2D r=O
I 200 I ~ I nO I NO llm

FIG. 4. Highly coherent flow with jet preferred mode frequency matching acoustic forcing frequency (Schadow et al.27). generated. The flow structures were shown to have high azimuthal coherence and high spatial and temporal periodicity near the dump using hot-wire anemometry; however, their coherence was reduced while convected downstream, which was also visualized in water tunnel experiments. 28 Forcing at the preferred mode frequency generates the most energetic coherent structure and therefore changes the shear-flow characteristics most effectively. Forcing at higher frequencies produces smaller coherent vortices which are less amplified by the flow instability and consequently less effective in modifying the shear layer spreading rate. Organized flow structures were also visualized in the two-dimensional dump combustor. When the flow was forced with a spanwise rotor at the exit of the tunnel, coherent structures were visualized by smoke illuminated with a planar laser sheet. Coherent structures were generated at selected forcing frequencies, which were not acoustic frequencies of the tunnel, but were calculated to be unstable frequencies of the shear layer.23 The vortices did not alter the acoustic field in the test section, since as an acoustic quadruple they are a weak source. However, when combustion is present they can feed back and affect the combustion chamber acoustics. In addition to planar and axisymmetric shear layers, large-scale structures develop in other flow configurations. For example, in a side-dump combustor counter-rotating vortex pairs were generated in the impinging region of two rectangular jets with an impingement angle of 180 (Fig. 5). Vorticity measurement indicated that the strength of these vortices changed periodically due to their stretching in the downstream direction. '4 The strength and rotation of the vortices were phase locked with the jets oscillations relative to the dome section. The motion causes periodic enhancement of the turbulent mixing, thus inducing unstable periodic heat release in combustion. The presence of the coherent structures significantly changes the shear layer characteristics relative to unforced shear layers. They enhance large-scale mixing as shown by Oster and Wygnanski. 29 Their possible effect on fine-scale mixing and combustion is discussed later. To study the effect of large-scale mixing in a two-dimensional dump combustor, profiles of the mean velocity were obtained downstream of the separation without and with shear-layer forcing using a loudspeaker. From these measurements, the shear layer growth rates were calculated. 2 The results are presented in Fig. 6 in the form of momentum thickness (0) versus Strouhal number, Sty: = f ~ X / U o with axial distance from the step, X. The initial shear layer growth rates with forcing are greater than those of the unforced flow. The forcing frequencies of f r = 98 Hz and 160Hz were significantly below the initial instability frequency, which was estimated to b e f = 1360 Hz. The spreading-rate enhancement is due to collective interaction between the initially shed vortices which are forced to roU-up into one large vortex. Large-scale mixing enhancement was also demonstrated in a coaxial dump combustor. Optimum results were obtained when the duct resonant frequency was near the preferred mode frequency, both in nonreacting and combustion experiments. 27"2s The presence of coherent structures in nonreacting flows may alter the acoustic pressure characteristics. Such a feedback from the coherent structures to the acoustics was suggested by Laufer and Monkewitz 3 and Kibens) ~ Such feedback mechanism was not observed in a nonreacting flow with a dump. Theoretically, it was shown that the coherent structures are acoustic quadrupoles having only a weak acoustic field of their own. 32"33 Experimentally, the same pressure amplitude distribution as function of forcing

122

K. C. SCHAOOWand E. GUTMARK

IIAIIMEII0 SIII~

FIG. 5. Counter-rotating vortex pairs in side-dump combustor (Nosseir and Behar24). frequency was found in a two-dimensional dump combustor with and without coherent structures present in the flow23 (Fig. 7). The sudden step design was used for the experiments with forcing of coherent structure. To avoid development of coherent structures at the same forcing conditions, the step was replaced by a ramp, eliminating flow separation. 34 The critical role of large-scale, coherent structures for driving pressure oscillations becomes clear, however, when their effect on the combustion process is considered.
4. L A R G E ~ C A L E S T R U C T U R E S I N REACTING SHEAR LAYERS

Experiments in annular diffusion flames provided insight into the effect of the vortex dynamics on combustion.~7' ~8An instantaneous picture (18 nsec) of

STANFORD

160 IIz

e4

2
UNFORCED

1,

2 St x
. fF X

3 Ue

FIG. 6. Shear-layer growth downstream of dump with and without forcing (McManus et al.2).

Combustion instability related to vortex shedding

GEORGIA T E C H
400

123

RAMP NO RAMP

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m
t.
2OO
w g

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"

"~" C

." ~'~

:~

i.~ .~.~.~'~

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';

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I~',

3OO
F, Hz

400

600

FIG. 7. Pressure spectra for two d u m p c o n f i g u r a t i o n ( D a v i s et al.23).

the acoustically excited flame at the preferred mode of the air jet (St = 0.35) is shown in Fig. 8a. The difference in black/white tones indicate different intensities of OH-fluorescence, which in this flame indicate the location of the reaction zone. It may be seen that the flame consisted of large-scale structures, similar to those observed in nonreacting shear flows. The combustion was initiated (highest OH levels) at the circumference of large-scale structures, where secondary streamwise small-scale eddies are growing, initiating the process of transition to fully turbulent flow (similar observations were reported in Ref. 20). The braids connecting adjacent vortices had low OH levels as a result of local quenching due to high straining rates in these regions. The vortices were convected downstream, and the combustion reached the vortex core (Fig. 8b). From these experiments it is clear that the combustion is related to the flow structures generated by acoustic forcing in the shear layer. Due to the fluid dynamic/combustion interaction, the heat release was periodic and pockets of high-temperature flow were convected downstream from the burner exit. The PLIF visualization tests were also done in the coaxial dump combustor) ~ These tests, at conditions which led to high amplitude pressure oscillations, confirmed that, even at realistic combustor conditions, the combustor oscillations were associated with periodic flow structures generated through interaction between flow instabilities and chamber acoustics. Measurements with ionization probes showed that heat was released periodically due to the convecting vortices, m7Oscillatory heat release associated with vortex dynamics was also observed by other investigators using radiation measurement and high speed photography. 22'26"35"36 Before discussing the possible driving mechanisms

associated with periodic heat release, further details of the large-scale structure break-up into fine-scale turbulence is discussed. Depending on the combustor configuration, different fluid dynamic processes can lead to the sudden increase in fine-scale mixing and sudden heat release.

5. LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE BREAKDOWN-ENHANCEMENT OF FINE*SCALE MIXING

In addition to the above mentioned vortex roll-up in shear layers, their growth involves interactions between vortices which merge together to produce new larger structures. One such interaction process is the pairing of two vortices. The high strain rates and the concomitant small-scale turbulence generated during the merging process accelerate combustion. The process may reinforce the periodic heat release of a forced reacting shear layerfl Another cause of sudden heat release can be observed in dump combustors with low step height. In a two-dimensional dump combustor the developing vortex downstream of the dump impinged against the lower combustor wall) Since the downward velocity of the vortex is large, vigorous mixing occurs between the remaining unburnt reactants and the combustion product, again leading to sudden heat release (Fig. 9). They showed that energy is supplied to the acoustic field because the heat release oscillations (as measured from flame emission) are in phase with the pressure fluctuations during the formation of the vortex and until it impinges on the combustor wall, when the highest energy release is observed. The acoustic resonant mode is thus reinforced, leading to high amplitude velocity fluctuations which induce the formation of the new vortex. In a similar 2-D combustor

124

K . C . SCrtADOW and E. GUTMARK

50-

t.3

40-

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I.-. 'T I-..i "r

,,, 2 0 -

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(a)

~0

20 DISTANCE

30

40

50

(mm)

80-

0.4

60E

~- 4 0 C5~ I,I "I-

29-

20
(b)

4O ~.+i 2TAN~E

60 [mm'~

80

FIG. 8, Flame characteristics of circularburner (Gutmark et al.~8),(a) 7 ns~ (average)exposure and (PLIF
imaging of OH S t F = 0.44) and (b) 5 sec (average exposure (PLIF imaging of OH S t F = 0.88).

Combustion instability related to vortex shedding

125

CALTECH

STABLE FLOW

UNSTABLE FLOW
FIG. 9. Shear-flow development in dump combustor (Smith and Zukoski22). having a relatively short length, the developing vortex interacts with the exit nozzle (Fig. 10). 21'37 The vortex shedding was controlled by the inlet acoustics. The strong mixing between the cold reactants and the hot products occurs after the vortices impinge on the exhaust nozzle generating small-scale vortices. This is followed by high heat release, which being in the right phase relative to the pressure fluctuations, further drives the instability. In side dump combustors, periodic fine-scale mixing enhancement can be associated with the development of the axial vortices at the impinging area as discussed earlier. 24 In combustors with flameholders, multiple shear layer interaction is a likely source of fine-scale mixing enhancement and sudden heat release. In combustion experiments 2s with two cylindrical flameholders (Fig. 11), it was found that during one cycle of the pressure oscillation two vortices of opposite sign are shed symmetrically from both the top and bottom surfaces of the flameholder. As these vortices convect downstream, they distort the flame surface and cause flapping of the flame branches. This distortion results in an oscillatory increase in the flame surface area and hence results in an oscillatory heat release rate. The flapping of the flame branches may also cause periodic interaction of the flame front with the side wall, contributing to the periodic heat release. Since the phase release varies faster than the acoustic pressure phase, there are regions in the flame that fluctuate in phase with the pressure and some that are out of phase. Excitation of high pressure oscillations was observed when the integrated amount of heat phase exceeds the out of phase contribution. It was also shown that when the heat release fluctuations lead the acoustic pressure fluctuations, the instability frequency is higher than the natural frequency of the combustor and vice versa. In bluff-body flameholder experiments, vortices formed on neighboring slot jets interact producing fine-scale turbulence and sudden heat release as demonstrated with Schlieren photography and radiation measurements. 26 The structure of the vortices and the resulting instabilities were strongly dependent on the operating conditions, such as temperature and air flow rates. Two types of instability were observed. At the rich conditions the vortices oscillated in a

126

K.C. SCHADOWand E. GUTMARK

es O e~

e~

e~ O

Combustion instability related to vortex shedding

GEORGIATECH

127

BRANCHA

::"~-~"~'*~"J:

"

WALL FLAME INTERACTION

"

NRA...,,LA..,..,N. /

"-~

BRANCH 0 - . J

" ' ~,...~...;.":'~ N ........

FIG. 11. Combustion instabilities in disk-stabilized flames (Hegde et a1.25). strong flapping mode which resulted in coupling between adjacent injectors. At the lean conditions, the frequency was higher and the shear layer exhibited a symmetric motion, which resulted in intense mixing and heat release when the mixing layers collided. In both cases a resonant coupling between the unsteady heat release and the acoustic modes is established.
6. DRIVING M E C H A N I S M

The preceding results suggest that a combustor flow which is dominated by vortex flow in the flameholding region is associated with periodic heat release. If the heat release is in phase with the pressure oscillations, driving occurs as stated by the Rayleigh criterion. To determine if the periodic heat release is a driving force, it is necessary to have a complete knowledge of the spatial and temporal distributions of heat release and acoustic pressure. These measurements were done in the present research using pressure transducer and radiation intensity measurements. 3"26'36 It was previously shown that the oscillatory heat release is linearly proportional to the emitted radiation. ~2 By taking the cross spectrum and phase of the pressure and radiation intensity at a given location in the combustion chamber, the relative magnitude of the driving at that location can be determined. For the example in Fig. 12, the driving occurs primarily at the front of the combustor) Damping occurs further downstream. The net value of the integral of the curve determines if driving (positive net value) or damping (negative net value) occurs) 6 The net value will change if combustor parameters which determine the heat release and pressure distributions are varied. The heat release depends on fluid dynamic mixing and chemical reaction and is therefore affected by dump geometry, initial condition of shear layer, fuel type, and local equivalence ratio, while the pressure distribution depends on the dominant acoustic mode, which is excited during the combustion instability. 3 Vortex dynamics also played a critical role in

driving pulsating combustion in a dump combustor, where the inlet length was significantly longer than the combustor length. In a 2-D dump combustor, the maximum heat release rate occurred when the vortices impinge on the exhaust nozzle.2~The frequency of the oscillations was determined by the acoustics of the inlet duct and the vortex convection time in the combustor, and the amplitude was determined by the rate at which the reactants entered the chamber, the heat release rate, and the venting rate through the exit nozzle. The process is not a resonant one. The pressure is growing not because a resonant acoustic mode is being fed at an appropriate phase (Rayleigh criterion), but because of mass and energy imbalance in the combustor. The frequency is well below acoustic mode frequencies of the combustor, including the bulk mode frequency. The instability mechanism is similar to that of a series of vented explosions. 2j'3s
7. PASSIVE C O N T R O L

Based on the described driving mechanism, the passive control methods can minimize pressure oscillation amplitudes. They do not provide design criteria, but can guide the engineer in the combustor design. Vortex coherence and the related periodic heat release can be minimized by manipulating the chamber acoustics to reduce the shear-layer forcing level. For an axisymmetric dump combustor with fully open as well as constricted exits, pressure amplitudes were reduced by use of a strategically located orifice in the upstream duct and use of quarter-wave tubes and Helmholz resonators attached to the combustor at a location close to a pressure antinode of the longitudinal frequency) 9 Also, the amplitude of the oscillation can be reduced by adjusting the inlet and combustor lengths. In the same combustor with the upstream end acoustically closed (perforated plate), the pressure amplitude was a maximum when the inlet length was one half of the wavelength of the quarterwave of the acoustically open ended combustor, with

128

K. C. SCHADOWand E. GUTMARK

GALTECH

t0:

-5

-10

Fro. 12. Rayleigh's criterion for dump combustor instability (Sterling and ZukoskiL)

a pressure mode at the duct exit and an antinode near the dump (Fig. 13). The pressure amplitude was reduced with a shorter or longer inlet duct length which did not match the half-wave length) 9 This solution is practical when the geometry of the combustor can be varied according to the acoustic criteria or when the combustor can be run with an open exit. The relationship of the excited acoustic mode frequency to the flow instabilities of the system is critical and can be controlled. For a coaxial dump combustor, it can be argued that the vortices associated with the preferred-mode forcing are the most

probable to drive low-frequency oscillations. Therefore, it is desirable to have a significant mismatch between the acoustic frequency and the preferred mode frequency. Practically, this is a difficult task because the preferred-mode frequency and other flow instability frequencies, which depend on the flow velocity, vary during the flight envelope with changing air mass flow and pressure. Also, for a complex system, it is difficult to predict a priori, which of the acoustic modes will be excited. Moreover, it is most likely that the dominant acoustic mode instability will be at a frequency which is closest to the dominant flow instability frequency associated with

IMPERIAL COLLEGE
1.6 ,~ 1.4 !.2 I.O

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o

0.1 0.1
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o 0

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fl/4
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v

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ox
FIG. 13. Influence of upstream length on combustion characteristics (Sivasegaram and Whitelaw ~+.)

Combustion instability related to vortex shedding large vortices. For example, in a coaxial dump combustor, it was shown that the preferred-mode frequency determined which acoustic frequency was excited. ~7In combustors with high energy release, the pressure oscillations can overwhelm the flow dynamics and force it to develop vortices at frequencies which are at the edge of the instability envelope. In the presence of periodic heat release, maximum driving occurs when the Rayleigh criterion is satisfied. The driving conditions can be changed by varying the mixing time (for example by varying local mixture ratio or fuel injection pattern). However, in light of operational changes of air and fuel mass flow and pressure, this approach remains a trial-and-error task. Passive shear-flow control was investigated to alter the combustion process, with a goal, to avoid periodic heat release independent of varying air and fuel mass flow. This method was investigated in dump-stabilized and disk-stabilized combustors and is described in the following. Nonreacting and reacting shear flow dynamics of nozzles with corners (triangular nozzle) and muitistep nozzles were investigated in a coaxial dump combustor. Studies of jets emerging from nozzles with corners, e.g. triangular or square nozzles, showed that the introduction of sharp corners in the nozzle can significantly increase the small-scale turbulence at the corners relative to the flat segments of the nozzle. Even with acoustic forcing of the triangular shear layer, only small-scale turbulent flow emanated from the corners while highly coherent structures were generated at the flat sides. 39 In a reactive flow of noncircular flames, the combustion at the flat segments was confined in periodic, large-scale coherent structures while the corner combustion occurred in randomly distributed small-scale flamelets (Fig. 14).4o Experiments with the coexiai dump combustor were performed to compare fuel injection into circular and triangular inlet ducts. Fuel injection into the highly turbulent flow field region at the vertices of a triangular inlet duct suppressed the pressure amplitude below 10% of the mean pressure (APRMs/ Pc < 0.10) over the entire equivalence-ratio range (Fig. 15).4~ In other dump combustor tests, the triangular inlet duct also extended the lean and rich flammability limits. 42 The combination of large-scale and fine-scale mixing produced by the triangular nozzle is beneficial for combustion where both bulk mixing between the reactants and modular mixing to promote the reaction are required for efficient combustion. However, the proximity of the large and small scale flow regions in this nozzle requires careful design of the fuel injection pattern. It was shown that the fuel should be injected at the nozzle's corners to avoid interaction with the vortices shed at the fiat side. But it was found that injector orientation, depth, and injection velocity are important to achieve this goal. If the injection configuration is not optimized to get the
JPEC$ 1 8 : 2 - D

129

fuel into the desired flow region, oscillations are not suppressed effectively and the flammability limits can be adversely affected. A multi-step dump having several backward facing steps enhances fine-scale turbulence and prevents large-scale structure development as shown in nonreacting and reacting experiments. 43 Using a multistep dump combustor, the pressure oscillations were reduced below APRMs/P c = 0.10. The lean flame blow-out limit was slightly extended to lower ~s with the multi-step dump relative to the sudden dump; however, rich flame blow-out occurred at a lower equivalence ratio for the multi-step dump (0.8 < 4) < 0.9) than for the sudden dump (~ > 1.3). To obtain suppression over a wide range of equivalence ratio, the distribution of fuel injection into the flow over the steps is critical. It has to be distributed along the steps so that it is mixed into the fine-scale turbulence downstream of each step. Preferably, it should be injected perpendicular to the flow at the right velocity, such that the fuel jet does not interfere with the reattachment of the air flow over the steps and edges. The length to height ratio of the steps has to be optimized to obtain reattachment near the edge. Shorter steps do not have a complete recirculation zone to ensure good mixing, while longer ones cause decay of the turbulence energy. In a disk-stabilized combustor, combustion oscillations were reduced by controlling the acoustic driving, provided by the flame merging and wall-flame interaction regions. Specifically, relative to the pressure oscillation the local phase of the unsteady heat release was manipulated to be out of phase with the acoustic pressure. This was accomplished by displacing the two flameholders relatively to each other, thereby changing the vortex travel time from each flameholder to the flame merging and wall flame interaction zones. The feasibility of this technique is demonstrated in Fig. 16 where the amplitude and frequency of the excited pressure oscillation are plotted as a function of the vertical separation between the flameholders. A strong variation in pressure amplitude is evident with varying the vertical separation. ~
8. SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S

Combustion instabilities were studied in a variety of dump combustor and bluff-body flameholder geometries, including two-dimensional and axisymmetric dump combustors, side-dump, cylindrical, and rectangular flame stabilizers. All the experiments showed that the instability was associated with the formation of large-scale vortices in the mixing layer which coupled with the acoustic pressure to excite strong oscillations. Cold flow tests showed that the roll-up of vortices is related to Kelvin-Helmholz instability in the separating shear layer behind the various flameholders. The frequency of this instability scales with a

130

K.C. SCHADOWand E. GUTMARK

fv22.05 0.57 7 ns EXPOSURE

PLIF IMA61NG OF OH fF = 100 Hz

|
CD

AIR

~c

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20

30

40 DISTANCE, mm

50

60

70

FIG. 14. Flame characteristics of equilateral triangular burner (Gutmark et a/.4). typical length scale which can be either the initial thickness of the shear layer or the jet inlet diameter, and the flow velocity. When the flow is forced by either the upstream or downstream duct resonant acoustic modes or by an external source, vortices can be generated at a much larger scale relative to the Kelvin-Holmholz instability. However, since the acoustic emission of the nonreacting vortices is low, there was no detectable feedback between the flow and the acoustic pressure in the chamber. This fact changed when a reacting mixing layer was considered. The large periodic energy release associated with the burning inside the vortices provides the missing link for the necessary feedback loop. The following scenario was suggested by all the experiments described above. The mixing layer rolls up into vortices in which combustion occurs. The energy

O CIRCULARINLET A TRIANGULAR COMB. NOT SUSTAINED

0.40

0.35 -

real. = 1.7 k g / s / ~ ' ' ' 0

FLAT SIDE

0.25 Pc 0.20 0.15 0.10 ~ /

2
. ~

= 14

NER INJECTION

&T= 13

0c
0.050"0.300:'~

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0.9

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FIG. 15. Pressure amplitude vs equivalence ratio for circular and triangular inlet duct (Schadow el al. 4~ ).

Combustion instability related to vortex shedding

6EOllGIA T('CH | * AMPLITUDE OF P' t oo -14o -120 110

131

3.

-100 i .am ..o.

60 .40
Z0

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FIG. 16. Passive control of pressure oscillations in disk-stabilized flames (Hegde et al.44). release is thus periodic in nature and reaches a maximum when the vortices break down to small scale turbulence. There are different mechanisms that lead to this transition depending on the combustor geometry such as vortex interaction, vortex impingement or collision with each other or on a solid surface, and vortex merging. The fluctuating heat release can feed energy into the acoustic pressure oscillations, provided that the two are in phase with each other, as stated by the Rayleigh criterion. As the pressure oscillations are amplified, they drive velocity oscillation at the mixing layer which further enhance the generation of coherent vortices in the shear layer. The understanding of this process suggests possible methods for controlling the oscillations in unstable combustion. The methods described are based on geometrical changes in the design of the combustor and thus are referred to as passive control. The common goal is to disrupt the feedback loop between the periodic heat release and the acoustic pressure oscillations. One approach was to decouple the two by driving them out of phase with each other, i.e. using Rayleigh criterion. The other was to change the geometrical design of the inlet duct or the bluff-body flameholders such that the evolution of large-scale structures is hampered and production of small-scale turbulence is promoted, thus maintaining a uniform rather than pulsating combustion process. The methods described showed a certain success in suppressing combustion instabilities but require careful design of the fuel injection system such that adverse effects can be minimized. 3. STERLING,J. D. and ZUKOSK1,E. E., AIAA Pap. 87-0220 (1987). 4. CULICK, F. E. C., AGARD 72B PEP Meet., 126pp. (1988). 5. KASKAN,W. E. and NOgEEN,A. E., A S M E Trans. 77, 885-895 0955). 6. ROGERS,D. E. and MARRLE, F. E., Jet Propuls. 26, 456--462 (1956). 7. HALL,P. H., AIAA Pap. 80-1118 (1980), 8. SCHAOOW,K. C., CRUMP,J. E. and BLO~SHIELO,F. S., Proc. 18th JANNAF Combust. Meet., CPIA Pub. No. 347, Vol. III (1981). 9. BYRr,~E,R. W., Proc. 18th JANNAF Combust. Meet., CPIA Pub. No. 347 (1981). 10. BYRNE,R. W., AIAA Pap. 83-2017 (1983). 1I. BROWN, G. L. and ROSHKO,A., J. Fluid Mech. 64, 775-816 (1974). 12. Ho, C. M. and HUERRE,P., A. Rev. Fluid Mech. 16, 365--424 (1984). 13. MICHALKE,A., J. Fluid Mech. 23, 521-544 (1965). 14. CRow, S. C. and CHAMPAGNE,F. H., J. FluidMech. 48, 547-591 (1971). 15. GUTMARK, E. and Ho, C. M., Phys. Fluids 26, 2932-2938 (1983). 16. Ho, C. M. and NOSSEIR,N. S., J. Fluid Mech. 105, 119-142 (1981). 17. SCHAOOW,K. C., GUTMARK,E., PARR,T. P., PARR,D. M. and WILSON, W. J., Combust. Sci. Technol. 64, 167-186 (1989), 18. GUTMARK, E., PARR,T. P., PARR,D. M. and SCHADOW, K. C., d. Heat Transfer 111, 148-155 (1989). 19. SIVmEOAgAM,S. and WHlaXLAW,J. H., 'Oscillations in axisymmetric dump combustors,' Imperial College, Mechanical Engineering Report FS/86/33 (July, 1986). 20. McMANuS, R. R., VArCDSmm~ER,V. and BOWMAN, C. T., Combust. Flame 82, 75-92 (in press). 21. Yu, K., TROt:rE,A. C., KEAN]NI,R., BAUWENS,L. and DAILY,J. W., AIAA Pap. 89-0623 (1989). 22. SMITH,D. A. and ZUKOSKI,E. E., AIAA Pap. 85-1248 (1985). 23. DAws,J. A., KomEgA'rrl,N. M., WALTEmCK,R. E. and STRAHLE,W. E., AIAA Pap. 86-0003 (1986). 24. NOSSEIR,N. S. and BEHAR,S., AIAA J. 24, 1752-1757 (1986). 25. HEGDE,U. G., REUTER,D. and ZINN, B. T., AIAA Pap. 88-0150 (1988). 26. POINSOT, T. J., TROUVE, A. C., VEYNANTE, D. P., CANDEL,S. M. and ESPOS]TO,E. J., J. Fluid Mech. 177, 265-292 (1987).

REFERENCES

1. RAYLEIGH, J. W. S., The Theory of Sound, Dover Publications, New York (1945). 2. PUTNAM, A. A., Combustion-Driven Oscillations in Industry, Elsevier (1971).

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K.C. SCHADOWand E. GUTMARK 36. HEGDE,U. G., REUTER,D., DANIEL,B. R. and ZINN,B. T., Combust. Sci. Technol. 55, 125-138 (1987). 37. Yu, K., LEE,S., TROUVE,A. C., STEWART, H. and DAILY, J. W., AIAA Pap. 87-1871 (1987). 38. BAUWENS,L. and DAILY, J. W., Spring Meet. Western States Section Combust. Inst. Pap. 89-29 (1989). 39. SCHADOW, K. C., GUTMARK,E., PARR, D. M. and WILSON, K. J., Exp. Fluids J. 6, 129-135 (1988). 40. GUTMARK,E., SCHADOW,K. C., PARR,T. P., PARR, D. M. and WILSON,W. J., Exp. Fluids 7, 248-258 (1989). 41. SCHADOW,K. C., GUTMARK,E., WILSON, K. J. and SMITH, R. A.,. 9th ISABE (1989). 42. WHITELAW,J. H., SIVASEGARAM,S., SCHADOW,K. C. and GUTMARI,E., 72nd AGARD Meet. (1988). 43. SCHADOW,K. C., GUTMARK,E., WILSON, K. J. and SMITH, R. A., J. Propuls. Pwr 6, 406-411 (1990). 44. HEGDE, U., REUTER, D. and ZINN, B., AIAA Pap. 89-0979 (i 989).

27. SCHADOW,K. C., GU'rMARK,E., PARR,D. M., MAHAN, V. A. and FERRELL,G. B., J. Combust. Sci. Technol. 54, 103-116 (1987). 28. SCHADOW,K. C., WILSON, K. J. and GUTMARK,E., AIAA J. 25, 1164-1170 (1987). 29. OS~R, D. and WYGNANSKI,I., J. Fluid Mech. 123, 91-130 (1982). 30. LAUFER,J. and MONKEWITZ,P. A., AIAA Pap. 80-0962

(1980).
31. KmENS,V., AIAA Pap. 81-1960 (1981). 32. KOSmGOE,S., YANG, V. and CULICK, F. E. C., AIAA Pap. 85-0043 (1985). 33. Jou, W.-H. and MENON, S., Phys. Fluids (1988). (Also AIAA-75-1422.) 34. DAVIS,J. A. and STRAHI~,W. A., AIAA Pap. 88-0595 (1988). 35. DAvis, D. L., 'Coaxial dump combustors combustion instabilities, Part I--Parametric test data,' Aero Propulsion Laboratory, Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, Interim Report (1981).