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Operating System
Operating System controls all the computers resources and provides the base
upon which the application programs run.


The layer of software on top of the bare hardware, to manage all parts of the
system, and present the user with an interface or virtual machine that is easier
to understand and program.

Operating System
Microprogram:
The layer of software usually located in read-only memory.

Reduced Instruction Set Computers:
The hardware executes the machine language instructions directly.
Eg., IBM PowerPC

Kernel / Supervisor Mode:
It is protected from user tampering the hardware.

User Mode
Compilers and editors run in user mode.
Operating System
First Digital Computer Analytical Engine. Charles Babbage

Generations of OS:
Vacuum Tubes and Plugboards (1945-55)
Transistors and Batch Systems (1955-1965)
IC s and Multiprogramming (1965-1980)
PC s(1980 Present)

Operating System
When a running job finished, the Operating System could load a new job from
the disk into the now-empty portion and run it. This technique is called
Spooling(Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line).

Time Sharing and Multi programming:
Its a variant of multi programming in which each user has an on line
terminal. In a timesharing system, if 20 users are logged in and 17 of them are
thinking the CPU is allocated in turn to the three jobs that want service.

POSIX:
To make it possible to write programs that could run on any UNIX systems.
A minimal system call interface that conformant UNIX Systems must support.
Operating System
System Calls :
The interface between the Operating System and the user programs is defined
by the set of extended instructions that the Operating System provides.

+ Process:
+ Program in execution.
+ Associated with each process is address space(executable program, the
programs data and stack) , a list of memory locations.

+ Process Table:
+ All the info about each process is stored in a table, which is an array or linked
lists one for each process.
Operating System
IPC:
Related processes that are cooperating to get some job done often need to
communicate with one another and synchronize their activities.

Signal:
They are the software analog of hardware interrupts and can be generated by a
variety of causes in addition to timers expiring.

Pipe :
Sort of pseudofile that can be used to connect two processes together.
Operating System
SIGKILL (Signal 9)

Canonical Mode:
Normal Terminal Mode, in which erase and kill characters work normally

Non canonical Mode :
A minimum number of characters to accept and a time, specified in units of
1/10 of a s.

OS structure:
Monolithic Systems: There is no structure. The OS is written as a collection of
procedures, each of which can call any of the other ones whenever it needs to.

Operating System
There is no information hiding in monolithic systems.

Layered Systems:
OS as a hierarchy of layers, each one constructed upon the one below it.
Eg, THE System
Virtual Machine:
Runs on the bare hardware and does the multiprogramming.

Process States:
Running (actually using the CPU at that instant)
Ready (runnable; temporarily stopped to let another process run).
Blocked(unable to run until some external event happens)
Operating System
Interrupt Vector:
It contains the address of the interrupt service procedure.

Threads(Light weight process):
In modern OS, support is provided for multiple threads of control within a
process.

(IPC)Race Conditions:
When two or more processes are reading or writing some shared data and the
final result depends on who runs precisely when, are called race conditions.

Critical Sections: Part of the process where the share memory is accessed.
Operating System
Producer Consumer problem:

#define N 100
Int count=0;
Void producer(void)
{while(TRUE)
{produce_item();
If(count==N)sleep();
Enter_item();
Count++;
If(count==1)wakeup(consumer);
}}

Operating System
Void consumer(void)
{While(TRUE)
{if(count==0)sleep();
Remove_item();
Count--;
If(count==N-1)wakeup(producer);
Consume_item();
}}

Two processes share a common, fixed size buffer. One of them, the
producer,puts information into the buffer, and the other one, the consumer,
takes it out.
Operating System
Semaphore(E.W.Dijkstra,1965):
- A new variable type, that has the value 0 when no wakeups were saved, or
some positive value if one or more wakeups were pending.

- Atomic Action:
- Checking the value, changing it, and possibly going to sleep is all done as a
single, indivisible, atomic action.

- #define N 100
- Typedef int semaphore;
- Semaphore mutex=1;
- Semaphore empty=N;
- Semaphore full=0;
Operating System
Void producer(void)
{int item;
While(true){
Produce_item(&item);
Down(&empty);
Down(&mutex);
Enter_item(item);
Up(&mutex);
Up(&full);
}}

Void consumer(void)
{int item;
While(true){
Down(&full);
Operating System
Down(&mutex);
Remove_item(&item);
Up(&mutex);
Up(&empty);
Consume_item(item);
}}

Binary Semaphores:
Semaphores that are initialized to 1 and used by two or more processes to
ensure that only one of them can enter its critical region at the same time.
Use of Semaphore:
1)Synchronization.
2)Mutual Exclusion
Operating System
Monitors :
A collection of procedures, variables and data structures that are all grouped
together in a package.
Processes may call the procedures in a monitor whenever they want to, but
they cannot directly access the monitors internal data structures from
procedures declared outside the monitor.


(Classical IPC problems)Dining Philosophers problem:
Starvation is deadlock.
Used for modeling processes that are competing for exclusive access to a
limited number of resources.
Operating System
@ Models access to a database.
@ Eg., Airline Reservation System
@ Having two readers at the same time is not a problem, the second reader is
admitted.
@ As long as atleast one reader is still active, susbsequent readers are admitted.

@ Correction:
@ When a reader arrives and a writer is waiting, the reader is suspended behind
the writer instead of being admitted immediately.

@ Disadvantages:
@ Less concurrency
@ Lower Performance
Operating System
Sleeping Barber Problem:
+ Three Semaphores: Customers, Barbers, mutex.
+ Customers counts waiting customers (excluding person in chair)
+ Barbers number of barbers who are idle
+ Mutex used for mutual exclusion
+ Waiting copy of customers

+ Customer enters the shop, counts the number of waiting customers. If it is less
than the number of chairs, he stays; otherwise, he leaves.


Operating System
Process Scheduling
When more than one process is runnable, the Operating System must decide
which one to run first.
The part of the OS which does this is Scheduler.
The algorithm it uses is called Scheduling algorithm.

Fairness make sure each process gets its fair share of the CPU
Efficiency keep the CPU busy 100 percent of the time
Response time minimize response time for interactive users.
Turnaround minimize the time batch users must wait for output.
Throughput maximize the number of jobs processed per hour.
Operating System
Preemptive Scheduling
The strategy of allowing processes that are logically runnable to be
temporarily suspended.
Non preemptive Scheduling :
Run to completion method.

Round Robin Scheduling
Quantum(Each process is assigned a time interval)
Priority Scheduling
Multiple Queues
Shortest Job First
Guaranteed Scheduling
Operating System
Lottery Scheduling
Real time Scheduling
Two level scheduling
Policy vs. mechanisms
Operating System
Deadlock :
Two or more processes are blocked and will remain so forever.
Can Occur on both Hardware and Software resources.
Occur on Non preemptable resource.

Preemptable resource:
Can be taken away from the process owning it with no ill effects.
Eg., Memory

Non preemptable resource:
Cannot be taken away from its current owner without causing the computation
to fail.
Eg., Printer.
Operating System
O Deadlock:
O A set of processes is deadlocked if each process in the set is waiting for an
event that only another process in the set can cause.

O Conditions for Deadlock:
O Condition - Approach
O Mutual Exclusion Spool Everything
O Hold and Wait - Request all resources initially
O No preemption Take resources away
O Circular wait Order resources numerically
O All four of the conditions must be present for a deadlock to occur.
Operating System
DeadLock Avoidance:
Bankers Algorithm:

Operating System
Memory Manager:
The part of the OS that manages the memory hierarchy

+ Swapping:
+ Bringing each process in its entirety, running it for a while, then putting it back
on disk.

+ Virtual Memory:
+ Allows programs to run even when they are only partially in main memory.

+ Memory Compaction:
+ When swapping creates multiple holes in memory, it is possible to combine
them all into one big one by moving all the processes downwards as far as
possible.
Operating System
Virtual Memory:
The combined size of the program, size and stack may exceed the amount of
physical memory available for it.

Paging:
Addresses can be generated using indexing, base registers, segment registers.
Program generated addresses are called virtual addresses and form the virtual
address space.
The virtual address space is divided up into units called pages. The
corresponding units in the physical memory is called page frames.
The page number is used as an index into the page table, yielding the number
of the page frame corresponding to that virtual page.

Operating System
Translation look aside buffer:
Device for mapping virtual addresses to physical addresses without going thru the page
table.

- Inverted page table: There is one entry per page frame in real memory, rather than one
entry per page of virtual address space.

- Page Replacement Algorithms:
- Optimal Page Replacement
- Not Recently used
- FIFO
- Second Chance
- Clock page
- LRU
Operating System


Segments:

The virtual memory is one dimensional because the virtual addresses go
from 0 to some maximum address, one address after another.

For many programs, two or more separate virtual address spaces may be
better.One grows and one shrinks leading in unpredictable results.

Solution: provide the machine with many completely independent address
spaces called segments. Different segments may have different lengths.
Operating System
Thrasing:
A program causing page faults every few instructions is said to be thrashing.

Page Fault:
Memory management unit notices that the page is unmapped, and causes the
CPU to trap to the Operating System.